Novel pH-responsive alginate-stabilized curcumin-selenium-ZIF-8 nanocomposites for synergistic breast cancer therapy

In this study, a novel selenium@zeolitic imidazolate framework core/shell nanocomposite stabilised with alginate was used to improve the anti-tumour activity of curcumin. The developed alginate-stabilised curcumin-loaded selenium@zeolitic imidazolate framework (Alg@Cur@Se@ZIF-8) had a mean diameter of 159.6 nm and polydispersity index < 0.25. The release of curcumin from the nanocarrier at pH 5.4 was 2.69 folds as high as at pH 7.4. The bare nanoparticles showed haemolytic activity of about 12.16% at a concentration of 500 µg/mL while covering their surface with alginate reduced this value to 5.2%. By investigating cell viability, it was found that Alg@Cur@Se@ZIF-8 caused more cell death than pure curcumin. Additionally, in vivo studies showed that Alg@Cur@Se@ZIF-8 dramatically reduced tumour growth compared to free curcumin in 4T1 tumour-bearing mice. More importantly, the histological study confirmed that the developed drug delivery system successfully inhibited lung and liver metastasis while causing negligible toxicity in vital organs. Overall, due to the excellent inhibitory activity on cancerous cell lines and tumour-bearing animals, Alg@Cur@Se@ZIF-8 can be considered promising for breast cancer therapy.

Biomaterials coated with zwitterionic polymer brush demonstrated significant resistance to bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation in comparison to brush coatings incorporated with antibiotics

A critical problem with the use of biomaterial implants is associated with bacterial adhesion on the surface of implants and in turn the biofilm formation. Among different strategies that have been reported to resolve this dilemma, surface design combined with both antiadhesive and antimicrobial properties has proven to be highly effective. Physiochemical properties of polymer brush coatings possess non-adhesive capability against bacterial adhesion and create a niche for further functionalization. The current study aims to evaluate the effect of antibiotics incorporated into the polymer brush on bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation. Brushes made of zwitterionic polymers were synthesized, functionalized with vancomycin via both physical and chemical conjugation, and grafted onto the silicon rubber surfaces. Antibacterial and antiadhesive measurements of designed coated biomaterials were mediated through the use of a parallel plate flow chamber against biofilm growth developed by Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli over a period of 24 h. The analysis of biofilm growth on designed coated biomaterials showed that the pristine coated zwitterionic brushes are significantly resistant to bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation but not in the polymer brush coating incorporated with antibiotics.

Poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL)/poly-l-lactic acid (PLLA) nanofibers loaded by nanoparticles-containing TGF-β1 with linearly arranged transforming structure as a scaffold in cartilage tissue engineering

This study aimed to present a novel three-dimensional nanocomposite scaffold using poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL), containing transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-β1)-loaded chitosan-dextran nanoparticles and poly-l-lactic acid (PLLA), to make use of nanofibers and nanoparticles simultaneously. The electrospinning method fabricated a bead-free semi-aligned nanofiber composed of PLLA, PCL, and chitosan-dextran nanoparticles containing TGF-β1. A biomimetic scaffold was constructed with the desired mechanical properties, high hydrophilicity, and high porosity. Transmission electron microscopy findings showed a linear arrangement of nanoparticles along the core of fibers. Based on the results, burst release was not observed. The maximum release was achieved within 4 days, and sustained release was up to 21 days. The qRT-PCR results indicated an increase in the expression of aggrecan and collagen type Ι genes compared to the tissue culture polystyrene group. The results indicated the importance of topography and the sustained release of TGF-β1 from bifunctional scaffolds in directing the stem cell fate in cartilage tissue engineering.

Valine conjugated polymeric nanocarriers for targeted co-delivery of rivastigmine and quercetin in rat model of Alzheimer disease

Multifunctional nanocarriers are increasingly promising for disease treatment aimed at finding effective therapy and overcoming barriers in drug delivery. Herein, valine conjugated chitosan (VLCS) was used for surface modification of nanocarriers (NCs) based on Poly (ε-caprolactone)-Poly (ethylene glycol)-Poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL-PEG-PCL) triblock copolymers (NCs@VLCS). The nanocarriers were co-loaded with rivastigmine (RV) and quercetin (QT) to yield the final RV/QT-NCs@VLCS as a multifunctional nanocarrier for Alzheimer's disease (AD) treatment. The large amino acid transporter 1 (LAT-1) was selected for the direction of the NCs to the brain. The biocompatibility of the nanocarrier was studied in HEK-293 and SH-SY5Y cells and rats. The Morris water maze test demonstrated a faster regain of memory loss with RV/QT-NCs@VLCS compared to the other groups. Furthermore, RV/QT-NCs@VLCS and RV/QT-NCs improved GSH depletion induced by scopolamine (SCO), with RV/QT-NCs@VLCS having a superior effect. The real-time PCR analysis revealed that co-delivery of RV and QT by NCs@VLCS showed significantly higher efficacy than sole delivery of RV. RV/QT-NCs@VLCS treatment also modulated the expression of BDNF, ACHE, and TNF-α. The findings revealed that NCs@VLCS co-loaded with RV and QT, significantly increased efficacy relative to the single use of RV and could be considered a potent multifunctional drug delivery system for Alzheimer's treatment.

Chitosan-decorated and tripolyphosphate-crosslinked pH-sensitive niosomal nanogels for Controlled release of fluoropyrimidine 5-fluorouracil

In the present study, 5-fluorouracil-loaded niosomal nanoparticles were successfully prepared and coated with chitosan and subsequently crosslinked by tripolyphosphate to form niosomal nanogels. The prepared niosomal formulations were fully characterized for their particle size, zeta potential, particle morphology, drug entrapment efficiency, and in vitro drug release profile. The prepared niosomal nanocarriers exhibited nanoscale particle sizes of 165.35 ± 2.75-322.85 ± 2.75 nm. Chitosan-coated and TPP-crosslinked niosomes exhibited a slightly decreased in particle size and a switch of zeta potential from negative to positive values. In addition, high yield percentage, drug encapsulation efficiency, and drug loading values of 92.11 ± 2.07 %, 66.59 ± 6.06, and 4.65 ± 0.5 were obtained for chitosan-coated formulations, respectively. Moreover, lowering the rate of 5-FU in vitro release was achieved within 72 h by using chitosan-coated formulations. All prepared formulations revealed hemocompatible properties in hemolysis assay with less than 5 % hemolysis percentage at their higher possible concentrations (500 µM and 1 mM). The cell viability by MTT assay showed higher anticancer activity against B16F10 cancerous cells and lower cytotoxicity toward NIH3T3 normal cells than control and pure 5-FU in the studied concentration range (10-100 µM). Investigating the cell migration inhibition properties of fabricated formulations revealed similar results with in vitro cell viability assay with a higher migration inhibition rate for B16F10 cells than NIH3T3 cells, controls, and free 5-FU.

Combination of Quercetin or/and siRNA-loaded DDAB-mPEG-PCL hybrid nanoparticles reverse resistance to Regorafenib in colon cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second leading cause of cancer death. Although Regorafenib showed survival benefits in patients with CRC, reports imply the recurrence of malignant phenotype resulting from chemotherapy. Evidence demonstrated that a5β1 integrin plays an important role in the Regorafenib treatment, which, may be led to resistance. In this study, the effects of /siRNA or/ and Quercetin loaded DDAB-mPEG-PCLnanoparticles could reverse this resistance phenotype in colon cancer cells in vitro.

METHODS

Regorafenib-resistant Ls-180 colon cancer cell line was developed by long-term exposure to Regorafenib. Quercetin and Regorafenib were separately encapsulated into mPEG-PCL micelles through the nano-precipitation method and characterized by DLS. Optimized doses of Quercetin and Regorafenib were used for combination therapy of resistant cells followed cytotoxicity study using MTT. Gene expression levels of the β1 subunit of integrin were determined by the real-time method of RT-PCR.

RESULTS

Developed Regorafenib resistant LS-180 showed to have Regorafenib IC50 of 38.96 ± 1.72 µM whereas IC50 in non-resistant cells were 8.51 ± 0.29 µM, which meaningful was lower statistically compared to that of a resistant one. The β1 mRNA level of whole α5β1 integrin was significantly higher in the resistant cells compared to those of non-resistant ones. Gene expression levels in each siRNA-loaded nanoparticle and Quercetin-loaded one were lower than that in mock experiments. Finally, when these two types of nanoparticles were used to treat resistant cells, gene expression decrease of integrin indicated a greater effect that could be capable of reverse resistancy.

CONCLUSION

Results of this study demonstrated another confirmation of involving integrins in cancer resistance following chemotherapy using Regorafenib. Also, it indicated how using siRNA targeting integrin could enhance the plant derivatives like Quercetin effects to reverse resistance in vitro.

Immunogenic Evaluation of MPEG-PCL & PLGA Nanoparticles Containing Klebsiella pneumoniae K2O1 Capsular Antigen in Pulmonary Infection Model of Mice

Klebsiella pneumoniae can cause destructive changes to human lungs if aspirated The present study aimed to evaluate the immunogenicity of the carriers of Poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) and Methoxypoly(ethylene glycol) Poly(caprolactone) (MPEG-PCL) nanoparticles containing the capsular antigen of Klebsiella pneumoniae K2O1 in a model of pulmonary infection in mice as a vaccine candidate for protection against immunogenicity. Capsule antigen was extracted from K.pneumoniae K2O1 strain 1053 ATCC 10031 and transported with PLGA or MPEG-PCL nanoparticles as a vaccine candidate in an animal model. AFM and FT-IR were applied to measure and charge the PLGA, MPEG-PCL, PLGA-CPS, and MPEG-PCL-CPS molecules. The capsular polysaccharide was also used to evaluate the febrileness of the designed vaccine candidates based on the rabbits' pattern, and mortality due to the vaccine candidates was assessed in the mice. The results of FT-IR and the shape of the corresponding peaks confirmed the presence of antigen functional groups in the nanoparticle structure, as well as the formation of ester bonds. However, no fever was observed in the rabbits, and no mortality was observed in the mice. According to the results, the vaccine candidates designed to control the cause of pulmonary infections were effective in the liver, spleen, and lungs of the animals with the ability to enter the first stage of the clinical trial phase.

Hospital wastewater treatment using eco-friendly eugenol nanostructured lipid carriers: Formulation, optimization, and in vitro study for antibacterial and antioxidant properties

In this study, nano-formulation has been used to tackle one of the most important environmental problems which can be considered a major threat to human health. We prepared some eco-friendly nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) as delivery agents to properly deliver an antibacterial agent (eugenol) into hospital wastewater in order to control bacterial growth. Eugenol-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers were prepared by hot high-speed homogenization. Then, the prepared nanocarriers were characterized using different techniques such as transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared, and dynamic scanning calorimetry. The turbidity assay and colony counting method were used to determine the ability of the prepared eugenol-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers to inhibit bacterial growth rate in the culture media and hospital wastewater, respectively. The mean size and zeta potential of NLC-eugenol were 78.12 ± 6.1 nm and -29.43 ± 2.21 mV, respectively. The results showed that the highest inhibitory effect of NLC-eugenol in culture media was seen in standard and wild Staphylococcus aureus strains (43.42% and 26.41%, respectively) with a concentration of 0.125 μM. The antibacterial activity of NLC-eugenol in sterile wastewater on wild strains of bacteria showed that the most effective concentration to reduce bacterial amounts was 0.125 μM on wild S. aureus and Enterococcus faecalis strains (38% and 33.47%, respectively) at 37°C. The NLC-eugenol with a concentration of 0.125 μM showed the greatest effect of reducing total microbial agents by 28.66% in hospital wastewater at 25°C. The highest antibacterial effect achieved using the 0.125 μM concentration is due to the egel phenomenon. Also, the mechanism of action of NLC-eugenol is cell wall destruction and eventually cell death. The results showed that NLC-eugenol with a concentration of 0.125 μM can reduce wild bacterial strains in sterilized wastewater and hospital wastewater, which can prove the great potential of the prepared eugenol-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers to control bacterial growth. PRACTITIONER POINTS: NLC is one of the safest biodegradable and environmentally friendly carriers, which is nontoxic for humans and the environment. Eugenol is a natural compound, which makes it less toxic for the environment while being toxic for bacteria. Therefore, our method has the least side effect in comparison with existing methods for wastewater treatment. The gradual release of eugenol from NLC nanoparticles can effectively control the pathogenic factors of wastewater.

Co-delivery of siRNA and lycopene encapsulated hybrid lipid nanoparticles for dual silencing of insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor in MCF-7 breast cancer cell line

Insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R) is expressed in malignant and normal breast tissue, and its intermittent activation by multiple IGF-1 signaling pathways leads to neoplasm cell proliferation, impaired apoptosis, increased survival, and resistance to cytotoxic therapeutic agents. Therefore, simultaneous suppression of the receptor and its cognate ligand would be a powerful promising strategy inhibiting malignant phenotypes of breast cancer cells. In the present study, Methoxypoly(ethylene glycol) - Poly(caprolactone) was hybridized with Dimethyldioctadecylammonium bromide (DDAB) cationic lipid (mPEG-PCL-DDAB) nanoparticles (NPs) and used as a carrier for simultaneous delivery of lycopene and insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor-specific lycopene encapsulated-mPEG-PCL-DDAB nanoparticle/siRNA to MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Then, the antitumor effects of this construct were evaluated in vitro. The results demonstrated that the synthesized mPEG-PCL-DDAB nanoparticle had suitable physicochemical properties. The use of mPEG-PCL-DDAB nanoparticle-loaded anti-insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor-siRNA and lycopene dramatically induced the process of apoptosis and arrested cell cycle in the MCF-7 tumor cell lines. In general, the findings of this study demonstrated the potency of mPEG-PCL-DDAB nanoparticles for dual delivery of siRNA, and lycopene in breast cancer cell lines followed the induction of apoptosis.

Targeted drug delivery via folate decorated nanocarriers based on linear polymer for treatment of breast cancer

In this project, a biocompatible block copolymer including poly ethylene glycol and poly caprolactone was synthesized using ring-opening reaction. Then, the copolymer was conjugated to folic acid using lysine as a linker. Also, curcumin (CUR) was used as a therapeutic anticancer agent. Nanoprecipitation method was used to prepare CUR-loaded polymeric micelles. Different methods including Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and dynamic light scattering (DLS) were used to characterize the prepared nanocarriers (NCs). MTT assay and hemolysis assay were used to evaluate in vitro anticancer efficiency and biocompatibility of the prepared NCs, respectively. The results proved efficiency of NCs as a drug delivery system (DDS) in various aspects such as physicochemical properties and biocompatibility. Also, in vivo results showed that NCs did not show any severe weight loss and side effects on mice, and the anti-cancer study results of the CUR-loaded NCs proved that the conjugation of folic acid on the surface of NCs as a targeting agent could increase the therapeutic efficacy of CUR.

The Comparison of Antimicrobial Effect of Nigella sativa Nanoparticle and Chlorhexidine Emulsion on the Most Common Dental Cariogenicic Bacteria

Background: Tooth decay and periodontal disease are the most common chronic human and oral diseases, respectively, and bacterial plaque has a major role in their occurrence. Because of the importance of plaque control, this study was done to compare the antimicrobial effects of Nigella sativa nanoparticles and chlorhexidine emulsion on the most common dental cariogenicic bacteria.

Methods: In this experimental study, the effects of 0.2% chlorhexidine mouthwash and Nigella sativa nanoparticle with different dilutions on Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus sobrinus, Streptococcus salivarius, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Minococcal fecalis, and Enterococcus fecalis were compared using minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) assessment. Data were analyzed by SPSS Version 16.0 software, and statistical tests, including an independent sample t test.

Results: Mean diameters of growth inhibition zone because of the nanoemulsion of Nigella sativa nanoparticle was close to each other in different bacteria (p=0.665). In addition, there was no significant difference between these values because of different dilutions of nanoemulsion even in different microbial species (p=0.778). The MIC and lethal concentrations of Nigella sativa nanoemulsion were similar for Enterococcus faecalis and Streptococcus mutans, and it was higher than other bacteria. In comparison, the MIC and MBC values of all bacteria in chlorhexidine were lower than those of the nanoemulsion.

Conclusion: MIC and MBC values showed that Nigella sativa nanoemulsion affects tooth cariogenicic bacteria. Enterococcus faecalis and Lactobacillus acidophilus were the most resistant and susceptible bacteria to this nanoparticle, respectively, while the antimicrobial effects of Nigella sativa nanoemulsion were weaker than the chlorhexidine mouthwash.

In vitro evaluation of albendazole-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers on Echinococcus granulosus microcysts and their prophylactic efficacy on experimental secondary hydatidosis

To enhance the therapeutic effects of albendazole (ABZ) on Echinococcus granulosus protoscoleces and metacestodes, ABZ-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (ABZ-NLCs) are prepared by the hot high-speed homogenization method. Protoscoleces and microcysts were treated in vitro with free ABZ and ABZ-NLCs (concentrations of 1, 5, and 10 μg/ml), and the corresponding effects were monitored by methylene blue exclusion test and scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Chemoprophylactic treatment was performed on Balb/C mice 1 day before intraperitoneal injection of viable protoscoleces. The drugs were administered daily by intragastric inoculation for a period of 30 days. The prophylactic efficacy was assessed based on the number and weight of cysts developed in treated mice. The ultrastructural alterations in cysts were examined by transmission electron microscopy. After 18 days, all the protoscoleces incubated with 10 μg/ml ABZ-NLCs were killed, while 51.25 ± 4.03% of the protoscoleces incubated with 10 μg/ml free ABZ were still viable. Microcysts treated with ABZ-NLCs underwent degenerative alterations in a shorter time than when free ABZ was applied. The mean weight of the cysts recovered from mice of ABZ-NLCs group was significantly lower than that of the free ABZ group (P < 0.05), yielding prophylactic efficacy of 92.45% and 38.53%, respectively. The cysts treated with ABZ-NLCs showed marked ultrastructural changes in the germinal layer. This study demonstrated that both in vitro and in vivo treatments with ABZ-NLCs are significantly more efficient than treatment with free ABZ against E. granulosus protoscoleces, metacestodes, and prevention of cyst development in mice.

Magnetic nanostructured lipid carrier for dual triggered curcumin delivery: Preparation, characterization and toxicity evaluation on isolated rat liver mitochondria

In this research, magnetic nanostructured lipid carriers (Mag-NLCs) were synthesized for curcumin (CUR) delivery. NLCs are drug-delivery systems prepared by mixing solid and liquid (oil) lipids. For preparation of NLCs, cetylpalmitate was selected as solid lipid and fish oil as liquid lipid. CUR-Mag-NLCs were prepared using high-pressure homogenization technique and were characterized by methods including X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The CUR-Mag-NLCs were developed as a particle with a size of 140 ± 3.6 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.196, and a zeta potential of -22.6 mV. VSM analysis showed that the CUR-Mag-NLCs have excellent magnetic properties. Release rate of the drug was higher at 42 °C than 37 °C, indicating that release of the synthesized nanoparticles is temperature-dependent. Evaluation of mitochondrial toxicity was done using the isolated rats liver mitochondria including glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA), and the ferric- reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) assays to study biosafety of the CUR-Mag-NLCs. Results of In vitro study on the isolated mitochondria revealed that both CUR-Mag-NLCs and curcumin have no specific mitochondrial toxicity.

Surface modification of neurotrophin-3 loaded PCL/chitosan nanofiber/net by alginate hydrogel microlayer for enhanced biocompatibility in neural tissue engineering

This study prepared a novel three-dimensional nanocomposite scaffold by the surface modification of PCL/chitosan nanofiber/net with alginate hydrogel microlayer, hoping to have the privilege of both nanofibers and hydrogels simultaneously. Bead free randomly oriented nanofiber/net (NFN) structure composed of chitosan and polycaprolactone (PCL) was fabricated by electrospinning method. The low surface roughness, good hydrophilicity, and high porosity were obtained from the NFN structure. Then, the PCL/chitosan nanofiber/net was coated with a microlayer of alginate containing neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) and conjunctiva mesenchymal stem cells (CJMSCs) as a new stem cell source. According to the cross-sectional FESEM, the scaffold shows a two-layer structure with interconnected pores in the range of 20 μm diameter. The finding revealed that the surface modification of nanofiber/net by alginate hydrogel microlayer caused lower inflammatory response and higher proliferation of CJMSCs than the unmodified scaffold. The initial burst release of NT-3 was 69% in 3 days which followed by a sustained release up to 21 days. The RT-PCR analysis showed that the expression of Nestin, MAP-2, and β-tubulin III genes were increased 6, 5.4, and 8.8-fold, respectively. The results revealed that the surface-modified biomimetic scaffold possesses enhanced biocompatibility and could successfully differentiate CJMSCs to the neuron-like cells.

Apoptosis induction by siRNA targeting integrin-β1 and regorafenib/DDAB-mPEG-PCL hybrid nanoparticles in regorafenib-resistant colon cancer cells

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is regarded as the third most common cancer worldwide. Although Regorafenib as a receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor (RTKI) disrupts tumor growth and angiogenesis in metastatic CRC (mCRC) patients, drug resistance leads to poor prognosis and survival. Integrin-β1 overexpression has been proposed to be the major player in this regard. Herein, the Regorafenib-resistant human colon cancer cell line (SW-48) was induced, and the Integrin-β1 gene expression, as well as apoptosis, was assessed through the combination of small interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting Integrin-β1 and Regorafenib/Dimethyldioctadecylammonium bromide (DDAB)-methoxy poly (ethylene glycol) (mPEG)-poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) hybrid nanoparticles (HNPs). In the current study, Regorafenib-resistant SW-48 cell line was generated in which the Regorafenib half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) for non-resistant and resistant cells was 13.5±1.5 µM and 55.1±0.8 µM, respectively. The results of DLS also demonstrated that the size and the charge of the HNPs were equal to 66.56±0.5 nm and +29.5±1.2 mv, respectively. In addition, the Integrin-β1 gene expression was significantly higher in resistant cells than in non-resistant ones (P<0.05). The siRNA/HNP complexes in combination with Regorafenib/HNPs were accordingly identified as the most effective treatment to decrease the Integrin-β1 gene expression and to enhance the apoptosis rate in resistant cells (P<0.001). Overall, the study indicated that combination therapy using siRNA/HNP and Regorafenib/HNPs complex could down-regulate the Integrin-β1 gene expression and consequently trigger apoptosis, and this may potentially induce drug sensitivity.

Enhancement of the brain delivery of methotrexate with administration of mid-chain ester prodrugs: In vitro and in vivo studies

In the present study, with the aim of improving the permeability of methotrexate (MTX) to the brain, the lipophilic MTX prodrugs containing the ester functional moiety were synthesized. The chemical structure of synthesized prodrugs was characterized and confirmed by FT-IR, NMR and mass spectral studies. Based on the results of in vitro cytotoxic studies, all of the synthesized prodrugs led to decrease in the IC50 in 72 h on U87 cancer cell line and the best result was observed for dihexyl methotrexate (MTX-DH) in comparison with free MTX, which led to decrease the IC50 amount up to 6 folds. In addition, in vivo toxicity on Artemia salina (A. salina) showed that the lipophilic MTX prodrugs have been able to partially mask the toxic profile of free MTX, at the same concentrations. These findings were also in compliance with hemolysis assay results, which confirm that the conjugates has not made the drug more toxic. Furthermore, in vivo study in rat model, was employed to determine the simultaneous drug concentration in brain and plasma. According to the obtained results, the brain-to-plasma concentration ratios (Kp values) of MTX-DH and dioctyl methotrexate (MTX-DO) groups were significantly higher compared with free MTX. Moreover, the uptake clearance of MTX by brain parenchyma increased significantly (3.85 and 9.08-time increased for MTX-DH and MTX-DO prodrugs, respectively). These findings indicate that the synthesized lipophilic MTX prodrugs are non-toxic and able to enhance brain penetration of MTX.

DDAB cationic lipid-mPEG, PCL copolymer hybrid nano-carrier synthesis and application for delivery of siRNA targeting IGF-1R into breast cancer cells

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

To use siRNA molecule as a therapeutic agent in gene silencing, an efficient delivery system is necessary. Stability and clearance by reticuloendothelial of siRNA still remains the major challenges for clinical application. Herein, we could develop new lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNP) as a siRNA carrier to silence insulin-like growth factor type I (IGF-1R) gene overexpression in MCF-7 human breast cancer cell line.

METHODS

Dimethyldioctadecylammonium bromide-methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-poly (ε-caprolactone) (DDAB-mPEG-PCL) LPHNPs were synthesized using a single step nanoprecipitation method and characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) microscope. Cytotoxicity of the nanoparticles was assessed in the MCF7 cell line using 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Desired LPHNP-siRNA complex was determined using different Nitrogen:Phosphate ratio (N/P) ratios and gel retardation. To determine the encapsulation efficiency of siRNA (%) in LPHNP, its absorbance was measured. The effect of the siRNA-LPHNP complex on IGF-1R silencing was assessed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) RESULTS: LPHNP was synthesized using a single-step sonication method with a size below 100 nM. The viability of cells treated with hybrid nanoparticles was significantly greater than the corresponding cationic lipid (P < 0.01). As demonstrated by gel retardation assay, efficient siRNA binding to LPHNP occurred at N/P equal to 40 and siRNA encapsulation efficiency was found to be 95% ± 4 at this ratio. LPHNP-IGF-1R siRNA complex could be able to down-regulate the target more efficiently when it compared with the corresponded controls (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, our results suggest that DDAB cationic lipid and mPEG-PCL copolymer hybrid nanoparticle may be a good candidate for efficient siRNA delivery.

Effect of corn starch coating incorporated with nanoemulsion of Zataria multiflora essential oil fortified with cinnamaldehyde on microbial quality of fresh chicken meat and fate of inoculated Listeria monocytogenes

The present study compared the effects of corn starch coatings incorporated with Zataria multiflora essential oil (ZEO) and cinnamaldehyde (CIN) in conventional, nanoemulsion (NZEO) and fortified nanoemulsion (NZEOC) forms, on specific spoilage microorganisms of chicken meat and on the fate of inoculated Listeria monocytogenes during 20 days storage at 4 ± 1 °C. Based on the results of GC-MS analysis of ZEO, carvacrol (36.62%) was the most important compound of essential oil. Samples coated with the starch solution containing nanoemulsions had better antimicrobial activities than conventional forms. Also, NZEOC treatment had the best antimicrobial properties at the end of storage with the following results: Total viable count (7.96 log₁₀ CFU/g), Psychrotrophic count (7.29 log₁₀ CFU/g), Lactic acid bacteria (6.51 log₁₀ CFU/g), Enterobacteriaceae count (6.98 log₁₀ CFU/g), Mold and yeast count (5.16 log₁₀ CFU/g) and inoculated L. monocytogenes (6.51 log₁₀ CFU/g). Furthermore, the addition of CIN-ZEO during nanoemulsion formation (NZEOC) increased the antimicrobial properties of the samples compared to individual addition of NZEO and CIN (NZEO + CIN) to the starch solution. Therefore, corn starch coating containing NZEOC is recommended as a natural preservative to enhance the microbial stability of poultry meat.

Preparation, Optimization, and Evaluation of Methoxy Poly(ethylene glycol)-co-Poly(ε-caprolactone) Nanoparticles Loaded by Rivastigmine for Brain Delivery

The objective of this study was to formulate and investigate the neuropharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of rivastigmine (Riv) loaded methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-co-poly(ε-caprolactone) (MPEG-PCL) nanoparticles (Riv-NPs) in rats after IV administration. The MPEG-PCL was synthesized via ring-opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone by MPEG and used to prepare Riv-NPs by the nanoprecipitation method. Response surface D-optimal design was applied to optimize Riv-NPs drug delivery system. The optimized formulation showed a particle size (PS) of 98.5 ± 2.1 nm, drug loading (DL) of 19.2 ± 1.1%, and sustained release behavior of the drug. Moreover, the optimized Riv-NPs were characterized by AFM and DSC analyses. A simple and sensitive HPLC-DAD method for bioanalysis was developed and successfully applied to the pharmacokinetic study. The neuropharmacokinetic study in rats indicated that the integration plot was linear, and the brain uptake clearance of the drug-loaded in MPEG-PCL NPs was significantly higher than the free drug. Furthermore, results of pharmacodynamic studies using the Morris water maze test demonstrated faster regain of memory loss with Riv-NPs when compared to the free drug solution. The results revealed that the mentioned biodegradable nanoparticle holds promise as a suitable drug carrier for brain drug delivery.

Monoclonal antibody 2C5 specifically targets neutrophil extracellular traps

Neutrophils can release DNA and granular cytoplasmic proteins that form smooth filaments of stacked nucleosomes (NS). These structures, called neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), are involved in multiple pathological processes, and NET formation and removal are clinically significant. The monoclonal antibody 2C5 has strong specificity toward intact NS but not to individual NS components, indicating that 2C5 could potentially target NS in NETs. In this study, NETs were generated in vitro using neutrophils and HL-60 cells differentiated into granulocyte-like cells. The specificity of 2C5 toward NETs was evaluated by ELISA, which showed that it binds to NETs with the specificity similar to that for purified nucleohistone substrate. Immunofluorescence showed that 2C5 stains NETs in both static and perfused microfluidic cell cultures, even after NET compaction. Modification of liposomes with 2C5 dramatically enhanced liposome association with NETs. Our results suggest that 2C5 could be used to identify and visualize NETs and serve as a ligand for NET-targeted diagnostics and therapies.

In vivo Antiplasmodial Activity of Curcumin-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers

Background:

It was shown that curcumin (Cur) has anti-plasmodium activity, however, its weak bioavailability, rapid metabolism, and limited chemical stability has restricted its application in clinical usages. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are a type of drug-delivery systems (DDSs) which their core matrix is composed of both solid and liquid lipids.

Objective:

The aim of the current study was to prepare and characterize curcumin-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (Cur-NLC) for malaria treatment.

Methods:

For the production of NLC, coconut oil and cetyl palmitate were selected as a liquid and solid lipid, respectively. In order to prepare the Cur-NLC, the microemulsion method was applied. General toxicity assay on Artemia salina and also hemocompatibility was investigated. Antimalarial activity was studied on mice infected with Plasmodium berghei.

Results:

The NLCs mean particle size and polydispersity index (PI) was 145 nm and 0.3, respectively. Moreover, the zeta potential of the Cur-NLC was −25 mV, as well as, the NLCs showed pseudo-spherical shape which revealed via transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The loading capacity and encapsulation efficacy of the obtained Cur-NLC were 3.1 ± 0.015% and 74 ± 3.32%, respectively. In vitro, Cur release profiles showed a sustained-release pattern up to 5 days in synthesized Cur-NLC. The results of in vivo anti-plasmodial activity against P. berghei revealed that antimalarial activity of Cur-NLC was high 2-fold compared with bare Cur at the tested dosage level.

Conclusion: :

The results of this study showed that NLC would be used as a potential nanocarrier for the treatment of malaria.

Polymeric Co-Delivery Systems in Cancer Treatment: An Overview on Component Drugs' Dosage Ratio Effect

Multiple factors are involved in the development of cancers and their effects on survival rate. Many are related to chemo-resistance of tumor cells. Thus, treatment with a single therapeutic agent is often inadequate for successful cancer therapy. Ideally, combination therapy inhibits tumor growth through multiple pathways by enhancing the performance of each individual therapy, often resulting in a synergistic effect. Polymeric nanoparticles prepared from block co-polymers have been a popular platform for co-delivery of combinations of drugs associated with the multiple functional compartments within such nanoparticles. Various polymeric nanoparticles have been applied to achieve enhanced therapeutic efficacy in cancer therapy. However, reported drug ratios used in such systems often vary widely. Thus, the same combination of drugs may result in very different therapeutic outcomes. In this review, we investigated polymeric co-delivery systems used in cancer treatment and the drug combinations used in these systems for synergistic anti-cancer effect. Development of polymeric co-delivery systems for a maximized therapeutic effect requires a deeper understanding of the optimal ratio among therapeutic agents and the natural heterogenicity of tumors.

Neuropharmacokinetic evaluation of lactoferrin-treated indinavir-loaded nanoemulsions: remarkable brain delivery enhancement

OBJECTIVE

Indinavir (IDV), an antiretroviral protease inhibitor used in treatment of HIV infection, has limited entry into brain due to efflux by the P-glycoprotein presented in blood-brain barrier. The aim of present study was to develop lactoferrin-treated nanoemulsion containing indinavir (Lf-IDV-NEs) for delivery to brain.

METHODS

Indinavir-loaded nanoemulsions (IDV-NEs) were prepared by high-speed homogenization method, and then lactoferrin was coupled to IDV-NEs by water soluble EDC method.

RESULTS

The hydrodynamic diameters, polydispersity index, and zeta potential of IDV-NEs were 112 ± 3.5 nm, 0.20 ± 0.02, and -33.2 ± 2.6 mV, respectively. From in vivo studies in animal model of rats, the AUC_0-4 h of brain concentration-time profile of IDV-NEs and Lf-IDV-NEs were 1.6 and 4.1 times higher than free drug, respectively. The brain uptake clearance of IDV-NEs and Lf-IDV-NEs were, interestingly, 393- and 420-times higher than the free drug.

CONCLUSIONS

It can be concluded that applying both lactoferrin-treated and non-treated nanoemulsions clearly leads to significant brain penetration enhancement of indinavir, an effect which is more pronounced in the case of Lf-IDV-NEs with the higher drug residence time in brain.

Correction: Methotrexate-conjugated mPEG–PCL copolymers: a novel approach for dual triggered drug delivery

Correction for ‘Methotrexate-conjugated mPEG–PCL copolymers: a novel approach for dual triggered drug delivery’ by Kobra Rostamizadeh et al., New J. Chem., 2018, 42, 5937–5945.

Efficiency of flubendazole-loaded mPEG-PCL nanoparticles: A promising formulation against the protoscoleces and cysts of Echinococcus granulosus

None of the existing drugs can effectively treat the human cystic echinococcosis. This study aimed to improve the efficacy of flubendazole (FLBZ) against the protoscoleces and cysts of Echinococcus granulosus by preparing polymeric FLBZ-loaded methoxy polyethylene glycol-polycaprolactone (mPEG-PCL) nanoparticles. The protoscoleces and microcysts were treated with FLBZ-loaded mPEG-PCL nanoparticles (FLBZ-loaded nanoparticles) and free FLBZ at the final concentrations of 1, 5, and 10 μg/mL for 27 and 14 days, respectively. The chemoprophylactic efficacy of the drugs was evaluated in experimentally infected mice. The nanoparticles were stable for 1 month, with an average size of 101.41 ± 5.14 nm and a zeta potential of -19.13 ± 2.56 mV. The drug-loading and entrapment efficiency of the FLBZ-loaded nanoparticles were calculated to be 3.08 ± 0.15% and 89.16 ± 2.93%, respectively. The incubation of the protoscoleces with the 10 μg/mL nano-formulation for 15 days resulted in 100% mortality, while after incubation with the 10 μg/mL free FLBZ, the viability rate of the protoscoleces was only 44.0% ± 5.22%. Destruction of the microcysts was observed after 7 days' exposure to the FLBZ-loaded nanoparticles at a concentration of 10 μg/mL. The in vivo challenge showed a significant reduction in the weight and number of the cysts (P <  0.05) in the mice treated with the FLBZ-loaded nanoparticles, yielding efficacy rates of 94.64% and 70.21%, correspondingly. Transmission electron microscopy revealed extensive ultrastructural damage to the cysts treated with the FLBZ-loaded nanoparticles. The results indicated that the FLBZ-loaded nanoparticles were more effective than the free FLBZ against the protoscoleces and cysts of E. granulosus both in vitro and in vivo.

Preparation and characterization of nanostructured lipid carriers as drug delivery system: Influence of liquid lipid types on loading and cytotoxicity

In this study, we aimed to investigate the influence of liquid lipid types on different features of NLC. Four variations of liquid lipids such as coconut oil, fish oil, black seed oil and linseed oil were used, while for all variations, cetyl palmitate was used as the solid lipid. Different NLC were characterized and compared in terms of particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity index (PDI), drug entrapment percentage and drug loading capacity. The results indicated that NLC containing black seed oil has the smallest size. Other features like PDI, zeta potential and entrapment efficiency were the same for all the liquid lipids. By close margins, the NLC containing black seed oil had the highest percent of drug release and antioxidant activity compared to the rest. Diffusion was the major mechanism of the drug release according to the drug release kinetic fitted by Higuchi's model. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) confirmed no strong interaction between NLC constituents. The particles showed spherical shape morphology under atomic force microscopy (AFM). According to the cell viability assay on MCF-7 cell line, the curcumin loaded NLC composed of linseed oil showed better cytotoxic activity compared to the free curcumin.

Methotrexate-conjugated mPEG–PCL copolymers: a novel approach for dual triggered drug delivery

A conjugate of the antitumor drug, methotrexate (MTX), with a diblock methoxypoly(ethylene glycol)–poly(caprolactone) (mPEG–PCL) copolymer was synthesized by the reaction of the mPEG–PCL copolymer with MTX in the presence of dicyclohexylcarbodiimide and dimethylaminopyridine.

Curcumin mediated down-regulation of αV β3 integrin and up-regulation of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 (PDK4) in Erlotinib resistant SW480 colon cancer cells

Erlotinib is a potent, selective, and orally active inhibitor of the epidermal growth factor receptor, but the development of erlotinib resistance during chemotherapy can lead to treatment failure. To shed light on the erlotinib-resistant pathway, this study investigated the effect of combination therapy using curcumin- and erlotinib-loaded nanoparticles on the expression of α_v β₃ integrin and pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 (PDK4) in an erlotinib-resistant SW480 colon cancer cell line. An erlotinib-resistant SW480 colon cancer cell line was produced by long-term exposure to erlotinib. Curcumin-loaded Methoxy poly ethylene glycol Poly caprolactone (cur/mPEG-PCL) and erlotinib-loaded mPEG-PCL (erl/mPEG-PCL) micelles were provided using a single step nanoprecipitation method and used as combination therapy of resistant SW480 cancer cells. After that, gene expression levels of PDK4, αv, and β3 mRNA were determined by the semiquantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Protein levels of whole α_v β₃ integrin were evaluated using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. In SW480 cell line, the IC50 of nonresistant and resistant cells was 87.6 ± 1.2 nM and 19.1 ± 0.14 μM, for erlotinib and it was about 21.8 and 30 μM for curcumin, respectively. Although PDK4 expression was not significantly different in resistant and nonresistant cells, its expression was up regulated (1.4 fold) in resistant cells by a combination therapy of cur/mPEG-PCL at a dose of 3 μM and erl/mPEG-PCL at a dose of 5 μM. β₃ mRNA and the protein level of whole α_v β₃ integrin was significantly higher in resistant SW480 cells as compared with those in nonresistant cells. In terms of treatment, a combination of 6-μM cur/mPEG-PCL and 5-μM erl/mPEG-PCL down regulated β₃ gene expression 6.6-fold in resistant cells as compared with nonresistant cells. At the protein level, a combination of 3-μM-cur/mPEG-PCL and 10-μM erl/mPEG-PCL reduced α_v β₃ protein in resistant cells. The results indicated that combination therapy using cur/mPEG-PCL and erl/mPEG-PCL could decrease α_v β₃ integrin expression and increase PDK4 gene expression in resistant colon cancer cells, which may have effects on drug resistance signaling pathways.

Drug-conjugated PLA-PEG-PLA copolymers: a novel approach for controlled delivery of hydrophilic drugs by micelle formation

A conjugate of the antihypertensive drug, lisinopril, with triblock poly(lactic acid)-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactic acid) (PLA-PEG-PLA) copolymer was synthesized by the reaction of PLA-PEG-PLA copolymer with lisinopril in the presence of dicyclohexylcarbodiimide and dimethylaminopyridine. The conjugated copolymer was characterized in vitro by hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance (HNMR), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and gel permeation chromatography (GPC) techniques. Then, the lisinopril conjugated PLA-PEG-PLA were self-assembled into micelles in aqueous solution. The resulting micelles were characterized further by various techniques such as dynamic light scattering (DLS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The results revealed that the micelles formed by the lisinopril-conjugated PLA-PEG-PLA have spherical structure with the average size of 162 nm. The release behavior of conjugated copolymer, micelles and micelles physically loaded by lisinopril were compared in different media. In vitro release study showed that in contrast to physically loaded micelles, the release rate of micelles consisted of the conjugated copolymer was dependent on pH of media where it was higher at lower pH compared to the neutral medium. Another feature of the conjugated micelles was their more sustained release profile compared to the lisinopril-conjugated copolymer and physically loaded micelles.

Naproxen conjugated mPEG-PCL micelles for dual triggered drug delivery

A conjugate of the NSAIDs drug, naproxen, with diblock methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(ε-caprolactone) (mPEG-PCL) copolymer was synthesized by the reaction of copolymer with naproxen in the presence of dicyclohexylcarbodiimide and dimethylaminopyridine. The naproxen conjugated copolymers were characterized with different techniques including (1)HNMR, FTIR, and DSC. The naproxen conjugated mPEG-PCL copolymers were self-assembled into micelles in aqueous solution. The TEM analysis revealed that the micelles had the average size of about 80 nm. The release behavior of conjugated copolymer was investigated in two different media with the pH values of 7.4 and 5.2. In vitro release study showed that the drug release rate was dependant on pH as it was higher at lower pH compared to neutral pH. Another feature of the conjugated micelles was a more sustained release profile compared to the conjugated copolymer. The kinetic of the drug release from naproxen conjugated micelles under different values of pH was also investigated by different kinetic models such as first-order, Makoid-Banakar, Weibull, Logistic, and Gompertz.

The impact of polymer coatings on magnetite nanoparticles performance as MRI contrast agents: a comparative study

BACKGROUND

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) are the most commonly used negative MRI contrast agent which affect the transverse (T2) relaxation time. The aim of the present study was to investigate the impact of various polymeric coatings on the performance of magnetite nanoparticles as MRI contrast agents.

METHODS

Ferrofluids based on magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles (SPIONs) were synthesized via chemical co-precipitation method and coated with different biocompatible polymer coatings including mPEG-PCL, chitosan and dextran.

RESULTS

The bonding status of different polymers on the surface of the magnetite nanoparticles was confirmed by the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) analysis confirmed the superparamagnetic behavior of all synthesized nanoparticles. The field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) indicated the formation of quasi-spherical nanostructures with the final average particle size of 12-55 nm depending on the type of polymer coating, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) determined inverse spinel structure of magnetite nanoparticles. The ferrofluids demonstrated sufficient colloidal stability in deionized water with the zeta potentials of -24.2, -16.9, +31.6 and -21 mV for the naked SPIONs, and for dextran, chitosan and mPEG-PCL coated SPIONs, respectively. Finally, the magnetic relaxivities of water based ferrofluids were measured on a 1.5 T clinical MRI instrument. The r2/r1 value was calculated to be 17.21, 19.42 and 20.71 for the dextran, chitosan and mPEG-PCL coated SPIONs, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings demonstrated that the value of r2/r1 ratio of mPEG-PCL modified SPIONs is higher than that of some commercial contrast agents. Therefore, it can be considered as a promising candidate for T2 MRI contrast agent.

Synthesis and characterization of dextran coated magnetite nanoparticles for diagnostics and therapy

INTRODUCTION

Expansion of efficacious theranostic systems is of pivotal significance for medicine and human healthcare. Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are known as drug delivery system and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent. MNPs as drug carriers have attracted significant attention because of the delivery of drugs loaded onto MNPs to solid tumors, maintaining them in the target site by an external electromagnetic field, and subsequently releasing drugs in a controlled manner. On the other hand, it is believed that MNPs possess high potential as MRI contrast agents. The aim of this work was to payload curcumin into dextran coated MNPs and investigate their potential as theranostic systems for controlled drug delivery and MRI imaging.

METHODS

MNPs were synthesized as a core and coated with dextran as polymeric shell to provide steric stabilization. Curcumin as anticancer drug was selected to be loaded into NPs. To characterize the synthesized NPs, various techniques (e.g., DLS, FESEM, FT-IR, XRD, and VSM) were utilized. In vitro drug release of curcumin was evaluated at 37˚C at the pH value of 5.4 and 7.4.The feasibility of employment of dextran coated MNPs as MRI contrast agents were also studied.

RESULTS

Formulations prepared from dextran coated MNPs showed high loading (13%) and encapsulation efficiency (95%). In vitro release study performed in the phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, pH= 7.4, 5.4) revealed that the dextran coated MNPs possess sustained release behavior at least for 4 days with the high extent of drug release in acidic media. Vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) analysis proved the superparamagnetic properties of the dextran coated MNPs with relatively high-magnetization value indicating that they were sufficiently sensitive to external magnetic fields as magnetic drug carriers. Furthermore, dextran coated MNPs exhibited high potential as T2 contrast agents for MRI.

CONCLUSION

Based on our findings, we propose the dextran coated MNPs as promising nanosystem for the delivery of various drugs such as curcumin and MRI contrast agent.

pH-Triggered Magnetic-Chitosan Nanogels (MCNs) For Doxorubicin Delivery: Physically vs. Chemically Cross Linking Approach

PURPOSE

This paper evaluates the impact of cross linking strategy on the characteristics of magnetic chitosan nanogels (MCNs) as targeted drug delivery system for doxorubicin.

METHODS

Sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) and glutaraldehyde were used as physical (electrostatic) and chemical (covalent binding) cross-linker agents, respectively. MCNs were characterized by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) indicated the formation of spherical nanostructures with the final average particle size of around 35-40 nm.

RESULTS

The finding proved the superparamagnetic properties of the MCNs with relatively high-magnetization values which indicate that the MCNs were enough sensitive to external magnetic fields as a magnetic drug carrier. To understand the differences between the drug delivery properties of chemically and physically cross linked MCNs, the drug release studies were also conducted. Altogether, the results of this study clearly indicate that, however, both MCNs exhibited sustained drug release behaviour, the chemically cross linked MCNs provided enhanced controlled drug release characteristics in comparison to physically cross linked MCNs. Besides, according to the drug release behaviour of MCNs in buffer solutions in two different medium with the pH values of 5.3 and 7.4, it was clear that both nanoparticles exhibited pH sensitivity where the extent of drug release in the acidic media was significantly higher than neutral media.

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that chemically cross linked MCNs may serve as an ideal carrier for stimuli-triggered and controlled anticancer drug delivery.

A hybrid modeling approach for optimization of PMAA–chitosan–PEG nanoparticles for oral insulin delivery

This study aimed to develop pH sensitive polymethacrylic acid–chitosan–polyethylene glycol (PCP) nanoparticles for oral insulin delivery.