Astrocyte Mechano-Activation by High-Rate Overpressure Involves Alterations in Structural and Junctional Proteins

Heterogeneity of brain extracellular matrix and astrocyte activation

From the blood brain barrier to the synaptic space, astrocytes provide structural, metabolic, ionic, and extracellular matrix (ECM) support across the brain. Astrocytes include a vast array of subtypes, their phenotypes and functions varying both regionally and temporally. Astrocytes' metabolic and regulatory functions poise them to be quick and sensitive responders to injury and disease in the brain as revealed by single cell sequencing. Far less is known about the influence of the local healthy and aging microenvironments on these astrocyte activation states. In this forward-looking review, we describe the known relationship between astrocytes and their local microenvironment, the remodeling of the microenvironment during disease and injury, and postulate how they may drive astrocyte activation. We suggest technology development to better understand the dynamic diversity of astrocyte activation states, and how basal and activation states depend on the ECM microenvironment. A deeper understanding of astrocyte response to stimuli in ECM-specific contexts (brain region, age, and sex of individual), paves the way to revolutionize how the field considers astrocyte-ECM interactions in brain injury and disease and opens routes to return astrocytes to a healthy quiescent state.

B cell depletion modulates glial responses and enhances blood vessel integrity in a model of multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is characterized by a compromised blood-brain barrier (BBB) resulting in central nervous system (CNS) entry of peripheral lymphocytes, including T cells and B cells. While T cells have largely been considered the main contributors to neuroinflammation in MS, the success of B cell depletion therapies suggests an important role for B cells in MS pathology. Glial cells in the CNS are essential components in both disease progression and recovery, raising the possibility that they represent targets for B cell functions. Here, we examine astrocyte and microglia responses to B cell depleting treatments in an animal model of MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). B cell depleted EAE animals had markedly reduced disease severity and myelin damage accompanied by reduced microglia and astrocyte reactivity 20 days after symptom onset. To identify potential initial mechanisms mediating functional changes following B cell depletion, astrocyte and microglia transcriptomes were analyzed 3 days following B cell depletion. In control EAE animals, transcriptomic analysis revealed astrocytic inflammatory pathways were activated and microglial influence on neuronal function were inhibited. Following B cell depletion, initial functional recovery was associated with an activation of astrocytic pathways linked with restoration of neurovascular integrity and of microglial pathways associated with neuronal function. These studies reveal an important role for B cell depletion in influencing glial function and CNS vasculature in an animal model of MS.

Hypergravity Attenuates Reactivity in Primary Murine Astrocytes

Neuronal activity is the key modulator of nearly every aspect of behavior, affecting cognition, learning, and memory as well as motion. Hence, disturbances of the transmission of synaptic signals are the main cause of many neurological disorders. Lesions to nervous tissues are associated with phenotypic changes mediated by astrocytes becoming reactive. Reactive astrocytes form the basis of astrogliosis and glial scar formation. Astrocyte reactivity is often targeted to inhibit axon dystrophy and thus promote neuronal regeneration. Here, we aim to understand the impact of gravitational loading induced by hypergravity to potentially modify key features of astrocyte reactivity. We exposed primary murine astrocytes as a model system closely resembling the in vivo reactivity phenotype on custom-built centrifuges for cultivation as well as for live-cell imaging under hypergravity conditions in a physiological range (2g and 10g). We revealed spreading rates, migration velocities, and stellation to be diminished under 2g hypergravity. In contrast, proliferation and apoptosis rates were not affected. In particular, hypergravity attenuated reactivity induction. We observed cytoskeletal remodeling of actin filaments and microtubules under hypergravity. Hence, the reorganization of these key elements of cell structure demonstrates that fundamental mechanisms on shape and mobility of astrocytes are affected due to altered gravity conditions. In future experiments, potential target molecules for pharmacological interventions that attenuate astrocytic reactivity will be investigated. The ultimate goal is to enhance neuronal regeneration for novel therapeutic approaches.

Decellularized peripheral nerve as an injectable delivery vehicle for neural applications

Damage to the nervous system can result in loss of sensory and motor function, paralysis, or even death. To facilitate neural regeneration and functional recovery, researchers have employed biomaterials strategies to address both peripheral and central nervous system injuries. Injectable hydrogels that recapitulate native nerve extracellular matrix are especially promising for neural tissue engineering because they offer more flexibility for minimally invasive applications and provide a growth-permissive substrate for neural cell types. Here, we explore the development of injectable hydrogels derived from decellularized rat peripheral nerves (referred to as "injectable peripheral nerve [iPN] hydrogels"), which are processed using a newly developed sodium deoxycholate and DNase (SDD) decellularization method. We assess the gelation kinetics, mechanical properties, cell bioactivity, and drug release kinetics of the iPN hydrogels. The iPN hydrogels thermally gel when exposed to 37°C in under 20 min and have mechanical properties similar to neural tissue. The hydrogels demonstrate in vitro biocompatibility through support of Schwann cell viability and metabolic activity. Additionally, iPN hydrogels promote greater astrocyte spreading compared to collagen I hydrogels. Finally, the iPN is a promising delivery vehicle of drug-loaded microparticles for a combinatorial approach to neural injury therapies.

Reactive Astrocytes in Central Nervous System Injury: Subgroup and Potential Therapy

Traumatic central nervous system (CNS) injury, which includes both traumatic brain injury (TBI) and spinal cord injury (SCI), is associated with irreversible loss of neurological function and high medical care costs. Currently, no effective treatment exists to improve the prognosis of patients. Astrocytes comprise the largest population of glial cells in the CNS and, with the advancements in the field of neurology, are increasingly recognized as having key functions in both the brain and the spinal cord. When stimulated by disease or injury, astrocytes become activated and undergo a series of changes, including alterations in gene expression, hypertrophy, the loss of inherent functions, and the acquisition of new ones. Studies have shown that astrocytes are highly heterogeneous with respect to their gene expression profiles, and this heterogeneity accounts for their observed context-dependent phenotypic diversity. In the inured CNS, activated astrocytes play a dual role both as regulators of neuroinflammation and in scar formation. Identifying the subpopulations of reactive astrocytes that exert beneficial or harmful effects will aid in deciphering the pathological mechanisms underlying CNS injuries and ultimately provide a theoretical basis for the development of effective strategies for the treatment of associated conditions. Following CNS injury, as the disease progresses, astrocyte phenotypes undergo continuous changes. Although current research methods do not allow a comprehensive and accurate classification of astrocyte subpopulations in complex pathological contexts, they can nonetheless aid in understanding the roles of astrocytes in disease. In this review, after a brief introduction to the pathology of CNS injury, we summarize current knowledge regarding astrocyte activation following CNS injury, including: (a) the regulatory factors involved in this process; (b) the functions of different astrocyte subgroups based on the existing classification of astrocytes; and (c) attempts at astrocyte-targeted therapy.

Complex Tumor Spheroid Formation and One-Step Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts Purification from Hepatocellular Carcinoma Tissue Promoted by Inorganic Surface Topography

In vitro cell models play important roles as testbeds for toxicity studies, drug development, or as replacements in animal experiments. In particular, complex tumor models such as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are needed to predict drug efficacy and facilitate translation into clinical practice. In this work, topographical features of amorphous silicon dioxide (SiO2) are fabricated and tested for cell culture of primary HCC cells and cell lines. The topographies vary from pyramids to octahedrons to structures named fractals, with increased hierarchy and organized in periodic arrays (square or Hexagonal). The pyramids were found to promote complex 2D/3D tissue formation from primary HCC cells. It was found that the 2D layer was mainly composed of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), while the 3D spheroids were composed of tumor cells enwrapped by a CAF layer. Compared with conventional protocols for 3D cultures, this novel approach mimics the 2D/3D complexity of the original tumor by invading CAFs and a microtumor. Topographies such as octahedrons and fractals exclude tumor cells and allow one-step isolation of CAFs even directly from tumor tissue of patients as the CAFs migrate into the structured substrate. Cell lines form spheroids within a short time. The presented inorganic topographical surfaces stimulate complex spheroid formation while avoiding additional biological scaffolds and allowing direct visualization on the substrate.

Phagocytic Glial Cells in Brain Homeostasis

Phagocytosis by glial cells has been shown to play an important role in maintaining brain homeostasis. Microglia are currently considered to be the major phagocytes in the brain parenchyma, and these cells phagocytose a variety of materials, including dead cell debris, abnormally aggregated proteins, and, interestingly, the functional synapses of living neurons. The intracellular signaling mechanisms that regulate microglial phagocytosis have been studied extensively, and several important factors, including molecules known as "find me" signals and "eat me" signals and receptors on microglia that are involved in phagocytosis, have been identified. In addition, recent studies have revealed that astrocytes, which are another major glial cell in the brain parenchyma, also have phagocytic abilities. In this review, we will discuss the roles of microglia and astrocytes in phagocytosis-mediated brain homeostasis, focusing on the characteristics and differences of their phagocytic abilities.

Neuroinflammation: Integrated Nervous Tissue Response through Intercellular Interactions at the "Whole System" Scale

Different cell populations in the nervous tissue establish numerous, heterotypic interactions and perform specific, frequently intersecting activities devoted to the maintenance of homeostasis. Microglia and astrocytes, respectively the immune and the "housekeeper" cells of nervous tissue, play a key role in neurodegenerative diseases. Alterations of tissue homeostasis trigger neuroinflammation, a collective dynamic response of glial cells. Reactive astrocytes and microglia express various functional phenotypes, ranging from anti-inflammatory to pro-inflammatory. Chronic neuroinflammation is characterized by a gradual shift of astroglial and microglial phenotypes from anti-inflammatory to pro-inflammatory, switching their activities from cytoprotective to cytotoxic. In this scenario, the different cell populations reciprocally modulate their phenotypes through intense, reverberating signaling. Current evidence suggests that heterotypic interactions are links in an intricate network of mutual influences and interdependencies connecting all cell types in the nervous system. In this view, activation, modulation, as well as outcomes of neuroinflammation, should be ascribed to the nervous tissue as a whole. While the need remains of identifying further links in this network, a step back to rethink our view of neuroinflammation in the light of the "whole system" scale, could help us to understand some of its most controversial and puzzling features.

Focal Adhesion Kinase Inhibitor Inhibits the Oxidative Damage Induced by Central Venous Catheter via Abolishing Focal Adhesion Kinase-Protein Kinase B Pathway Activation

The vascular injury induced by central venous catheter (CVC) indwelling is the basis for the occurrence and development of CVC-related complications, such as phlebitis, venous thrombosis, and catheter-related infections. Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and FAK-protein kinase B (AKT) signaling pathway are of great significance in tissue repair after trauma. Here, we investigated the role and mechanism of the FAK inhibitor (1,2,4,5-phenyltetramine tetrahydrochloride (Y15)) in oxidative damage caused by CVC. EA.hy926 cells were divided into the control group (normal control), CVCs+scratches group (the intercepted CVC segments coculturing with scratched EA.hy926 cells), and CVCs+scratches+Y15 group (Y15 was added to the cell culture supernatant with CVCs + scratches at a final concentration of 50 μmol·L⁻¹). New Zealand rabbits were randomly divided into the control group (normal control), CVC group (CVC was inserted through the rabbit's right jugular vein to the junction of the right atrium and superior vena cava), and CVC+Y15 group (CVC was immersed in a 50 μmol·L⁻¹ Y15 solutions before insertion). The levels of markers and proteins related to oxidative damage in cells, cell culture supernatant, serum, and external jugular vein were measured by commercial kits and western blot, respectively. We found that Y15 treatment significantly decreased ROS and MDA levels and increased cell viability, NO, and SOD levels in a time-dependent manner in rabbit serum and cell culture supernatant. In addition, Y15 effectively reduced the CVC-induced pathological changes of damaged vascular tissues. Y15 also downregulated the levels of p-FAK Tyr 397 and p-Akt Ser 473 in damaged external jugular vein and EA.hy926 cells. These findings suggest that Y15 alleviated CVC-induced oxidative damage to blood vessels by suppressing focal FAK-Akt pathway activation.

Entropy-driven electrochemiluminescence ultra-sensitive detection strategy of NF-κB p50 as the regulator of cytokine storm

2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) with strong contagion in the crowd, has ravaged worldwide and severely impacts the human health and epidemic prevention system, by producing a series of significant stress reactions in the body to induce further cytokine storm. Transcription factors (TFs) served as essential DNA binding proteins play an integral role in regulating cytokine storm, and the detection of it in the human coronavirus environment provides especially valuable approaches to diagnosis and treatment of 2019-nCoV and development of antiviral drugs. In this work, an entropy-driven electrochemiluminescence (ECL) biosensor was constructed for ultra-sensitive bioassay of NF-κB p50. The strategy primarily capitalizing the splendid double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) binding properties of transcription factors, employing GOAu-Ru composite material as ECL emitter, utilizing entropy-driven reactions for signal amplification method, offered a repeatable proposal for TFs detection. In the absence of TFs, the released DNA1 further went in the entropy-driven reaction, contributing to an “ECL off” state. However, in the presence of TFs, the dsDNA avoided being digested, which blocked DNA1 for participating in the entropy-driven reaction, and the system exhibited an “ECL on” state. Most importantly, the ECL bioanalytical method denoted broad application prospects for NF-κB p50 detection with a lower detection limit (9.1 pM).

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2019-nCoV can induce cytokine storm in the body.

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Transcription factors are essential in regulating cytokine storm.

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Electrochemiluminescence sensor for NF-κB p50 detection is fabricated.

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Entropy-driven reaction facilitates the signal amplification.

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GOAu-Ru composites serve as ECL emitters.

Mechano-stimulation initiated by extracellular adhesion and cationic conductance pathways influence astrocyte activation

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) represents a major cause of long-term disability worldwide. Primary damage to brain tissue leads to complex secondary injury mechanisms involving inflammation, oxidative stress and cellular activation/reactivity. The molecular pathways that exacerbate brain cell dysfunction after injury are not well understood and provide challenges to developing TBI therapeutics. This study aimed to delineate mechanisms of astrocyte activation induced by mechano-stimulation, specifically involving extracellular adhesion and cationic transduction. An in vitro model was employed to investigate 2D and 3D cultures of primary astrocytes, in which cells were exposed to a single high-rate overpressure known to cause upregulation of structural and proliferative markers within 72 h of exposure. An inhibitor of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) phosphorylation, TAE226, was used to demonstrate a relationship between extracellular adhesion perturbations and structural reactivity in the novel 3D model. TAE226 mitigated upregulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein in 3D cultures by 72 h post-exposure. Alternatively, incubation with gadolinium (a cationic channel blocker) during overpressure, demonstrated a role for cationic transduction in reducing the increased levels of proliferating cell nuclear antigen that occur at 24 h post-stimulation. Furthermore, early changes in mitochondrial polarization at 15 min and in endogenous ATP levels at 4-6 h occur post-overpressure and may be linked to later changes in cell phenotype. By 24 h, there was evidence of increased amine metabolism and increased nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NOX4) production. The overproduction of NOX4 was counteracted by gadolinium during overpressure exposure. Altogether, the results of this study indicated that both extracellular adhesion (via FAK activation) and cationic conductance (via ion channels) contribute to early patterns of astrocyte activation following overpressure stimulation. Mechano-stimulation pathways are linked to bioenergetic and metabolic disruptions in astrocytes that influence downstream oxidative stress, aberrant proliferative capacity and structural reactivity.

Neurochemical regulation of the expression and function of glial fibrillary acidic protein in astrocytes

Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), a type III intermediate filament, is a marker of mature astrocytes. The expression of GFAP gene is regulated by many transcription factors (TFs), mainly Janus kinase-2/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 cascade and nuclear factor κ-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cell signaling. GFAP expression is also modulated by protein kinase and other signaling molecules that are elicited by neuronal activity and hormones. Abnormal expression of GFAP proteins occurs in neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, brain edema-eliciting diseases, traumatic brain injury, psychiatric disorders and others. GFAP, mainly in α-isoform, is the major component of cytoskeleton and the scaffold of astrocytes, which is essential for the maintenance of astrocytic structure and shape. GFAP also has highly morphological plasticity because of its quick changes in assembling and polymerizing states in response to environmental challenges. This plasticity and its corresponding cellular morphological changes endow astrocytes the functions of physical barrier between adjacent neurons and stabilizer of extracellular environment. Moreover, GFAP colocalizes and even molecularly associates with many functional molecules. This feature allows GFAP to function as a platform for direct interactions between different molecules. Last, GFAP involves transportation and localization of other functional proteins and thus serves as a protein transport guide in astrocytes. This guiding role of GFAP involves an elastic retraction and extension cytoskeletal network that couples with GFAP reassembling, transporting, and membrane protein recycling machinery. This paper reviews our current understanding of the expression and functions of GFAP as well as their regulation.