Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy and Its Role in Overcoming Drug Resistance

Eco-friendly nanotherapeutics: Metallic nanoparticles for targeting breast cancer

Breast cancer continues to be a major cause of death among women globally, with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) presenting a particularly difficult challenge due to its aggressive behaviour and the lack of effective treatment options. Nanotechnology, particularly the use of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), has emerged as a promising avenue in oncological research. This review explores into the escalating field of green synthesis of nanoparticles, emphasizing sustainable approaches utilizing plant-based resources. Critical factors influencing nanoparticle synthesis, including reaction conditions, precursor types, and plant phytochemicals, are explored alongside advanced characterization techniques essential for evaluating nanoparticle properties. Special focus is given to the phytofabrication of silver nanoparticles and their multifaceted roles in breast cancer treatment, with detailed insights into their mechanisms, such as inducing apoptosis, generating reactive oxygen species (ROS), and disrupting mitochondrial function, particularly in TNBC cells. The review further highlights the advantages of plant-derived AgNPs, such as biocompatibility and reduced toxicity, while addressing challenges like scalability, reproducibility, and regulatory hurdles. Concluding with future prospects, this paper reflects the potential of green-synthesized AgNPs as a keystone in next-generation cancer therapeutics, paving the way for innovative and eco-friendly approaches in oncology.

Enhanced pharmacokinetic approach for anastrozole via macromolecule-based silk fibroin nanoparticles incorporated in situ injectables for oestrogen-positive breast cancer therapy

Breast cancer (BC) is a substantial reason for cancer-related mortality among women across the globe. Anastrozole (ANS) is an effective orally administered hormonal therapy for oestrogen-positive (ER+) BC treatment. However, several side effects and pharmacokinetic limitations restricted the uses of ANS in BC therapy. Therefore, this investigation developed an in situ gelling injectable-loaded silk fibroin (SF)-ANS NPs, which offers sustained drug release and improved pharmacokinetic properties compared to conventional oral formulations at the targeted site. The optimised in situ gel (ISG) incorporated SF-ANS-NPs were developed, and the pharmacokinetic parameters were accessed in subcutaneous administration of NMU-induced Wistar albino rats. The results demonstrated that SF-ANS-NP-ISG exhibited a significantly higher Cmax, Tmax, and AUC compared to pure ANS suspension. In addition, tumour multiplicity (1.40 ± 0.66), tumour latency (75 ± 9.2 days), and incidence rate (90 ± 2.1%) were recorded, and post-treatment analysis reported a marked reduction in tumour volume and weight compared to positive control within 90 days of a single dose. The SF-ANS-NP-ISG treated group's histopathological assessment indicated a low-grade carcinoma, reduced epithelial hyperplasia, and haemorrhage in mammary tumour tissues compared to positive control. Thus, the SF-ANS-NPs-ISG investigated to overcome the pharmacokinetic limitations of ANS further exhibited targeted delivery and bioavailability compared to conventional dosage forms.

Glutaraldehyde-crosslinked Naringenin-loaded Albumin Nanoparticles (GNANPs) induce antimicrobial properties and apoptosis in gastric cancer cells

An assessment of the anticancer activity of Glutaraldehyde-crosslinked Naringenin-loaded Albumin Nanoparticles (GNANPs) against gastric cancer cells was the purpose of this study. The increasing prevalence of gastric cancer and the limitations of conventional therapies necessitate novel approaches that combine targeted drug delivery with therapeutic efficacy. Several techniques were used to characterize the synthesized GNANPs, including UV-visible spectroscopy, X-ray diffractometer (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and photoluminescence (PL). They were evaluated for their antimicrobial properties, cytotoxicity, ROS accumulation, apoptotic activity, and oxidative stress markers against AGS cells. The characterization analyses indicated the existence of Glutaraldehyde-crosslinked Naringenin-loaded Albumin Nanoparticles with an oval-shaped morphology and an average particle size of 127.80 nm. The existence of several elements and functional groups in the GNANPs was also detected using EDX and FT-IR analyses, respectively. The synthesized GNANPs have shown exceptional antibacterial activities by effectively inhibiting the growth of several infections. The treatment of GNANPs efficiently inhibited the growth of AGS cells. Fluorescence staining studies showed increased apoptosis and oxidative stress markers in AGS cells treated with synthesized Glutaraldehyde-crosslinked Naringenin-loaded Albumin Nanoparticles, indicating their potential as a viable cancer treatment option.

Effects of silica nanoparticles with varied physicochemical properties on the survival and functionality of saturated macrophages

Silica nanoparticles (SNPs) have shown potential as nanocarriers in diagnostic, imaging, and drug delivery applications. To use SNPs for systemic drug delivery, it is important to have a detailed understanding of how these particles interact with the mononuclear phagocytic system (MPS). Whether or not SNPs may saturate the macrophages, thereby influencing their function and impairing innate immune responses, remains poorly understood. In this work, we defined macrophage saturation using RAW 264.7 macrophages as a model and studied four SNPs with variations in size and porosity. We further explored the downstream effects of SNP uptake by macrophages, including apoptosis/necrosis, cell cycle progression, membrane integrity, and phagocytic activity. The data demonstrate that SNPs do not alter major cellular functions at their respective nontoxic, saturating concentrations.

Pathological interplay of NF-κB and M1 macrophages in chronic inflammatory lung diseases

Inflammatory lung diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and pulmonary fibrosis depend on the pathology of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signalling pathway and M1 macrophage polarization. This review discusses the intimate molecular interactions and processes that modulate NF-κB's promotion of M1 macrophages and chronic inflammation/tissue damage within the confines of this review. NF-κB activation in macrophages produces pro-inflammatory mediators (cytokines - TNFα, IL6, IL1β, and reactive oxygen species (ROS), further increasing airway remodeling and fibrosis. MAPK, JAK-STAT, and PI3K-Akt signalling systems cross-talked with the pathway, amplifying its effect on lung disease progression. Therapeutic strategies focused on inhibiting this axis, including inhibition of NF-κB and small molecule/modulation of macrophage polarization, represent potential ways to attenuate inflammation and promote tissue repair. The potential of precision medicine is illustrated by natural compounds such as curcumin and resveratrol and innovative RNA-based and nanoparticle delivery systems. Despite these challenges, specificity, minimizing systemic side effects, and optimized delivery methods remain difficult. To develop targeted therapies, more research must be conducted to refine targeted approaches, including immune profiling and single-cell analysis. This review aims to advance the management of hard-to-treat inflammatory lung diseases by addressing these complexities.

New advances of natural products in non-small cell lung cancer: From mechanisms to therapies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

With the rise of immunotherapy, the treatment approach for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has undergone revolutionary changes. However, the prognosis for NSCLC patients has not been significantly improved due to the development of acquired drug resistance. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop new and more effective drugs for treating NSCLC or improving tumor treatment resistance. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been gradually incorporated into the combined treatment of NSCLC. Its active components (also known as natural products) exhibit novel structures, multi-target effects, diverse pathways, minimal toxicity, and varied biological activities, which play a therapeutic role in various diseases. Thus, natural products hold great potential for future clinical applications.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Screening main traditional plants widely used in NSCLC and their derived natural products, as well as exploring the mechanisms by which these natural products act on NSCLC-particularly focusing on their applications-can provide valuable insights for the development of therapeutic drugs targeting NSCLC.

METHODS

A comprehensive, computerized literature search was conducted in PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, CNKI Scholar, the American Chemical Abstracts, and Wanfang Database up to June 2024, using the following keywords: "traditional Chinese medicine", "herbal medicine", "medicinal plants", and "herbal", paired with terms such as "non-small cell lung cancer", "therapy", "natural products", and "active ingredient".

RESULTS

Summarizing current research findings, we discovered eleven medicinal plants containing a total of fourteen natural products. Natural products have a significant impact on tumor progression in NSCLC, including apotosis, autophagy, pyrotosis, cell-cycle arrest and metasis. Moreover, natural products can modulate the activities of various immune cells and reshape the immune microenvironment. Combined with conventional cancer treatments, natural products demonstrate promising therapeutic effects and effectively reverse drug resistance. Furthermore,the use of nano-drug delivery systems to address limitations associated with natural products.

CONCLUSIONS

This review summarizes eleven medicinal plants containing a total of fourteen natural products that can enhance NSCLC treatment and indicates their action mechanisms. Furthermore, we also discuss limitations of natural products and explore the use of nano-drug delivery systems to address limitations associated with natural products.

Engineering IL-10 and rapamycin to bind collagen leads to improved anti fibrotic efficacy in lung and kidney fibrosis

Fibrotic diseases are involved in 45% of deaths in the United States. In particular, fibrosis of the kidney and lung are major public health concerns due to their high prevalence and lack of existing treatment options. Here, we harness the pathophysiological features of fibrotic diseases, namely leaky vasculature and aberrant extracellular matrix (ECM) protein deposition (i.e. collagen), to target an anti-fibrotic biologic and a small molecule drug to disease sites of fibrosis, thus improving the therapeutic potential of both the biologic and small molecule in mouse models of both lung and kidney fibrosis. First, we identify and validate two collagen-targeting drug delivery systems that preferentially accumulate in fibrotic organs: von Willebrand Factor's A3 domain (VWF-A3) and decorin-derived collagen-binding peptide-conjugated micelles (CBP-micelles). We then engineer and recombinantly express novel candidate biologic therapies based on the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10: A3-IL-10 and A3-Serum Albumin-IL-10 (A3-SA-IL-10). Simultaneously, we stably encapsulate the potential anti-fibrotic water-insoluble drug, rapamycin, in CBP-micelles. We show that these novel formulations of therapeutics bind to collagen in vitro and that their efficacy in mouse models of lung and kidney fibrosis is improved, compared to free, untargeted drugs. Our results demonstrate that collagen-targeted anti-fibrotic drugs may be next generation therapies of high clinical potential.

Transformative potential of plant-based nanoparticles in cancer diagnosis and treatment: bridging traditional medicine and modern therapy

Cancer is a primary global health concern, with an estimated 35.3 million cancer cases expected worldwide, representing a 76.6% increase in 2022, and 20 million by 2050, resulting from genetic mutation and environmental factors that cause uncontrolled cell growth. Other factors including smoking, unhealthy diets, physical inactivity, exposure to carcinogens, UV radiation, and aging increase DNA damage. Current cancer treatments like chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, and surgery are effective, but those have significant effects like lack of specificity, development of drug resistance, and significant side effects to healthy tissues. An advancement to conventional therapies is plant-based nanoparticles as transformative approaches in cancer diagnosis and treatment. These nanoparticles synthesized using plant bioactive compounds like flavonoids, alkaloids, polyphenols, and some metals-oxides like gold, silver, copper, zinc, etc. offer eco-friendly, cost-effective, and biocompatible alternatives. They enhance targeted drug delivery, allowing anticancer agents specifically to tumor cells, minimizing damage to health. Improves imaging techniques like MRI and fluorescence imaging, and helps early detection, cancer biomarkers, allowing for prompt intervention. Recent findings show that nanocarriers made from plant-based materials, such as polyphenols (curcumin, resveratrol) and plant-extracted metal nanoparticles (gold, silver), can improve drug stability and selectively target tumor cells. Plant-derived nanoparticles play a crucial role in cancer immunotherapy and nanovaccines. Biodegradable plant-based nanocarriers can deliver cancer vaccines, stimulating long-term immunity against tumors. Graphene oxide and gold nanoparticles synthesized from plant extracts can absorb near-infrared (NIR) light, generating heat to destroy cancer cells with minimal damage to surrounding tissues. This study discusses the types of plant-based nanoparticles like plant virus nanoparticles (TMV, PVX, CPMV), plant metallic nanoparticles (Au, Ag., Cu, Zn, Mg, Ca, and Mn), and flavonoid nanoparticles found in cancer treatment, their significant roles, chemotherapy-based nanomedicines available in the medical field, and a detailed vision of nanomaterial applications in cancer diagnosis, treatment, and targeted drug delivery.

A review on the advancement of polydopamine (PDA)-based nanomaterials for cancer treatment

The significance of cancer treatment research lies in addressing the high incidence of cancer, overcoming treatment challenges, and mitigating the harsh side effects of chemotherapeutic agents. Currently, nanotechnology is garnering significant attention for its potential applications in diagnostics and drug delivery, offering innovative solutions for disease detection and treatment. Among different types of nanoparticles (NPs), polymeric nanoparticles comprise biocompatible and biodegradable polymers that enhance drug pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, minimize adverse effects, increase stability, and facilitate sustained drug release. These polymeric nanoparticle-based nanomedicines offer a versatile platform for various cancer treatments, notably enabling targeted drug delivery directly to tumors, tumor-imaging, hyperthermia, and photodynamic therapy. Being polymeric in nature polydopamine (PDA) nanomaterials are appeared as promising approaches in biology and medicine. This review article offers a concise summary of the latest developments in polydopamine-based cancer treatment, covering key findings, limitations, and emerging trend therapeutic approach of polydopamine nanomaterials, along with the properties and various methods of preparation. Physico-chemical properties of PDA-based nanomaterials in therapeutics have permitted several successful modifications in the field of cancer treatment.

Potent cytotoxicity and induction of ROS-mediated genomic instability, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptosis by Y2O3 NPs in Hep-G2 hepatic cancer cells

Hepatic cancer, one of the most prevalent and lethal cancers globally, remains a significant health challenge, with limited treatment options underscoring the urgent need for novel, more effective therapies. Yttrium oxide nanoparticles (Y2O3 NPs) have attracted attention in nanomedicine due to their promising properties, including enhanced drug delivery, imaging capabilities, and therapeutic effects. However, the specific impact of Y2O3 NPs on hepatic cancer is largely unexplored. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess the cytotoxic effects of Y2O3 NPs on cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, genomic stability, mitochondrial integrity, and apoptosis induction in Hep-G2 hepatic cancer cells. The results from the SRB cytotoxicity assay demonstrated a strong concentration-dependent decrease in Hep-G2 cell viability, with a notably low half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of 13.15 µg/ml. Exposure to the IC50 concentration of Y2O3 NPs led to increased ROS generation, DNA damage induction, and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. Furthermore, the expression of pro-apoptotic p53 and mitochondrial ND3 genes was significantly upregulated, while the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 gene was markedly downregulated, triggering apoptosis in Hep-G2 cells after 72 h of exposure to Y2O3 NPs. Collectively, these findings highlight the therapeutic potential of Y2O3 NPs in hepatic cancer, emphasizing the need for further research to fully explore their efficacy as a treatment option for liver cancer.

Sophorolipids as anticancer agents: progress and challenges

Sophorolipids (SLs) are considered effective biosurfactant for cancer treatment, which can efficiently inhibit the viability of various cancer types including breast, lung, liver, cervical and colon cancers. Their mechanism of action targets apoptosis and operates at the level of caspase enzymes, upregulation and downregulation of the B-cell lymphoma (Bcl)-family proteins, and changes in mitochondrial membrane permeability. The binding of SLs to the cancer cell receptors modulates the expression of Bax, APAF1, Bcl-2 and Bcl-x, and triggers the release of cytochrome c into the cytosol which further activates caspase-3/9 pathways leading to apoptosis. SLs also increase intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level in cancer cells that activates pro-apoptotic JNK and p38 MAPK signaling pathways and induce apoptosis through the activation of caspase (3, 6 and 7) pathways. Recently, the integration of anticancer drugs like doxorubicin hydrochloride into SL based nanoparticles (SLNPs) enhanced stability, biocompatibility, bioavailability, pharmacokinetics and therapeutic efficacy. Besides, doxorubicin and resveratrol conjugated NPs induced apoptosis in resistant breast cancer cells by down-regulating the expression of Bcl-2, NF-kB and efflux transporters. However, several challenges exist regarding the stability of SLs under physiological conditions, targeting specific cancer cells, and their clinical applications. This study provides updated concepts on the formulations and properties of different types of SLs, their mechanism of anticancer action and applications in nanotechnology for targeted drug delivery system.

Integration of MicroRNAs with nanomedicine: tumor targeting and therapeutic approaches

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNA molecules that play a pivotal role in the post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. Over the past decade, they have emerged as key regulators in cancer progression, influencing different cellular processes such as proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis, and immune evasion. Their unique ability to target multiple genes simultaneously makes miRNAs highly attractive as potential therapeutic agents in oncology. However, several challenges have hindered their direct clinical application, most notably their inherent instability in biological fluids, rapid degradation by nucleases, and inefficient delivery to specific tumor sites. Additionally, off-target effects and the potential for toxicity further complicate the therapeutic use of miRNAs. Nanomedicine offers a promising solution to these challenges by enabling the development of advanced platforms for the stable, safe, and targeted delivery of miRNAs. Nanoparticle-based delivery systems, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and inorganic nanocarriers, can protect miRNAs from degradation, improve their bioavailability, and allow for precise tumor targeting through passive or active targeting mechanisms. These nanocarriers can also be engineered to release miRNAs in response to specific stimuli within the tumor microenvironment, enhancing therapeutic efficacy while minimizing side effects. This review will explore the integration of miRNAs with nanotechnology, focusing on various nanoparticle formulations and their roles in enhancing miRNA stability, specificity, and function in cancer treatment. In addition, we will discuss current advances in preclinical and clinical applications, highlight promising tumor-targeting strategies, and address the remaining challenges such as toxicity, immunogenicity, and scalability. Future research should focus on overcoming these barriers, ultimately paving the way for the widespread adoption of personalized miRNA-based nanomedicine in cancer therapy.

Experimental studies on squeezing interstitial fluid via transfer of ultrasound momentum (SIF-TUM) in ex vivo chicken and porcine tissues

The ultrasound-assisted transport of drugs or fluorophore-loaded nanoagents plays an important role in the desirable drug delivery and imaging contrasts. Unlike conventional ultrasound techniques that rely on thermal or cavitation effects, this study aims to conduct an experimental investigation into the dynamics of interstitial fluid streaming and tissue recovery in ex vivo chicken breast and porcine loin muscle tissues during and after ultrasound exposures, which has not been experimentally investigated in the literature. Biological tissues consist of both a fluid and a solid matrix, and an ultrasound beam compresses the tissues within a small focal volume from all directions, which generates macroscopic streaming of interstitial fluid and compression of the tissue's solid matrix. After the ultrasonic exposure, the solid matrix undergoes recovery, leading to a backflow of the fluid matrix. Temperature-insensitive sulforhodamine-101 encapsulated poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles with an average diameter size of 175 nm were locally injected into ex vivo chicken breast and porcine loin muscle tissues to study the ultrasound-induced dynamics in the tissues during and after ultrasound exposure by analyzing the distribution of fluorescence. The changes in fluorescence over time caused by the streaming and backflow of interstitial fluid were studied with two ex vivo tissue models, and a faster recovery was observed in porcine tissues compared with chicken tissues. The ultrasound-induced transportability of the nanoagent in porcine muscle tissues was much higher (∼8.75 times) than in chicken breast tissue likely due to structural differences. The study reveals a promising, non-invasive strategy for enhancing drug delivery in dense tissues by leveraging mechanical ultrasound effects, potentially advancing therapeutic and diagnostic applications.

Enhanced urease inhibitory activity of quercetin via conjugation with silver nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization, and DFT study

Urease plays a crucial role in the survival and colonization of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori). Consequently, urease inhibitors are important in managing various diseases associated with H. pylori infection. Given the widespread use of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) as antibacterial agents and quercetin's known urease inhibitory properties, we sought to develop a potent urease inhibitor by conjugating quercetin onto AgNPs. In fact, this study aimed to enhance the urease inhibitory activity of quercetin through its conjugation with AgNPs. Quercetin-loaded silver nanoparticles (Ag@QNPs) were successfully synthesized using the Frens method and characterized using various techniques, including UV-Vis spectroscopy, FT-IR spectroscopy, XRD analysis, DLS, and TEM. The urease inhibitory activity of Ag@QNPs was significantly higher (approximately 250 times) than that of pure quercetin, demonstrating a synergistic effect. In contrast, AgNPs alone exhibited minimal inhibitory activity against urease. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations revealed a favorable interaction energy between quercetin and the silver surface. These findings suggest the potential of Ag@QNPs as promising nanomaterials for applications in urease-related diseases.

Nanotherapeutic Formulations for the Delivery of Cancer Antiangiogenics

Antiangiogenic medications for cancer treatment have generally failed in showing substantial benefits in terms of prolonging life on their own; their effects are noticeable only when combined with chemotherapy. Moreover, treatments based on prolonged antiangiogenics administration have demonstrated to be ineffective in stopping tumor progression. In this scenario, nanotherapeutics can address certain issues linked to existing antiangiogenic treatments. More specifically, they can provide the ability to target the tumor's blood vessels to enhance drug accumulation and manage release, ultimately decreasing undesired side effects. Additionally, they enable the administration of multiple angiogenesis inhibitors at the same time as chemotherapy. Key reports in this field include the design of polymeric nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, vesicles, and hydrogels for loading antiangiogenic substances like endostatin and interleukin-12. Furthermore, nanoformulations have been proposed to efficiently control relevant pro-angiogenic pathways such as VEGF, Tie2/Angiopoietin-1, HIF-1α/HIF-2α, and TGF-β, providing powerful approaches to block tumor growth and metastasis. In this article, we outline a selection of nanoformulations for antiangiogenic treatments for cancer that have been developed in the past ten years.

Combating chemoresistance: Current approaches & nanocarrier mediated targeted delivery

Chemoresistance, a significant challenge in effective cancer treatment needs clear elucidation of the underlying molecular mechanism for the development of novel therapeutic strategies. Alterations in transporter pumps, oncogenes, tumour suppressor genes, mitochondrial function, DNA repair processes, autophagy, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), cancer stemness, epigenetic modifications, and exosome secretion lead to chemoresistance. Despite notable advancements in targeted cancer therapies employing both small molecules and macromolecules success rates remain suboptimal due to adverse effects like drug efflux, target mutation, increased mortality of normal cells, defective apoptosis, etc. This review proposes an advanced nanotechnological technique precisely targeting molecular determinants of chemoresistance which holds promise for enhancing cancer treatment efficacy. Further, the review explores various cancer hallmarks and pathways implicated in chemoresistance, current therapeutic modalities, and their limitations. It advocates the combination of nanoparticle-conjugated conventional drugs and natural compounds to specifically target molecular pathways that can potentially reverse or minimize chemoresistance incidences in cancer patients.

Treatment of lung diseases via nanoparticles and nanorobots: Are these viable alternatives to overcome current treatments?

Challenges

Respiratory diseases remain challenging to treat, with current efforts primarily focused on managing symptoms rather than maintaining overall lung health. Traditional treatment methods, such as oral or parenteral administration of antiviral, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory drugs, face limitations. These include difficulty in delivering therapeutic agents to pathogens residing deep in the airways and the risk of severe side effects due to high systemic drug concentrations. The growing threat of drug-resistant pathogens further complicates infection management.

Advancements

The lung's large surface area offers an attractive target for inhalation-based drug delivery. Nanoparticles (NP) enable uniform and sustained drug distribution across the alveolar network, overcoming challenges posed by complex lung anatomy. Recent breakthroughs in nanorobots (NR) have demonstrated precise navigation through biological environments, delivering therapies directly to affected lung areas with enhanced accuracy. Nanotechnology has also shown promise in treating lung cancer, with nanoparticles engineered to overcome biological barriers, improve drug solubility, and enable controlled drug release.

Future scope

This review explores the progress of NP and NR in addressing challenges in pulmonary drug delivery. These innovations allow targeted delivery of nucleic acids, drugs, or peptides to the pulmonary epithelium with unprecedented accuracy, offering significant potential for improving therapeutic effectiveness in respiratory disorders.

Nanoparticle-mediated enhancement of DNA Vaccines: Revolutionizing immunization strategies

DNA vaccines are a novel form of vaccination that aims to harness genetic material to produce targeted immune responses. Nevertheless, their therapeutic application is hampered by low transfection efficacy, immunogenicity, and instability. Nanoparticle (NP) - based delivery systems are beneficial in enhancing DNA stability, increasing DNA uptake by antigen-presenting cells (APCs), and controlling antigen release. Some key progress includes the polymeric, lipid-based, and hybrid NPs and biocompatible carriers with inherent adjuvant effects. These systems have helped to enhance the antigen cross-presentation and T-cell activation significantly. In addition, biocompatible hybrid nanocarriers, antigen cross-presentation strategies, and next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies are speeding up the identification of new antigens, while AI and machine learning are facilitating the development of efficient delivery systems. This review aims to assess how NPs have contributed to improving the effectiveness of DNA vaccines for treating diseases, cancer, and emerging diseases, as well as advancing the next generation of DNA vaccines.

Electrospun zinc oxide nanoscaffolds: a targeted and selective anticancer approach

This study aims to prepare, characterize, and evaluate zinc oxide nanoscaffolds (ZnO NSs) as a potential anticancer drug that selectively targets malignant cells while remaining non-toxic to normal cells. Electrospun NSs were fabricated and loaded with varying concentrations of ZnO nanoparticles (NPs). The uniform morphology of the fabricated samples was confirmed through Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) imaging. Elemental composition was investigated using Energy Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses. Biocompatibility and cytotoxicity were assessed using the (3-(4.5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay) (MTT) assay and flow cytometry. The water uptake and degradation properties of the electrospun NSs were also examined. Furthermore, a cumulative release profile was generated to assess the release behavior of ZnO NSs. The prepared ZnO NSs demonstrated negligible toxicity toward normal human dermal cells. Conversely, the four used concentrations of ZnO NSs displayed substantial cytotoxicity and induced apoptosis in various cancer cell lines. The observed effects were concentration-dependent. Notably, ZnO NSs 8% exhibited the most significant reduction in cell viability against the MCF7 cell line. The findings from this study indicate the potential of ZnO NSs as an effective anticancer agent, with the ZnO NSs 8% demonstrating the most pronounced impact. This research introduces a novel application of electrospun zinc oxide nanoscaffolds, demonstrating their capacity for selective anticancer activity, particularly against breast carcinoma, while preserving normal cell viability. The study presents a significant advancement in the use of nanomaterial for targeted cancer therapy.

Roles of LncRNA ARSR in tumor proliferation, drug resistance, and lipid and cholesterol metabolism

Cancer is one of the most serious diseases that threaten human life and health. Among all kinds of diseases, the mortality rate of malignant tumors is the second highest, second only to cardio-cerebrovascular diseases. Cancer treatment typically involves imaging, surgery, and pathological analysis. When patients are identified as carcinoma by the above means, there are often problems of distant metastasis, delayed treatment, and drug tolerance, indicating that patients have some poor prognosis and overall survival. Hence, the development of novel molecular biomarkers is of great clinical importance. In recent years, as an important mediator of material and information exchange between cells in the tumor microenvironment, lncRNA have attracted widespread attention for their roles in tumor development. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the up-to-date knowledge of lncARSR on diverse cancer types which mainly focuses on tumor proliferation, drug tolerance, and lipid and cholesterol metabolism, highlighting the potential of lncARSR as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker and even a therapeutic target. In our final analysis, we provide a synthesized overview of the directions for future inquiry into lncARSR, and we are eager to witness the advancement of research that will elucidate the multifaceted nature of this lncRNA.

A systematic review on hyaluronic acid coated nanoparticles: recent strategy in breast cancer management

Hyaluronic acid, a non-sulphated glycosaminoglycan has attracted its usage in the management of breast cancer. Drug-loaded nanoparticles with hyaluronic acid surface modifications show potential as a promising method for targeting and delivering drugs to the tumor site. The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review of articles and assess the impact of hyaluronic acid coated nanoparticles on breast cancer. The various database were used for this comprehensive review. The inclusion and exclusion criteria were selected according to the PRISMA guidelines. Studies associated with characterization, in vitro, and in vivo studies were collected and subjected for further analysis. According to the inclusion criteria, 41 literature were selected for analysis. From all the studies, it was observed that the nanoparticles coated with hyaluronic acid produced better particle size, shape, zeta potential, increased in vitro cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, cell apoptosis, and anti-tumor effect in vivo. Research has shown that hyaluronic acid exhibits a higher affinity for CD44 receptors, resulting in enhanced targeted nanoparticle activity on cancer cells while sparing normal cells.

Revolutionizing prostate cancer therapy: Artificial intelligence - Based nanocarriers for precision diagnosis and treatment

Prostate cancer is one of the major health challenges in the world and needs novel therapeutic approaches to overcome the limitations of conventional treatment. This review delineates the transformative potential of artificial intelligence (AL) in enhancing nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems for prostate cancer therapy. With its ability to optimize nanocarrier design and predict drug delivery kinetics, AI has revolutionized personalized treatment planning in oncology. We discuss how AI can be integrated with nanotechnology to address challenges related to tumor heterogeneity, drug resistance, and systemic toxicity. Emphasis is placed on strong AI-driven advancements in the design of nanocarriers, structural optimization, targeting of ligands, and pharmacokinetics. We also give an overview of how AI can better predict toxicity, reduce costs, and enable personalized medicine. While challenges persist in the way of data accessibility, regulatory hurdles, and interactions with the immune system, future directions based on explainable AI (XAI) models, integration of multimodal data, and green nanocarrier designs promise to move the field forward. Convergence between AI and nanotechnology has been one key step toward safer, more effective, and patient-tailored cancer therapy.

Unraveling the kinase code: Role of protein kinase in lung cancer pathogenesis and therapeutic strategies

Lung cancer is a prominent cause of cancer-related deaths globally, prompting exploration into the molecular pathways governing cancer cell signaling. Recent insights highlight the critical role of kinases in carcinogenesis and metastasis, particularly in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), where protein kinases significantly contribute to drug resistance. These diverse enzymes catalyze protein phosphorylation and are implicated in cancer through misregulated expression, amplification, aberrant phosphorylation, mutations, and chromosomal translocations. Amplifications of kinases serve as important diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive biomarkers across various cancers. Notably, the Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT pathway is crucial for the survival and proliferation of tumor cells. Novel therapeutic approaches are being explored to precisely target these pathways. Peptide-based therapies offer specificity and reduced toxicity compared to conventional treatments, while gene therapy targets abnormal genetic expressions. Advances in nanotechnology and CRISPR/Cas9 systems enhance gene delivery methods, holding promise for targeting specific molecular pathways in lung cancer treatment and minimizing systemic toxicity.

Exploring the effects of paclitaxel-loaded zein nanoparticles on human ovarian carcinoma cells

The development of innovative antitumor formulations that are able to increase the mortality of cancer cells while decreasing the efficacious pharmacological dosage is a fundamental goal of modern oncological research. In this study a paclitaxel (PTX)-nanomedicine was tested on two lines of human high-grade serous ovarian carcinoma (hHGS-OC). Zein, a vegetal protein, was employed to obtain nanoparticles containing the lipophilic compound (NanoPTX) characterized by a mean diameter of 160 nm, a narrow size distribution, a negative zeta potential and a prolonged release of the drug over time. NanoPTX was tested on HEY and COV362 cells demonstrating an increase of apoptosis, particularly on the papillary cystadenocarcinoma cells (55.2% p value 0.037 for NanoPTX vs 70.25%, p value 0.08 for PTX) with respect to the free form of the drug. The fluorescent nanosystems were characterized by a significant cell uptake after a few hours of incubation and they promoted a reduction in the intracellular reactive oxygen species. The results need to be validated on different hHGS-OC cells and the real efficacy of the proposed nanomedicine needs to be investigated using in vivo models of ovarian carcinoma.

Nanoparticle-based delivery systems for phytochemicals in cancer therapy: molecular mechanisms, clinical evidence, and emerging trends

OBJECTIVE

This review examines recent advancements in nanoparticle-based delivery systems for phytochemicals, focusing on their role in overcoming multidrug resistance, improving therapeutic efficacy, and facilitating clinical translation.

SIGNIFICANCE

This review highlights recent advances in nanoparticle-enabled phytochemical delivery to enhance bioavailability, improve therapeutic outcomes, and enable targeted applications. By comparing various nanoparticle systems, formulation methods, and efficacy data, it identifies gaps in current research and guides the development of more effective, next-generation phytochemical-loaded nanocarriers.

METHODS

A systematic review of literature published between 2000 and 2024 was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Articles focusing on nanoparticle-based phytochemical delivery in cancer therapy were included.

KEY FINDINGS

Compounds such as curcumin, resveratrol, quercetin, and epigallocatechin gallate demonstrate enhanced anti-cancer efficacy when encapsulated in nanoparticles, leading to improved bioavailability, increased tumor cell targeting, and reduced toxicity. Clinical trials indicate tumor regression and fewer adverse effects. Emerging approaches-such as nanogels, hybrid nanoparticles, and combination therapies with immune checkpoint inhibitors-further refine treatment efficacy.

CONCLUSIONS

Nanoparticle-based delivery systems significantly improve the therapeutic potential of phytochemicals, making them promising candidates for safer, more effective cancer treatments. However, challenges related to regulatory guidelines, scalability, and long-term safety must be addressed to fully realize their clinical potential.

Impact of lactate on immune cell function in the tumor microenvironment: mechanisms and therapeutic perspectives

Lactate has emerged as a key regulator in the tumor microenvironment (TME), influencing both tumor progression and immune dynamics. As a byproduct of aerobic glycolysis, lactate satisfies the metabolic needs of proliferating tumor cells while reshaping the TME to facilitate immune evasion. Elevated lactate levels inhibit effector immune cells such as CD8+ T and natural killer cells, while supporting immunosuppressive cells, such as regulatory T cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells, thus fostering an immunosuppressive environment. Lactate promotes epigenetic reprogramming, stabilizes hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, and activates nuclear factor kappa B, leading to further immunological dysfunction. In this review, we examined the role of lactate in metabolic reprogramming, immune suppression, and treatment resistance. We also discuss promising therapeutic strategies targeting lactate metabolism, including lactate dehydrogenase inhibitors, monocarboxylate transporter inhibitors, and TME neutralization methods, all of which can restore immune function and enhance immunotherapy outcomes. By highlighting recent advances, this review provides a theoretical foundation for integrating lactate-targeted therapies into clinical practice. We also highlight the potential synergy between these therapies and current immunotherapeutic strategies, providing new avenues for addressing TME-related challenges and improving outcomes for patients with cancer.

Generation of continuous production of polymeric nanoparticles via microfluidics for aerosolised localised drug delivery

Transferring the production of nanoparticles from laboratory batches to large-scale production for preclinical and clinical applications represents a challenge due to difficulties in scaling up formulations and lack of suitable preclinical models for testing. Here, we transpose the production of hyaluronic acid and polyarginine-based nanoparticles encapsulating the platinum-derivative dichloro(1,2 diaminocyclohexane)platinum(II), from conventional bulk method to continuous production using microfluidics. The microfluidic-based drug delivery system is then tested in a customised preclinical setup to assess its suitability for pressurised intraperitoneal aerosol chemotherapy (PIPAC), a locoregional chemotherapy used to treat peritoneal carcinomatosis. PIPAC consists of the aerosolization of drugs under pressure using laparoscopy. In our preclinical setup, two clinical aerosol devices, CapnoPen® and TOPOL®, are used in conjunction with syringe pump to achieve the clinically optimal aerosol droplet size range (25-50 μm). Aerosol droplet sizes of 38 and 64 μm are obtained at upstream pressures of 14.7 and 7.4 bar and flow rates of 0.4 and 1.1 mL/s, for CapnoPen® and TOPOL®, respectively. To study the spatial distribution of the aerosol, our preclinical setup is then coupled to an ex-vivo model (inverted porcine urinary bladder) that mimics the physiological peritoneal cavity environment. The smaller droplet size obtained with CapnoPen® provided more homogeneous aerosol distribution in the bladder cavity, crucial for maximising treatment coverage within the peritoneal cavity. Furthermore, stability studies reveal that nanoparticles maintained their physicochemical properties and anticancer activity post-aerosolization. Overall, this study provides a scalable approach for the production of platinum-derivative-loaded polymeric nanoparticles and demonstrates the suitability of this DDS for PIPAC.

Advances in nanomedicine and delivery systems for gastric cancer research

The early diagnosis rate of gastric cancer is low, and most patients are already at an advanced stage by the time they are diagnosed, posing significant challenges for treatment and exhibiting high recurrence rates, which notably diminish patients' survival time and quality of life. Therefore, there is an urgent need to identify methods that can enhance treatment efficacy. Nanomedicine, distinguished by its small size, high targeting specificity, and strong biological compatibility, is particularly well-suited to address the toxic side effects associated with current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for gastric cancer. Consequently, the application of nanomedicine and delivery systems in the diagnosis and treatment of gastric cancer has garnered increasing interest from researchers. This review provides an overview of recent advancements in the use of nanomaterials as drugs or drug delivery systems in gastric cancer research, encompassing their applications in diagnosis, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, surgery, and phototherapy, and explores the promising prospects of nanomedicine in the treatment of gastric cancer.

Exosomes derived from natural killer cells: transforming immunotherapy for aggressive breast cancer

Natural killer cell-derived exosomes (NK-Exos) hold great promise as immune modulators and immunotherapeutics against cancer due to their intrinsically latent anti-tumor effects. They use these nanosized vesicles to deliver cytotoxic molecules, such as perforin, granzymes, and miRNAs, directly to cancer cells to kill them, avoiding immune suppression. NK-Exos has particular efficacy for treating aggressive breast cancer by modulating the TME to activate the immune response and suppress immunosuppressive factors. Bioengineering advances have extended the therapeutic potential of NK-Exos, which permits precise tumor cell targeting and efficient delivery of therapeutic payloads, including small RNAs and chemotherapeutic agents. In engineered NK-Exos, sensitization of cancer cells to apoptosis, reduction of tumor growth, and resistance to drugs have been demonstrated to be highly effective. When combined, NK-Exos synergizes with radiotherapy, chemotherapy, or checkpoint inhibitors, enhancing therapeutic efficacy, and minimizing systemic toxicity. This review emphasizes the critical role of NK-Exos in breast cancer treatment, their integration into combination therapies, and the need for further research to overcome existing limitations and fully realize their clinical potential.

Bioinspired complex cellulose nanorod-architectures: A model for dual-responsive smart carriers

The synergy between nanomaterials as solid supports and supramolecular concepts has resulted in nanomaterials with hierarchical structure and enhanced functionality. Herein, we developed and investigated innovative supramolecular functionalities arising from the synergy between organic moieties and the preexisting nanoscale soft material backbones. Based on these complex molecular nano-architectures, a new nanorod carbohydrate polymer carrier was designed with bifunctional hairy nanocellulose (BHNC) to reveal dual-responsive advanced drug delivery (ADD). This carrier scavenges K+-ions within cancer cells, while simultaneously releasing doxorubicin, combining ion homeostasis disruption with targeted drug delivery. The BC ADD system resulted from cross-linking dibenzo-18-crown-6-ether (DB18C6) with BHNC particles. To enhance cellular internalization and facilitate tracking of uptake, the cellulose nanorod carrier was labeled with biotin and fluorescein isothiocyanate, referred to as BCFB. The BHNC serves as the backbone, while the immobilized DB18C6 moieties can capture doxorubicin via complex formation. The BCFB complex molecular nanorod carriers exhibit distinct ADD profiles with pH and K+-responsiveness. They were evaluated as biocompatible carriers for ADD in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, including quantification of nanoparticle uptake and flow cytometry with KHOS cells. These cellulose-based carriers possess unique structure and properties with potential utility as phase transfer catalysts and as adsorbents for diverse waterborne contaminants.

Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptors in the Vascularization of Pancreatic Tumors: Implications for Prognosis and Therapy

In pancreatic cancer (PC), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its primary receptor, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR)-2, are central drivers of angiogenesis and metastasis, with their overexpression strongly associated with poor prognosis. In some PC patients, VEGF levels correlate with disease stage, tumor burden, and survival outcomes. However, therapies targeting VEGF and VEGFR-2, including tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) and monoclonal antibodies, have demonstrated limited efficacy, partly due to the emergence of resistance mechanisms. Resistance appears to stem from the activation of alternative vascularization pathways. This review explores the multifaceted roles of VEGFRs in pancreatic cancer, including VEGFR-1 and VEGFR-3. Potential strategies to improve VEGFR-targeting therapies, such as combination treatments, the development of more selective inhibitors, and the use of biomarkers, are discussed as promising approaches to enhance treatment efficacy and outcomes.

Co-delivery of hsa-miR-34a and 3-methyl adenine by a self-assembled cellulose-based nanocarrier for enhanced anti-tumor effects in HCC

The simultaneous delivery of oligonucleotides and small molecules has garnered significant interest in cancer therapy. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) treatment is hindered by limited efficacy and significant side effects. Homo sapiens microRNA-34a (hsa-miR-34a) has tumor suppressor properties and like small molecule 3-methyl adenine (3MA) can inhibit autophagy. Besides, 3MA has been shown to enhance anticancer effects in combination therapies. In the present study, a novel modified-cellulose-dialdehyde (MDAC) nanocarrier responsive to lysosomal pH was designed to co-load hsa-miR-34a polyplexes and 3MA and evaluate its antitumor efficacy against HCC. Polyplexes containing hsa-miR-34a and poly L lysine (PLL) with an optimal N/P ratio exhibited a zeta potential of +9.28. These polycations significantly modulated the surface charge of 3MA MDAC for optimal cell-membrane transport and dramatically increased their stability. The PLL-miR34a/3MA MDAC NPs had loading efficiency of around 99.7 % for miR-34a and 35 % for 3MA. Comply with pH dependency, PLL-miR34a polyplex/3MA MDAC NPs worked very efficiently on the inhibiting the expression of autophagy genes (p < 0.05), preventing the formation of autophagosomal vacuoles, reducing rate of cell survival, anti-migratory effects (>100 %), and triggering apoptosis (67.15 %) in HepG2. Our cellulose-based nanocarrier may demonstrate potential for enhancing therapeutic efficacy of combination therapies headed for future clinical translation in HCC.

Delving Into Nanoparticle Systems for Enhanced Drug Delivery Technologies

Nanotechnology, based on the utilization of nanoparticles, has revolutionized drug delivery techniques, offering groundbreaking methods for managing and diagnosing intricate ailments over the past four decades. This article aims to underscore how the use of these particles has been used to treat previously incurable diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer's, and Parkinson's disease. Recently, the integration of diagnostic imaging and targeted therapy using theranostic nanoparticles has improved cancer treatment precision. Moreover, exosome-based drug delivery has demonstrated high in vivo biocompatibility and antigen-carrying ability during vaccine development. The unique properties of these tiny particles enable their transport to specific locations inaccessible to large drug molecules. The development of these nanodrugs by either encapsulation or adsorption of drugs on particles has allowed the loading of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. Innovative engineering approaches have enabled the engineering of shear-sensitive nanoparticles for site-targeted drug release, which eliminates the requirement for frequent doses, which is common in conventional drug delivery. Factors such as size, shape as well as surface modification are considered during the top-down and bottom-up approaches for engineering nanoparticle-based systems. However, issues related to scaling up manufacturing, long-term safety, and regulatory approval for these techniques must be resolved. The use of these drug delivery systems offers many therapeutic advantages. This article examines the application of these systems across various medical domains including cancer treatment, infectious diseases, cardiovascular disorders, central nervous system ailments, and ophthalmic conditions. This fusion of nanotechnology with drug delivery has the potential to elevate healthcare standards in the future by introducing innovative frameworks for revolutionizing therapeutic practices.

Early apoptosis induction in MCF-7 breast cancer cells by bacterial exopolysaccharide-coated magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONS)

As breast cancer is the most widespread female malignancy, innovative and safe synergistic anticancer strategies are needed, particularly to improve drug delivery to the tumor. One of the important aspects of cancer targeting is apoptosis induction, which is the main purpose of this study. Exopolysaccharide (EPS) extracted from Streptococcus mutans and magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles-coated EPS (EPS/MIONS) effects on MCF-7 and MCF-10A were studied. MIONS was synthesized by co-deposition method and characterized by TEM and XRD; its surface was coated with EPS, checked by FT-IR. MTT assay, AO/EB staining, and flow cytometry analysis were performed to assess the MCF-7 cells viability at various EPS/MIONS and EPS concentrations, as well as to determine apoptosis. The levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), also malondialdehyde (MDA) enzymes were determined. The XRD and FT-IR spectrum confirmed the MIONS purity and chemical integration of EPS/MIONS. The EPS and EPS/MIONS significantly reduced the MCF-7 cell viability without showing toxicity on MCF-10A cells. The most effective dose (IC50) was 250 μg/mL EPS/MIONS after 48 h. According to flow cytometry studies, the percentages of early and late apoptotic cells were equal to 71.87 ± 1.25 and 21.7 ± 2 for EPS/MIONS, and 59.09 ± 5 and 39.95 ± 1 for EPS. The SOD and CAT levels were increased in the presence of EPS and EPS/MIONS groups compared to the control (pValue<0.05). However, the MDA levels significantly decreased. The EPS/MIONS found to be superior in apoptosis induction, morphological alterations, and cell growth suppression. This research emphasizes the importance of EPS, its conjugation with MIONS, and their potential as novel anticancer-promising agents.

PLGA and cancer: a comprehensive patent-based review on the present state of art

Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is a highly efficient biodegradable polymeric nanoparticle (NP). Owing to its low toxicity, controlled and sustained release qualities, and biocompatibility with tissue and cells, the US FDA has approved its usage in drug delivery systems. The manufacturing and characterization techniques, surface changes, encapsulation of anticancer medicines, active or passive tumor targeting, and various PLGA nanoparticle release methods have been explored in the research arena in the past decade and patents have been filed across the globe. This review covers nanotechnology-backed PLGA patent literature for various types of cancers available on distinguished and eminent patent databases like 'Espacenet' and 'Patent Scope' ranging within a time frame from 2008 to 2024. This review is the first ever reported compilation of the state-of-the-art patent-based literature in PLGA nanoparticles. This review will pave a path for researchers of the present era and future, to understand the research landscape in PLGA nanoparticles and cancer therapy and pave a path for further connective research in the arena of PLGA-based nanoparticles and cancer formulation development.

Terpene-based novel invasomes: pioneering cancer treatment strategies in traditional medicine

Health care workers have faced a significant challenge because of the rise in cancer incidence around the world during the past 10 years. Among various forms of malignancy skin cancer is most common, so there is need for the creation of an efficient and safe skin cancer treatment that may offer targeted and site-specific tumor penetration, and reduce unintended systemic toxicity. Nanocarriers have thus been employed to get around the issues with traditional anti-cancer drug delivery methods. Invasomes are lipid-based nanovesicles having small amounts of terpenes and ethanol or a mixture of terpenes and penetrate the skin more effectively. Compared to other lipid nanocarriers, invasomes penetrate the skin at a substantially faster rate. Invasomes possess a number of advantages, including improved drug effectiveness, higher compliance, patient convenience, advanced design, multifunctionality, enhanced targeting capabilities, non-invasive delivery methods, potential for combination therapies, and ability to overcome biological barriers,. These attributes position invasomes as a promising and innovative platform for the future of cancer treatment. The current review provides insights into invasomes, with a fresh organizational scheme and incorporates the most recent cancer research, including their composition, historical development and methods of preparation, the penetration mechanism involving effect of various formulation variables and analysis of anticancer mechanism and the application of invasomes.

β2GPI-targeted polymeric nanoparticles form a protective layer to prevent vascular thrombosis in an anti-phospholipid syndrome model

Anti-phospholipid syndrome (APS) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by thrombotic vascular occlusion and maternal morbidity. Anti-coagulants remain pivotal drugs for the management of APS, but a significant proportion of patients do not benefit from long-term anti-coagulation and may require an alternative therapy to prevent antibody deposition and vascular thrombosis. We have developed a therapeutic approach based on the use of safe polymeric nanoparticles that selectively target beta2-glycoprotein I (β2GPI) deposited on endothelial cells (tNPs). Their efficacy was tested in a rat model of APS developed by infusing patients' sera containing medium-high titer antibodies against domain I of β2GPI. The tNPs bearing a CH2-deleted anti-β2GPI recombinant antibody as a targeting agent recognize β2GPI deposited on endothelial cells but failed to induce blood clot formation. The tNPs infused into rats immediately before APS sera competed with patients' antibodies, preventing their binding to deposited β2GPI and, as a consequence, resulted in thrombus formations and occlusion of mesenteric vessels. Similar results were obtained by injecting tNPs 24 hours before the administration of patients' sera to induce blood clot formation. Our findings suggest that β2GPI-targeted polymeric nanoparticles represent a stable and safe approach to prevent thrombus formation and vessel occlusion in a rat model of APS and may be used to control thrombosis developing in APS patients as a result of acute triggering events.

Anticancer Nanoparticle Carriers of the Proapoptotic Protein Cytochrome c

This review discusses the literature data on the synthesis, physicochemical properties, and cytotoxicity of composite nanoparticles bearing the mitochondrial protein cytochrome c (cytC), which can act as a proapoptotic mediator in addition to its main function as an electron carrier in the electron transport chain. The introduction of exogenous cytC via absorption of carrier particles, the phagocytosis of colloid particles of submicrometric size, or the receptor-mediated endocytosis of nanoparticles in cancer cells, initiates the process of apoptosis-a multistage cascade of biochemical reactions leading to complete destruction of the cells. CytC-carrier composite particles have the potential for use in the treatment of neoplasms with superficial localization: skin, mouth, stomach, colon, etc. This approach can solve the two main problems of anticancer therapy: selectivity and non-toxicity. Selectivity is based on the incapability of the normal cell to absorb (nano)particles, except for the cells of the immune system. The use of cytC as a protein that normally functions in mitochondria is harmless for the macroorganism. In this review, the factors limiting cytotoxicity and the ways to increase it are discussed from the point of view of the physicochemical properties of the cytC-carrier particles. The different techniques used for the preparation of cytC-bearing colloids and nanoparticles are discussed. Articles reporting the achievement of high cytotoxicity with each of the techniques are critically analyzed.

Green Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles Using Cinnamomum-Based Extracts and Their Applications

Introduction

Nanotechnology is the science that deals with matter on the nanoscale, with sizes ranging from 1 to 100 nm. It involves designing, synthesising, characterising and applying these nanoscale materials. Nanoparticles (NPs) are known for their high surface-area to volume-ratio, surface charge density, low melting point, and distinguishably good optical/electrical properties. NPs exhibit an excellent drug delivery system, an effective contrast agent for vascular imaging, and effective antimicrobial activity. The biological synthesis of NPs is a simple, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly technique. This bottom-up technique utilises organisms' enzymes/bio-compounds and a plant extract as capping and reducing agents. Cinnamomum species are known for their intrinsic antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and neuroprotective properties. This review summarises articles that greenly synthesised NPs using Cinnamomum species' extracts, describing their methodologies, characterisation of the nanoparticles and their medical applications.

Methods

A literature search has been conducted on databases PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Frontier on the green synthesis of metal nanoparticles (MNPs) using Cinnamomum-based extracts. Various articles reported the methodology of utilising Cinnamomum species' extracts as reducing and capping agents. Only original lab articles were considered.

Results

Various types of MNPs have been successfully synthesised. The most common Cinnamomum species utilised as extracts is Cinnamomum tamala. The most common applications tested were the MNPs' antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antidiabetic and anticancerous activity. MNPs also had a role in treating mice-induced polycystic ovarian syndrome and Parkinson-like neurodegenerative diseases.

Conclusion

Cinnamomum species have been successfully utilised in the green synthesis of various MNPs. Silver and Gold NPs were the most reported. These MNPs proved their efficacy in multiple fields of medicine and biology, especially their antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal activity. Notably, the newly synthesised NPs showed promising results in treating polycystic ovarian syndrome in rats.

Advances in Materials Science for Precision Melanoma Therapy: Nanotechnology-Enhanced Drug Delivery Systems

Melanoma, a highly aggressive form of skin cancer, poses a major therapeutic challenge due to its metastatic potential, resistance to conventional therapies, and the complexity of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Materials science and nanotechnology advances have led to using nanocarriers such as liposomes, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles, and metallic nanoparticles as transformative solutions for precision melanoma therapy. This review summarizes findings from Web of Science, PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, and Google Scholar and highlights the role of nanotechnology in overcoming melanoma treatment barriers. Nanoparticles facilitate passive and active targeting through mechanisms such as the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect and functionalization with tumor-specific ligands, thereby improving the accuracy of drug delivery and reducing systemic toxicity. Stimuli-responsive systems and multi-stage targeting further improve therapeutic precision and overcome challenges such as poor tumor penetration and drug resistance. Emerging therapeutic platforms combine diagnostic imaging with therapeutic delivery, paving the way for personalized medicine. However, there are still issues with scalability, biocompatibility, and regulatory compliance. This comprehensive review highlights the potential of integrating nanotechnology with advances in genetics and proteomics, scalable, and patient-specific therapies. These interdisciplinary innovations promise to redefine the treatment of melanoma and provide safer, more effective, and more accessible treatments. Continued research is essential to bridge the gap between evidence-based scientific advances and clinical applications.

Biomimetic Nanoparticle Based Targeted mRNA Vaccine Delivery as a Novel Therapy for Glioblastoma Multiforme

The prognosis for patients with glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), an aggressive and deadly brain tumor, is poor due to the limited therapeutic options available. Biomimetic nanoparticles have emerged as a promising vehicle for targeted mRNA vaccine delivery, thanks to recent advances in nanotechnology. This presents a novel treatment method for GBM. This review explores the potential of using biomimetic nanoparticles to improve the specificity and effectiveness of mRNA vaccine against GBM. These nanoparticles can evade immune detection, cross the blood-brain barrier, & deliver mRNA directly to glioma cells by mimicking natural biological structures. This allows glioma cells to produce tumor-specific antigens that trigger strong immune responses against the tumor. This review discusses biomimetic nanoparticle design strategies, which are critical for optimizing transport and ensuring targeted action. These tactics include surface functionalization and encapsulation techniques. It also highlights the ongoing preclinical research and clinical trials that demonstrate the therapeutic advantages and challenges of this strategy. Biomimetic nanoparticles for mRNA vaccine delivery represent a new frontier in GBM treatment, which could impact the management of this deadly disease and improve patient outcomes by integrating cutting-edge nanotechnology with immunotherapy.

Impact of Incorporating Nanoparticles to Adhesive Resin on the Demineralization of Enamel: A Systematic Review

Background/Objective: Many novel solutions for a range of dental problems are emerging as a result of the quick development of nanotechnology and nanocomplex synthetic techniques. The effectiveness, quality, and negative consequences of these advancements are occasionally debatable, though. This systematic review sought to better summarize the existing additions of nanoparticles to dental adhesive systems in order to improve their performance and properties, evaluate their quality, and examine the results that have been published. Materials and methods: The present systematic review was carried out according to PRISMA guidelines. The search was carried out on PubMed central, Cochrane collaboration, Science direct and Scopus scientific engines. Selected MeSH keywords (nanoparticles, adhesive resin, enamel demineralization) were used for data extraction. A total of 13 full-text original articles were included in the final analysis, and these articles were based on adding nanoparticles to the adhesive resin to evaluate their effects on enamel demineralization. Results: The literature search resulted in a total of 13 original studies/articles up until November 2024. The text articles comprised in vitro studies with robust inclusion and exclusion criteria. The review included various types of adhesives and nanoparticles, with amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) being the most common. Other nanoparticles included polydopamine-Ag, bioactive glass, and silver. Most studies assessed the effects of nanoparticles on adhesive shear bond strength (SBS), microbial growth, and microhardness. Only three studies investigated the effects of nanoparticles on microhardness using Vickers tests. Conclusions: The review found that adding nanoparticles to orthodontic dental adhesives enhances their antibacterial and anticariogenic properties without affecting the shear bond strength. This could prevent enamel demineralization during orthodontic therapy. Future research could benefit from these positive properties, necessitating an interdisciplinary approach.

Oral cancer stem cells: A comprehensive review of key drivers of treatment resistance and tumor recurrence

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide with high recurrence rates and resistance to conventional therapies. Recent studies have highlighted the pivotal role of oral cancer stem cells (OCSCs) in driving treatment resistance and tumor recurrence. OCSCs possess unique properties, including self-renewal, differentiation potential, and resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, which contribute to their ability to survive treatment and initiate tumor relapse. Several signaling pathways, such as Wnt/β-catenin, Hedgehog, Notch, and PI3K/Akt/mTOR, have been implicated in maintaining OCSC properties, promoting survival, and conferring resistance. Additionally, mechanisms such as drug efflux, enhanced DNA repair, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and resistance to apoptosis further contribute to resilience. Targeting these pathways offers promising therapeutic strategies for eliminating OCSCs and improving treatment outcomes. Approaches such as immunotherapy, nanotechnology-based drug delivery, and targeting of the tumor microenvironment are emerging as potential solutions to overcome OCSC-mediated resistance. However, further research is needed to fully understand the molecular mechanisms governing OCSCs and develop effective therapies to prevent tumor recurrence. This review discusses the role of OCSCs in treatment resistance and recurrence and highlights the current and future directions for targeting these cells in OSCC.

A mechanistic overview on green assisted formulation of nanocomposites and their multifunctional role in biomedical applications

The importance of nanocomposites constantly attains attention because of their unique properties all across the fields especially in medical perspectives. The study of green-synthesized nanocomposites has grown to be extremely fascinating in the field of research. Nanocomposites are more promising than mono-metallic nanoparticles because they exhibit synergistic effects. This review encapsulates the current development in the formulation of plant-mediated nanocomposites by using several plant species and the impact of secondary metabolites on their biocompatible functioning. Phyto-synthesis produces diverse nanomaterials with biocompatibility, environment-friendliness, and in vivo actions, characterized by varying sizes, shapes, and biochemical nature. This process is advantageous to conventional physical and chemical procedures. New studies have been conducted to determine the biomedical efficacy of nanocomposites against various diseases. Unfortunately, there has been inadequate investigation into green-assisted nanocomposites. Incorporating phytosynthesized nanocomposites in therapeutic interventions not only enhances healing processes but also augments the host's immune defenses against infections. This review highlights the phytosynthesis of nanocomposites and their various biomedical applications, including antibacterial, antidiabetic, antiviral, antioxidant, antifungal, anti-cancer, and other applications, as well as their toxicity. This review also explores the mechanistic action of nanocomposites to achieve their designated tasks. Biogenic nanocomposites for multimodal imaging have the potential to exchange the conventional methods and materials in biomedical research. Well-designed nanocomposites have the potential to be utilized in various biomedical fields as innovative theranostic agents with the subsequent objective of efficiently diagnosing and treating a variety of human disorders.

A Comprehensive Review of Current Approaches in Bladder Cancer Treatment

Bladder cancer is one of the most common malignant tumors of the urinary system globally. It is also one of the most expensive cancers to manage, due to the need for extensive treatment and follow-ups that often involve invasive and costly procedures. Although there have been some improvements in treatment options, the quality of life they offer has not improved at the same rate as other cancers. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find new alternatives to ease the burden of bladder cancer on patients. Recent discoveries have opened new avenues for the diagnosis and management of bladder cancer even though the clinical approach has largely remained the same for years. The decline in bladder cancer-specific mortality in regions that promote social awareness of risk factors and reduction of carcinogenic exposure demonstrates the effectiveness of such measures. New agents have been approved for patients who have undergone radical cystectomy after Bacillus Calmette-Guérin failure. Current best practices for diagnosing and treating bladder cancer are presented in this review. The review discusses radiation therapy, photodynamic therapy, gene therapy, chemotherapy, and nanomedicine in relation to non muscle-invasive cancers and muscle-invasive bladder cancers, as well as systemic treatments.

Pt-Au Nanoparticles in Combination with Near-Infrared-Based Hyperthermia Increase the Temperature and Impact on the Viability and Immune Phenotype of Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells

Near-infrared light (NIR)-responsive metal-based nanoparticles (NPs) could be used for tumour therapy. We examined how platinum (Pt), gold (Au), and core-shell Pt-Au NPs affect the viability of human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell lines (Hep3B, HepG2, and Huh7D-12) alone and in combination with NIR exposure. In addition, the expression of immune checkpoint molecules (ICMs) on the tumour cells was analysed. We revealed that the cytotoxicity and programmed cell death induction of Au and Pt-Au NPs toward HCC cells could be enhanced by NIR with 960 nm in a different way. Pt-Au NPs were the only particles that resulted in an additional temperature increase of up to 2 °C after NIR. Regarding the tumour cell immune phenotype, not all of the cells experienced changes in immune phenotype. NIR itself was the trigger of the alterations, while the NPs did not significantly affect the expression of most of the examined ICMs, such as PD-L1, PD-L1, HVEM, CD70, ICOS-L, Ox40-L, and TNFRSF9. The combination of Pt-Au NPs with NIR resulted in the most prominent increase of ICMs in HepG2 cells. We conclude that the thermotherapeutic effect of Pt-Au NP application and NIR could be beneficial in multimodal therapy settings in liver cancer for selected patients.

Metformin-encapsulating immunoliposomes conjugated with anti-TROP 2 antibody fragments for the active targeting of triple-negative breast cancer

Trophoblast cell-surface antigen 2 (TROP 2) has re-emerged as a promising biomarker in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), with high overexpression in many TNBC cases. However, despite its potential and approval as an antibody-drug-conjugate for TNBC treatment, TROP 2-targeted delivery systems are currently underexplored. Therefore, this study was aimed at exploiting the potential of TROP 2 targeting by encapsulating metformin (Met), an antidiabetic drug associated with tumor growth inhibitory properties, inside liposomes decorated with TROP 2-targeting single-chain variable fragments (scFvs). The optimization of scFv grafting resulted in Met-immunoliposomes with an average diameter of less than 200 nm, low polydispersity index (∼0.1), negative surface charge (<-10 mV), high Met drug loading (>150 mg g-1), and high affinity towards TROP 2 binding. Furthermore, Met-immunoliposomes were reproducible, and the scFv conjugation was stable in the presence of serum for five days. Their cellular uptake increased 4 folds in two-dimensional and 9 folds in three-dimensional TNBC models owing to the high affinity towards TROP 2 binding. Finally, it was observed that the therapeutic effect of Met in suppressing cancer cell growth and proliferation was superior when using anti-TROP 2 scFv-grafted Met-immunoliposomes, which completely stopped the spheroid growth and inhibited the expression of adenosine triphosphate. This study is one of the first reports to explore the combination of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems to target the TROP 2 protein in TNBC, and to the best of our knowledge, this is the first report to specifically combine the use of scFvs with TROP 2 targeting to deliver therapeutics for TNBC treatment.

Bovine serum albumin nanoparticles encapsulating Dasatinib and Celecoxib for oral cancer: Preparation, characterization, and in-vitro evaluation

Oral squamous cell carcinoma is a diverse complex disease. Despite the ever-expanding repertoire of anti-cancer treatments, the outcomes are often inadequate highlighting the urgent need for innovative approaches. In this regard, co-targeting signaling pathways such as Src and COX-2 have attracted growing attention in several cancers, but co-inhibition of these two pathways using dasatinib and celecoxib has not been explored in oral cancer. However, the therapeutic efficacy of these drugs is limited due to their low aqueous solubility. Nanoencapsulation can improve this by utilizing naturally available proteins due to their ease of fabrication and biocompatibility. In this sense, this study aimed at preparing and characterizing dastatinib (DAS)/celecoxib (CXB)-loaded bovine serum albumin (BSA) nanoparticles as well as investigating their potential anticancer effects in vitro on SCC-4 oral cancer cell line. DAS/CXB-loaded BSA nanoparticles (NPs) were fabricated by the desolvation method, then characterized in terms of their hydrodynamic particle size, zeta potential, morphology and in vitro drug release. The IC50 was determined via the MTT assay. Cyclin D1, COX-2, p-Src and FAK protein expression levels were determined using ELISA while active caspase-3 was determined colorimetrically. DAS/CXB-loaded BSA NPs exhibited particle size of 336.6 ± 1.098 nm with low PDI value of 0.211 ± 0.019 and zeta potential of -35.0 ± 4.03 mV. Moreover, the in vitro cytotoxicity study revealed decreased IC50 value in case of the dual drug-loaded NPs compared to all treated groups, with significant decrease in the expression levels of cyclin D1, COX-2, p-Src and FAK proteins, besides, increased caspase-3 level. The findings suggest that DAS/CXB-loaded BSA NPs could serve as a drug delivery platform with increased antitumor effectiveness.

Recent advancements in nanoparticles for cancer treatment

Nanotechnology is a significant factor that has assisted researchers in overcoming medications' permeability and retention effects. This article discusses how different nanoparticles, such as metallic nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and extracellular vesicles (EVs), are transforming cancer treatments and diagnosis. While CNTs provide photothermal qualities that enable synergistic effects when paired with chemotherapy, EVs provide biocompatibility and immune evasion, enabling effective drug transport. Because of their special optical and magnetic characteristics, metallic nanoparticles are essential for imaging and targeted medication administration. When compared to traditional treatments, these nanoparticles improve bioavailability, decrease systemic toxicity, and increase therapeutic efficacy. Despite increased investigations, the number of licensed nano-drugs has remained relatively high. More investigation is required into targeted drug delivery using nanocarriers to minimize the shielding impact of the protein corona, increase permeability and retention effects, and reduce toxicity to improve clinical translation. This study focuses on novel approaches and state-of-the-art cancer therapies using nanoparticles that target different cancer cells. It also emphasized the advantages of nanoparticle-based cancer therapies over conventional ones, their difficulties, and future promises.