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Kitpipit W, Scholfield CN, Sangkanu S, Nissapatorn V, Pereira MDL, Paul AK, Mitsuwan W. Virulence factors and quorum sensing as targets of new therapeutic options by plant-derived compounds against bacterial infections caused by human and animal pathogens. Vet World 2023; 16:1346-1355. [PMID: 37577190 PMCID: PMC10421536 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2023.1346-1355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and hospital-acquired bacterial infection has become rampant due to antibiotic overuse. Virulence factors are secondary to bacterial growth and are important in their pathogenesis, and therefore, new antimicrobial therapies to inhibit bacterial virulence factors are becoming important strategies against antibiotic resistance. Here, we focus on anti-virulence factors that act through anti-quorum sensing and the subsequent clearance of bacteria by antimicrobial compounds, especially active herbal extracts. These quorum sensing systems are based on toxins, biofilms, and efflux pumps, and bioactive compounds isolated from medicinal plants can treat bacterial virulence pathologies. Ideally, bacterial virulence factors are secondary growth factors of bacteria. Hence, inhibition of bacterial virulence factors could reduce bacterial pathogenesis. Furthermore, anti-virulence factors from herbal compounds can be developed as novel treatments for bacterial infection. Therefore, this narrative review aims to discuss bacterial virulence factors acting through quorum sensing systems that are preserved as targets for treating bacterial infection by plant-derived compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warangkana Kitpipit
- Akkhraratchakumari Veterinary College, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand
- One Health Research Center, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand
- Food Technology and Innovation Center of Excellence, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand
| | - C. Norman Scholfield
- Akkhraratchakumari Veterinary College, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand
- One Health Research Center, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand
| | - Suthinee Sangkanu
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Southeast Asia Water Team, World Union for Herbal Drug Discovery, and Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Products, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand
| | - Veeranoot Nissapatorn
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Southeast Asia Water Team, World Union for Herbal Drug Discovery, and Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Products, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand
| | - Maria de Lourdes Pereira
- Department of Medical Sciences, CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Alok K. Paul
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Watcharapong Mitsuwan
- Akkhraratchakumari Veterinary College, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand
- One Health Research Center, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Innovation of Essential Oil and Bioactive Compounds, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand
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McHugh RE, Munnoch JT, Braes RE, McKean IJW, Giard J, Taladriz-Sender A, Peschke F, Burley GA, Roe AJ, Hoskisson PA. Biosynthesis of Aurodox, a Type III Secretion System Inhibitor from Streptomyces goldiniensis. Appl Environ Microbiol 2022; 88:e0069222. [PMID: 35867559 PMCID: PMC9361827 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00692-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The global increase in antimicrobial-resistant infections means that there is a need to develop new antimicrobial molecules and strategies to combat the issue. Aurodox is a linear polyketide natural product that is produced by Streptomyces goldiniensis, yet little is known about aurodox biosynthesis or the nature of the biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC) that encodes its production. To gain a deeper understanding of aurodox biosynthesis by S. goldiniensis, the whole genome of the organism was sequenced, revealing the presence of an 87 kb hybrid polyketide synthase/non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (PKS/NRPS) BGC. The aurodox BGC shares significant homology with the kirromycin BGC from S. collinus Tϋ 365. However, the genetic organization of the BGC differs significantly. The candidate aurodox gene cluster was cloned and expressed in a heterologous host to demonstrate that it was responsible for aurodox biosynthesis and disruption of the primary PKS gene (aurAI) abolished aurodox production. These data supported a model whereby the initial core biosynthetic reactions involved in aurodox biosynthesis followed that of kirromycin. Cloning aurM* from S. goldiniensis and expressing this in the kirromycin producer S. collinus Tϋ 365 enabled methylation of the pyridone group, suggesting this is the last step in biosynthesis. This methylation step is also sufficient to confer the unique type III secretion system inhibitory properties to aurodox. IMPORTANCE Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) is a significant global pathogen for which traditional antibiotic treatment is not recommended. Aurodox inhibits the ability of EHEC to establish infection in the host gut through the specific targeting of the type III secretion system while circumventing the induction of toxin production associated with traditional antibiotics. These properties suggest aurodox could be a promising anti-virulence compound for EHEC, which merits further investigation. Here, we characterized the aurodox biosynthetic gene cluster from Streptomyces goldiniensis and established the key enzymatic steps of aurodox biosynthesis that give rise to the unique anti-virulence activity. These data provide the basis for future chemical and genetic approaches to produce aurodox derivatives with increased efficacy and the potential to engineer novel elfamycins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca E. McHugh
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - John T. Munnoch
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Robyn E. Braes
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Iain J. W. McKean
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Josephine Giard
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | | | - Frederik Peschke
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Glenn A. Burley
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Andrew J. Roe
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Paul A. Hoskisson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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Llanaj E, Dejanovic GM, Valido E, Bano A, Gamba M, Kastrati L, Minder B, Stojic S, Voortman T, Marques-Vidal P, Stoyanov J, Metzger B, Glisic M, Kern H, Muka T. Effect of oat supplementation interventions on cardiovascular disease risk markers: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur J Nutr 2022; 61:1749-1778. [PMID: 34977959 PMCID: PMC9106631 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-021-02763-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Oat supplementation interventions (OSIs) may have a beneficial effect on cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. However, dietary background can modulate such effect. This systematic review assesses the effects of OSIs on CVD risk markers among adults, accounting for different dietary backgrounds or control arms. METHODS We included randomized clinical trials (RCTs) that assessed the effect of oat, oat beta-glucan-rich extracts or avenanthramides on CVD risk markers. RESULTS Seventy-four RCTs, including 4937 predominantly hypercholesterolemic, obese subjects, with mild metabolic disturbances, were included in the systematic review. Of these, 59 RCTs contributed to the meta-analyses. Subjects receiving an OSI, compared to control arms without oats, had improved levels of total cholesterol (TC) [weighted mean difference and (95% CI) - 0.42 mmol/L, (- 0.61; - 0.22)], LDL cholesterol [- 0.29 mmol/L, (- 0.37; - 0.20)], glucose [- 0.25 nmol/L, (- 0.36; - 0.14)], body mass index [- 0.13 kg/m2, (- 0.26; - 0.01)], weight [- 0.94 kg, (- 1.84: - 0.05)], and waist circumference [- 1.06 cm, (- 1.85; - 0.27)]. RCTs on inflammation and/or oxidative stress markers were scarce and with inconsistent findings. RCTs comparing an OSI to heterogeneous interventions (e.g., wheat, eggs, rice, etc.), showed lowered levels of glycated haemoglobin, diastolic blood pressure, HDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B. The majority of included RCTs (81.1%) had some concerns for risk of bias. CONCLUSION Dietary OSIs resulted in lowered levels of blood lipids and improvements in anthropometric parameters among participants with predominantly mild metabolic disturbances, regardless of dietary background or control. Further high-quality trials are warranted to establish the role of OSIs on blood pressure, glucose homeostasis and inflammation markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erand Llanaj
- Department of Public Health and Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
- Present Address: MTA-DE Public Health Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences and University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Gordana M. Dejanovic
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Ezra Valido
- Swiss Paraplegic Research, Nottwil, Switzerland
| | - Arjola Bano
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine (ISPM), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Cardiology, University Hospital of Bern, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Magda Gamba
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine (ISPM), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Graduate School for Health Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Lum Kastrati
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina”, Prishtina, Kosovo
| | - Beatrice Minder
- Public Health and Primary Care Library, University Library of Bern, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Trudy Voortman
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC University Medical Centre Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Division of Human Nutrition and Health, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Pedro Marques-Vidal
- Department of Medicine, Internal Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
- University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jivko Stoyanov
- Swiss Paraplegic Research, Nottwil, Switzerland
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine (ISPM), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Brandon Metzger
- Standard Process Nutrition Innovation Centre, Kannapolis, USA
| | - Marija Glisic
- Swiss Paraplegic Research, Nottwil, Switzerland
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine (ISPM), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Hua Kern
- Standard Process Nutrition Innovation Centre, Kannapolis, USA
| | - Taulant Muka
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine (ISPM), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Koeppel MB, Glaser J, Baumgartner T, Spriewald S, Gerlach RG, von Armansperg B, Leong JM, Stecher B. Scalable Reporter Assays to Analyze the Regulation of stx2 Expression in Shiga Toxin-Producing Enteropathogens. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13080534. [PMID: 34437405 PMCID: PMC8402550 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Stx2 is the major virulence factor of EHEC and is associated with an increased risk for HUS in infected patients. The conditions influencing its expression in the intestinal tract are largely unknown. For optimal management and treatment of infected patients, the identification of environmental conditions modulating Stx2 levels in the human gut is of central importance. In this study, we established a set of chromosomal stx2 reporter assays. One system is based on superfolder GFP (sfGFP) using a T7 polymerase/T7 promoter-based amplification loop. This reporter can be used to analyze stx2 expression at the single-cell level using FACSs and fluorescence microscopy. The other system is based on the cytosolic release of the Gaussia princeps luciferase (gluc). This latter reporter proves to be a highly sensitive and scalable reporter assay that can be used to quantify reporter protein in the culture supernatant. We envision that this new set of reporter tools will be highly useful to comprehensively analyze the influence of environmental and host factors, including drugs, small metabolites and the microbiota, on Stx2 release and thereby serve the identification of risk factors and new therapies in Stx-mediated pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin B. Koeppel
- Max-von-Pettenkofer Institute, LMU Munich, Pettenkoferstr. 9a, 80336 Munich, Germany; (J.G.); (T.B.); (S.S.); (B.v.A.)
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site LMU Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
- Correspondence: (M.B.K.); (B.S.)
| | - Jana Glaser
- Max-von-Pettenkofer Institute, LMU Munich, Pettenkoferstr. 9a, 80336 Munich, Germany; (J.G.); (T.B.); (S.S.); (B.v.A.)
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site LMU Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Tobias Baumgartner
- Max-von-Pettenkofer Institute, LMU Munich, Pettenkoferstr. 9a, 80336 Munich, Germany; (J.G.); (T.B.); (S.S.); (B.v.A.)
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site LMU Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Stefanie Spriewald
- Max-von-Pettenkofer Institute, LMU Munich, Pettenkoferstr. 9a, 80336 Munich, Germany; (J.G.); (T.B.); (S.S.); (B.v.A.)
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site LMU Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Roman G. Gerlach
- Mikrobiologisches Institut-Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen and Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Wasserturmstraße 3/5, 91054 Erlangen, Germany;
| | - Benedikt von Armansperg
- Max-von-Pettenkofer Institute, LMU Munich, Pettenkoferstr. 9a, 80336 Munich, Germany; (J.G.); (T.B.); (S.S.); (B.v.A.)
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site LMU Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - John M. Leong
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Ave, Boston, MA 02111, USA;
| | - Bärbel Stecher
- Max-von-Pettenkofer Institute, LMU Munich, Pettenkoferstr. 9a, 80336 Munich, Germany; (J.G.); (T.B.); (S.S.); (B.v.A.)
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site LMU Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
- Correspondence: (M.B.K.); (B.S.)
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5
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Sy BM, Tree JJ. Small RNA Regulation of Virulence in Pathogenic Escherichia coli. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 10:622202. [PMID: 33585289 PMCID: PMC7873438 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.622202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteric and extraintestinal pathotypes of Escherichia coli utilize a wide range of virulence factors to colonize niches within the human body. During infection, virulence factors such as adhesins, secretions systems, or toxins require precise regulation and coordination to ensure appropriate expression. Additionally, the bacteria navigate rapidly changing environments with fluctuations in pH, temperature, and nutrient levels. Enteric pathogens utilize sophisticated, interleaved systems of transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation to sense and respond to these changes and modulate virulence gene expression. Regulatory small RNAs and RNA-binding proteins play critical roles in the post-transcriptional regulation of virulence. In this review we discuss how the mosaic genomes of Escherichia coli pathotypes utilize small RNA regulation to adapt to their niche and become successful human pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon M Sy
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Jai J Tree
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Pollock J, Low AS, McHugh RE, Muwonge A, Stevens MP, Corbishley A, Gally DL. Alternatives to antibiotics in a One Health context and the role genomics can play in reducing antimicrobial use. Clin Microbiol Infect 2020; 26:1617-1621. [PMID: 32220638 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2020.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This review follows on from the International Conference on One Health Antimicrobial Resistance (ICOHAR 2019), where strategies to improve the fundamental understanding and management of antimicrobial resistance at the interface between humans, animals and the environment were discussed. OBJECTIVE This review identifies alternatives to antimicrobials in a One Health context, noting how advances in genomic technologies are assisting their development and enabling more targeted use of antimicrobials. SOURCES Key articles on the use of microbiota modulation, livestock breeding and gene editing, vaccination, antivirulence strategies and bacteriophage therapy are discussed. CONTENT Antimicrobials are central for disease control, but reducing their use is paramount as a result of the rise of transmissible antimicrobial resistance. This review discusses antimicrobial alternatives in the context of improved understanding of fundamental host-pathogen and microbiota interactions using genomic tools. IMPLICATIONS Host and microbial genomics and other novel technologies play an important role in devising disease control strategies for healthier animals and humans that in turn reduce our reliance on antimicrobials.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Pollock
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Edinburgh, UK
| | - A S Low
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Edinburgh, UK
| | - R E McHugh
- Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, UK; Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
| | - A Muwonge
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Edinburgh, UK
| | - M P Stevens
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Edinburgh, UK
| | - A Corbishley
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Edinburgh, UK
| | - D L Gally
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Edinburgh, UK.
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Blázquez J, Rodríguez-Beltrán J, Matic I. Antibiotic-Induced Genetic Variation: How It Arises and How It Can Be Prevented. Annu Rev Microbiol 2019; 72:209-230. [PMID: 30200850 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-micro-090817-062139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
By targeting essential cellular processes, antibiotics provoke metabolic perturbations and induce stress responses and genetic variation in bacteria. Here we review current knowledge of the mechanisms by which these molecules generate genetic instability. They include production of reactive oxygen species, as well as induction of the stress response regulons, which lead to enhancement of mutation and recombination rates and modulation of horizontal gene transfer. All these phenomena influence the evolution and spread of antibiotic resistance. The use of strategies to stop or decrease the generation of resistant variants is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Blázquez
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CNB-CSIC), 28049 Madrid, Spain; .,Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Microbiologia y Medicina Preventiva, Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocio, 41013 Seville, Spain.,Red Española de Investigacion en Patologia Infecciosa, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Ivan Matic
- Faculté de Médecine Paris Descartes, INSERM 1001, CNRS, Université Paris-Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité, 75014 Paris, France;
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Characterization of the Mode of Action of Aurodox, a Type III Secretion System Inhibitor from Streptomyces goldiniensis. Infect Immun 2019; 87:IAI.00595-18. [PMID: 30455200 PMCID: PMC6346137 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00595-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent work has demonstrated that the polyketide natural product Aurodox from Streptomyces goldiniensis is able to block the pathogenesis of the murine pathogen Citrobacter rodentium. In this work, we aimed to gain a better understanding of the mechanism of action of the compound. Recent work has demonstrated that the polyketide natural product Aurodox from Streptomyces goldiniensis is able to block the pathogenesis of the murine pathogen Citrobacter rodentium. In this work, we aimed to gain a better understanding of the mechanism of action of the compound. We show that Aurodox downregulates the expression of the type III secretion systems of enteropathogenic and enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli. Furthermore, we have used transcriptomic analysis to show that Aurodox inhibits the expression at the transcriptional level by repressing the master regulator, ler. Our data support a model in which Aurodox acts upstream of ler and not directly on the secretion system itself. Finally, we have shown that Aurodox, unlike some traditional antibiotics, does not induce expression of RecA, which is essential for the production of Shiga toxin. We propose that these properties nominate Aurodox as a promising antivirulence therapy for the treatment of these infections.
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9
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Disarming the enemy: targeting bacterial toxins with small molecules. Emerg Top Life Sci 2017; 1:31-39. [PMID: 33525814 DOI: 10.1042/etls20160013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Revised: 03/01/2017] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The rapid emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains has prompted efforts to find new and more efficacious treatment strategies. Targeting virulence factors produced by pathogenic bacteria has gained particular attention in the last few years. One of the inherent advantages of this approach is that it provides less selective pressure for the development of resistance mechanisms. In addition, antivirulence drugs could potentially be the answer for diseases in which the use of conventional antibiotics is counterproductive. That is the case for bacterial toxin-mediated diseases, in which the severity of the symptoms is a consequence of the exotoxins produced by the pathogen. Examples of these are haemolytic-uraemic syndrome produced by Shiga toxins, the profuse and dangerous dehydration caused by Cholera toxin or the life-threatening colitis occasioned by clostridial toxins. This review focuses on the recent advances on the development of small molecules with antitoxin activity against Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae and Clostridium difficile given their epidemiological importance. The present work includes studies of small molecules with antitoxin properties that act directly on the toxin (direct inhibitors) or that act by preventing expression of the toxin (indirect inhibitors).
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