Human, Nature, Dynamism: The Effects of Content and Movement Perception on Brain Activations during the Aesthetic Judgment of Representational Paintings

Where creativity meets aesthetics: The Mirror Model of Art revisited with fMRI

How meaning is conveyed from creator to observer is debated in the psychology of art. The Mirror Model of Art represents a theoretical framework for bridging the psychological processes that underpin creative production and aesthetic appreciation of art. Specifically, it postulates that creating art and having an aesthetic experience are "mirrored" processes such that the early stage of aesthetic appreciation corresponds to the late stage of creative production, and conversely, that the late stage of aesthetic appreciation corresponds to the early stage of creative production. We conducted a meta-analysis of fMRI studies in the visual domain to test this hypothesis. Our results reveal that creative production engages the prefrontal cortex, which we attribute to its role in idea generation, whereas aesthetic appreciation engages the visual cortex, anterior insula, parahippocampal gyrus, the fusiform gyrus, and the frontal lobes, regions involved primarily in sensory, perceptual, reward and mnemonic processing. Their direct comparison revealed that creative production was associated with greater activation in the prefrontal cortex, whereas aesthetic appreciation was associated with greater activation in the visual cortex. This meta-analysis largely supports predictions derived from the Mirror Model of Art, by providing a snapshot of neural activity in the relatively early stages in art creators' and observers' minds. Future studies that capture brain function across longer spans of time are needed to understand the expression of creativity and aesthetic appreciation in different stages of information processing in relation to the Mirror Model of Art.

Aesthetic Judgment in Calligraphic Tracing: The Dominant Role of Dynamic Features

Aesthetic judgment in visual arts has traditionally focused on static features, yet research suggests that dynamic features also shape aesthetic experience. This study examines the dominance of dynamic features in calligraphic tracing aesthetics. Using a custom-designed calligraphy acquisition system, we recorded calligraphy experts and novices imitating Chinese characters and presented their works in three formats: static result sequence video s, pen-holding writing video f, and brushstroke trajectory video b. Participants then rated the stimuli on aesthetic dimensions. Results show that stimuli containing motion cues (f and b) received significantly higher ratings than static stimuli (s), confirming the positive role of dynamic features. Additionally, traced results maintained high structural similarity across writers. And the predictive power of static features for aesthetic scores was limited. This confirms the weak influence of static features on the aesthetics of calligraphic tracing. In conclusion, this study reveals that dynamic features play a dominant role in aesthetic judgment within the context of calligraphic tracing. These findings contribute to aesthetic modeling, proposing that observers dynamically adjust the weighting of static and dynamic features based on aesthetic context to form aesthetic judgments, thereby offering a novel perspective for research on aesthetic cognition mechanisms.

Bonding with nature: a validation of the dispositional empathy with nature scale in Italy

This study proposes a psychometric validation of the Italian version of the Dispositional Empathy with Nature (DEN). Scientific research data has found high levels of environmental concern among people around the world, showing that majority of the population is aware of the seriousness of the environmental problems we are witnessing, as well as is conscious of the damage that some of their behaviors cause to the environment. Based on this premise, Empathy with Nature could be an important educational strategy for addressing the environmental crisis. A study was conducted involving 307 Italian adults (CFA = 146; 45.9% women; 54.1% man; Mean age = 34.65; SD = 11.770); (EFA = 161; 50.3% women; 49.7% man; Mean age = 34.30; SD = 10.360) to o assess the psychometric properties of a scale in the Italian context. The study aimed to establish the internal consistency of the DEN scale and evaluate its convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity. Both confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses, using a split sample, supported the one-factor structure consistent with the original version proposed by Tam. These findings strongly suggest that the DEN scale is reliable and valid in the Italian context.

Distinct neural bases of visual art- and music-induced aesthetic experiences

Aesthetic experiences are characterized by a conscious, emotionally and hedonically rewarding perceptions of a stimulus's aesthetic qualities and are thought to arise from a unique combination of cognitive and affective processes. To pinpoint neural correlates of aesthetic experiences, in the present study, we performed a series of meta-analyses based on the existing functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) studies of art appreciation in visual art (34 experiments, 692 participants) and music (34 experiments, 718 participants). The Activation Likelihood Estimation (ALE) analyses showed that the frontal pole (FP), ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) were commonly activated in visual-art-induced aesthetic experiences, whilst bilateral superior temporal gyrus (STG) and striatal areas were commonly activated in music appreciation. Additionally, task-independent Resting-state Functional Connectivity (RSFC), task-dependent Meta-analytical Connectivity Modelling (MACM) analyses, as well as Activation Network Modeling (ANM) further showed that visual art and music engaged quite distinct brain networks. Our findings support the domain-specific view of aesthetic appreciation and challenge the notion that there is a general "common neural currency" for aesthetic experiences across domains.

Cognitive health outcomes of fundamental motor skill applications in children through cooperative learning method

BACKGROUND

Previous research has suggests that cooperative learning methods and the development of fundamental motor skills support children's cognitive development, and further studies covering various aspects are recommended. In this study, as an alternative to traditional physical education classes including fundamental motor skill activities, we investigated the impact of cooperative learning methods incorporating these skills on children's visual-motor integration and selective attention.

METHODS

A total of 60 boy children in the 10-11 age range were included in the study. Groups; classical method (10.95 ± 0.58age), and cooperative learning group (10.91 ± 0.42age). The study spanned a total of 24 physical education class hours. While the classical method group continued to attend physical education lessons with an FMS-based prepared program for 8 weeks, cooperative learning group participated in an FMS-based program prepared according to the cooperative learning method (40min/3days/8weeks).At the beginning and end of the study, children underwent the Bender-Gestalt test and the d2 test of attention.

RESULTS

Within-group pre-post test comparisons revealed improvement in visual-motor integration and selective attention for both the classical method and cooperative learning groups. In between-group post-test comparisons, the cooperative learning group demonstrated greater improvement in visual-motor integration and selective attention parameters compared to the classical method.

CONCLUSION

The results support increasing the inclusion of fundamental motor skill activities in physical education classes and advocating for the use of cooperative learning methods in these classes. Enhancements in visual-motor integration and selective attention may contribute to children forming quality relationships, enjoying activities, learning stress management, and developing as a group.

Wonder symphony: epigenetics and the enchantment of the arts

Epigenetics, the study of heritable changes in gene expression without altering the DNA sequence, has gained significant attention due to its implications for gene regulation and chromatin stability. Epigenetic mechanisms play a fundamental role in gene-environment interactions, shaping individual development and adaptation. DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNAs are key epigenetic regulators. Epigenetic changes can be triggered by environmental factors, including stress, toxins, and social interactions, influencing health and well-being. Positive experiences, such as engagement with the arts, have been linked to emotional responses and neurotransmitter release. While the impacts of detrimental factors on epigenetics have been widely studied, the effects of positive influences are less explored. Specifically, visual art and music have profound effects on emotions, cognition, and mood regulation. Exposure to arts enhances memory, reduces stress, and fosters social inclusion. Recent research has begun to explore the links between positive experiences and epigenetic modifications, suggesting that aesthetic experiences, including visual art and music fruition, might induce dynamic and/or stable changes in gene expression profiles. However, this field is in its infancy, and more research is needed to establish clear connections. Collaborative efforts among genetics, epigenetics, neuroscience, psychology, and the arts are essential for a comprehensive understanding. Longitudinal studies tracking sustained exposure to positive experiences and examining the influence of childhood artistic education on the biological bases of therapeutic effects of art and music are promising avenues for future research. Ultimately, understanding how positive experiences influence epigenetics could provide insights into the long-term enhancement of human well-being.

A time with e-Natureza (e-Nature): a model of nature-based health interventions as a complex adaptive system

Discussions surrounding the positive impacts of nature on human health and strategies to enhance our connection with the natural world have been ongoing. However, a limited number of theoretical models are available to guide research and practice in this area. Therefore, there is a pressing need for a systematic framework that outlines clear steps for conducting research implementing nature-based interventions. In this study, we investigate the relationship between health and nature through the lens of Complex Adaptive Systems. This approach involves examining the dynamic interactions between multiple interconnected elements to understand the complex emergent behaviors that arise from such relationships. Our model is designed to support nature-based interventions, considering the essential interdependence between humans and nature. This perspective aims to improve both human health and biodiversity conservation in a mutually beneficial manner. The underlying interactions that drive nature-based health interventions are thoroughly explored, leading us to propose a novel intervention model named "A time with e-Natureza" (e-Nature). This model encompasses four types of experiences, drawing from scientific literature and insights from authors engaged in an interdisciplinary research group: (1) Aesthetic and emotional experience; (2) Multisensory integration experience; (3) Knowledge experience; and (4) Engagement experience. Each experience within the model targets affective, cognitive, and behavioral aspects, with a specific focus on fostering a deeper connection with nature. Distinct activities are incorporated within each experience to promote successful outcomes. The model is grounded in existing theories that address the human-nature relationship and is informed by Nursing theories that support health promotion interventions. By presenting this new model, our aim is to contribute to the effective implementation of nature-based interventions that not only enhance human well-being but also support the conservation of nature. This integrated approach recognizes the mutual benefits of human-nature interaction and offers valuable insights for future research and practical applications in the fields of nature and health.

Are neuroaesthetic principles applied in art therapy protocols for neurorehabilitation? A systematic mini-review

Art is an instrument created by humans as an alternative way of expression. For this reason, it has found its use in clinical contexts to improve mood, increase participation in therapy, or improve communication for patients with different pathologies. In this systematic mini-review, the Preferred Reporting Item for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines were adopted. Internet-based bibliographic searches were conducted via major electronic databases (Web of Science and PubMed). We analyzed the quantitative studies in which art figures as a neurorehabilitation treatment to identify whether standard art therapy protocols exist and whether these are based on the principles of neuroaesthetics. Our review identified 8 quantitative and 18 qualitative studies. Although art therapy has been used for more than 20 years as a clinical tool, there are no standard protocols to refer to when planning interventions. Although the effectiveness of using arts as therapy has been reported in many qualitative or feasibility studies, there is still a lack of quantitative studies in which the outcomes of art therapy are directly based on the principles of neuroaesthetics.

Cross-modal associations between paintings and sounds: Effects of embodiment

The present study investigated cross-modal associations between a series of paintings and sounds. We studied the effects of sound congruency (congruent vs. non-congruent sounds) and embodiment (embodied vs. synthetic sounds) on the evaluation of abstract and figurative paintings. Participants evaluated figurative and abstract paintings paired with congruent and non-congruent embodied and synthetic sounds. They also evaluated the perceived meaningfulness of the paintings, aesthetic value and immersive experience of the paintings. Embodied sounds (sounds associated with bodily sensations, bodily movements and touch) were more strongly associated with figurative paintings, while synthetic sounds (non-embodied sounds) were more strongly associated with abstract paintings. Sound congruency increased the perceived meaningfulness, immersive experience and aesthetic value of paintings. Sound embodiment increased immersive experience of paintings.

Extension of Dancer's Legs: Increasing Angles Show Motion

Usain Bolt’s Lightning Bolt pose, one arm highly extended to one side, suggests action. Likewise, static pictures of animals, legs extended, show animation. We tested a new cue for motion perception—extension—and in particular extension of dancer’s legs. An experiment with pictures of a dancer finds larger angles between the legs suggest greater movement, especially with in-air poses and in lateral views. Leg positions graded from simply standing to very difficult front and side splits. Liking ratings (a small range) were more related to Difficulty ratings (a large range) than Movement ratings (a moderate range).

Pupil responses to implied motion in figurative and abstract paintings

Motion can be perceived in static images, such as photos and figurative paintings, representing realistic subjects in motion, with or without directional information (e.g., motion blur or speed lines). Motion impression can be achieved even in non-realistic static images such as motion illusions and abstract paintings. It has been shown that visual motion processing affects the diameter of the pupil, responding differently to real, illusory, and implied motion in photographs (IM). It has been suggested that these different effects might be due to top-down modulations from different cortical areas underlying their processing. It is worthwhile to investigate pupillary response to figurative paintings, since they require an even higher level of interpretation than photos representing the same kind of subjects, given the complexity of cognitive processes involved in the aesthetic experience. Also, pupil responses to abstract paintings allows to study the effect of IM perception in representations devoid of real-life motion cues. We measured pupil responses to IM in figurative and abstract artworks depicting static and dynamic scenes, as rated by a large group of individuals not participating in the following experiment. Since the pupillary response is modulated by the subjective image interpretation, a motion rating test has been used to correct individual pupil data according to whether participants actually perceived the presence of motion in the paintings. Pupil responses to movies showing figurative and abstract subjects, and to motion illusions were also measured, to compare real and illusory motion with painted IM. Movies, both figurative and abstract, elicit the largest pupillary dilation of all static stimuli, whereas motion illusions cause the smallest pupil size, as previously shown. Interestingly, pupil responses to IM depend on the paintings' style. Figurative paintings depicting moving subjects cause more dilation than those representing static figures, and pupil size increases with the strength of IM, as already found with realistic photos. The opposite effect is obtained with abstract artworks. Abstract paintings depicting motion produce less dilation than those depicting stillness. In any case, these results reflect the individual subjective perception of dynamism, as the very same paintings can induce opposite responses in observer which interpreted it as static or dynamic. Overall, our data show that pupil size depends on high-level interpretation of motion in paintings, even when they do not represent real-world scenes. Our findings further suggest that the pupil is modulated by multiple top-down cortical mechanisms, involving the processing of motion, attention, memory, imagination, and other cognitive functions necessary for enjoying a complete aesthetic experience.

Functional specificity and neural integration in the aesthetic appreciation of artworks with implied motion

Although there is growing interest in the neural foundations of aesthetic experience, it remains unclear how particular mental subsystems (e.g. perceptual, affective and cognitive) are involved in different types of aesthetic judgements. Here, we use fMRI to investigate the involvement of different neural networks during aesthetic judgements of visual artworks with implied motion cues. First, a behavioural experiment (N = 45) confirmed a preference for paintings with implied motion over static cues. Subsequently, in a preregistered fMRI experiment (N = 27), participants made aesthetic and motion judgements towards paintings representing human bodies in dynamic and static postures. Using functional region-of-interest and Bayesian multilevel modelling approaches, we provide no compelling evidence for unique sensitivity within or between neural systems associated with body perception, motion and affective processing during the aesthetic evaluation of paintings with implied motion. However, we show suggestive evidence that motion and body-selective systems may integrate signals via functional connections with a separate neural network in dorsal parietal cortex, which may act as a relay or integration site. Our findings clarify the roles of basic visual and affective brain circuitry in evaluating a central aesthetic feature-implied motion-while also pointing towards promising future research directions, which involve modelling aesthetic preferences as hierarchical interplay between visual and affective circuits and integration processes in frontoparietal cortex.

The Impact of Motor Imageries on Aesthetic Judgment of Chinese Calligraphy: An fMRI Study

Previous behavioral studies on aesthetics demonstrated that there was a close association between perceived action and aesthetic appreciation. However, few studies explored whether motor imagery would influence aesthetic experience and its neural substrates. In the current study, Chinese calligraphy was used as the stimuli to explore the relationship between the motor imagery and the aesthetic judgments of a participant using functional magnetic resonance imaging. The imaging results showed that, compared with the baseline, the activation of the brain regions [e.g., anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), putamen, and insula] involved in perceptual processing, cognitive judgments, aesthetic emotional, and reward processing was observed after the participants performed motor imagery tasks. The contrast analyses within aesthetic judgments showed that the kinesthetic imagery significantly activated the middle frontal gyrus, postcentral gyrus, ACC, and thalamus. Generally, these areas were considered to be closely related to positive aesthetic experience and suggested that motor imagery, especially kinesthetic imagery, might be specifically associated with the aesthetic appreciation of Chinese calligraphy.

The effect of action observation on aesthetic preference of Chinese calligraphy: An fMRI study

INTRODUCTION

There is some evidence suggesting that movement perception has an effect on aesthetic experience. However, the neural mechanisms underlying the observation of creators' creative action (the process that calligraphers create calligraphy) remain unclear.

METHODS

In this study, participants were scanned with fMRI while performing aesthetic judgments on Chinese calligraphy images with/without action observation.

RESULTS

Behavioral results showed that both the work by the expert and novice with action observation were rated significantly higher on aesthetic preference than those without action observation. Imaging results showed that brain regions associated with perceptual, cognitive, and emotional processing were commonly activated by calligraphy images with/without action observation. However, compared with no action observation, aesthetic judgments of calligraphy images with action observation elicited stronger activation in the anterior cingulate cortex and the bilateral insula. Meanwhile, the superior parietal lobe which is associated with relevant inner action imitation, was also activated when observing the creator's action.

CONCLUSIONS

Brain activation in the superior parietal lobe, anterior cingulate cortex, and the bilateral insula indicated that observing the creative action of the creators contributed to the aesthetic experience of the observer.

Pupillary response to real, illusory, and implied motion

The perception of moving objects (real motion) is a critical function for interacting with a dynamic environment. Motion perception can be also induced by particular structural features of static images (illusory motion) or by photographic images of subjects in motion (implied motion, IM). Many cortical areas are involved in motion processing, particularly the medial temporal cortical area (MT), dedicated to the processing of real, illusory, and implied motion. Recently, there has been a growing interest in the influence of high-level visual processes on pupillary responses. However, just a few studies have measured the effect of motion processing on the pupil, and not always with consistent results. Here we systematically investigate the effects of real, illusory, and implied motion on the pupil diameter for the first time, by showing different types of stimuli (movies, illusions, and photos) with the same average luminance to the same observers. We find different pupillary responses depending on the nature of motion. Real motion elicits a larger pupillary dilation than IM, which in turn induces more dilation than control photos representing static subjects (No-IM). The pupil response is sensitive even to the strength of IM, as photos with enhanced IM (blur, motion streaks, speed lines) induce larger dilation than simple freezed IM (subjects captured in the instant they are moving). Also, the subject represented in the stimulus matters: human figures are interpreted as more dynamic and induce larger dilation than objects/animals. Interestingly, illusory motion induces much less dilation than all the other motion categories, despite being seen as moving. Overall, pupil responses depend on the individual perception of dynamicity, confirming that the pupil is modulated by the subjective interpretation of complex stimuli. We argue that the different pupillary responses to real, illusory, and implied motion reflect the top-down modulations of different cortical areas involved in their processing.

Loss and beauty: how experts and novices judge paintings with lacunae

Lacunae are the voids left by missing or damaged pieces of artwork, and their presence constitutes a central problem in the aesthetic experience of viewing artwork. However, we hypothesize that experience and knowledge of art might differentially modify viewer reactions to degraded artwork. Here, we investigated the implicit and explicit attitudes of art experts and non-experts towards the aesthetics of perfectly intact and lacunar artwork. Sections of Flemish oil paintings were displayed with or without a degradation mask, which mimics lacunae. Three groups differing in their interaction with art were assessed: art restorers, art historians, and art viewers lacking any art-related professional expertise. We found that (1) professional experience/expertise in art restoration affected implicit, but not explicit, attitudes among restorers, (2) art historians had positive explicit, but not implicit, attitudes toward intact artwork, and (3) it was difficult for non-specialist viewers to understand or appreciate artwork that was not perfectly intact. We further discuss the implications of these results to other forms of aesthetic evaluation and expertise. Modified preferences in experts may improve knowledge of the plastic changes that occur in the cognition of aesthetics and may thus be of significant relevance to enhance the effectiveness of art conservation programs.

Visceromotor Roots of Aesthetic Evaluation of Pain in art: an fMRI Study

Empathy for pain involves sensory and visceromotor brain regions relevant also in the first-person pain experience. Focusing on brain activations associated with vicarious experiences of pain triggered by artistic or non-artistic images, the present study aims to investigate common and distinct brain activation patterns associated with these two vicarious experiences of pain and to assess whether empathy for pain brain regions contributes to the formation of an aesthetic judgement (AJ) in non-art expert observers. Artistic and non-artistic facial expressions (painful and neutral) were shown to participants inside the scanner and then aesthetically rated in a subsequent behavioural session. Results showed that empathy for pain brain regions (i.e. bilateral insular cortex, posterior sector of the anterior cingulate cortex and the anterior portion of the middle cingulate cortex) and bilateral inferior frontal gyrus are commonly activated by artistic and non-artistic painful facial expressions. For the artistic representation of pain, the activity recorded in these regions directly correlated with participants’ AJ. Results also showed the distinct activation of a large cluster located in the posterior cingulate cortex/precuneus for non-artistic stimuli. This study suggests that non-beauty-specific mechanisms such as empathy for pain are crucial components of the aesthetic experience of artworks.

The Michelangelo Effect: Art Improves the Performance in a Virtual Reality Task Developed for Upper Limb Neurorehabilitation

The vision of an art masterpiece is associated with brain arousal by neural processes occurring quite spontaneously in the viewer. This aesthetic experience may even elicit a response in the motor areas of the observers. In the neurorehabilitation of patients with stroke, art observation has been used for reducing psychological disorders, and creative art therapy for enhancing physical functions and cognitive abilities. Here, we developed a virtual reality task which allows patients, by moving their hand on a virtual canvas, to have the illusion of painting some art masterpieces, such as The Creation of Adam of Michelangelo or The birth of Venus of Botticelli. Twenty healthy subjects (experiment 1) and four patients with stroke (experiment 2) performed this task and a control one in which they simply colored the virtual canvas. Results from User Satisfaction Evaluation Questionnaire and the NASA Task Load Index highlighted an appropriate level of usability. Moreover, despite the motor task was the same for art and control stimuli, the art condition was performed by healthy subjects with shorter trajectories (p = 0.001) and with a lower perception of physical demand (p = 0.049). In experiment 2, only the patients treated with artistic stimuli showed a reduction in the erroneous movements performed orthogonally to the canvas (p < 0.05). This finding reminds the so-called Mozart effect that improves the performance of subjects when they listen to classic music. Thus, we called this improvement in the performance when interacting with an artistic stimulus as Michelangelo effect.

Discrepancies between explicit and implicit evaluation of aesthetic perception ability in individuals with autism: a potential way to improve social functioning

Background

The capacity to evaluate beauty plays a crucial role in social behaviour and social relationships. It is known that some characteristics of beauty are important social cues that can induce stereotypes or promote different behavioural expectations. Another crucial capacity for success in social interactions is empathy, i.e. the ability to understand and share others’ mental and emotional states. Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) have an impairment of empathic ability. We showed in a previous study that empathy and aesthetic perception abilities closely related. Indeed, beauty can affect different aspects of empathic behaviour, and empathy can mediate the aesthetic perception in typically developing (TD) individuals. Thus, this study evaluates the ability of aesthetic perception in ASD individuals compared to TD individuals, using the Golden Beauty behavioural task adapted for eye-tracking in order to acquire both explicit and implicit evidences. In both groups, the relationship between empathic and aesthetic perception abilities was also evaluated.

Methods

Ten ASD individuals (age ± SD:20.7 ± 4.64) and ten TD individuals (age ± SD:20.17 ± 0.98) participated in the study. Participants underwent empathy tasks and then the Golden Beauty task. To assess differences in the participants’ performance, we carried out a repeated measures general linear model.

Results

At the explicit level, our behavioural results show an impairment in aesthetic perception ability in ASD individuals. This inability could have relevance for their ability to experience pleasure during social interactions. However, at the implicit level (eye-tracking results), ASD individuals conserved a good ability to feel aesthetic pleasure during the Golden Beauty task, thus indicating a discrepancy between the explicit and implicit evaluation of the beauty task. Finally, beauty perception appears to be linked to empathy when neither of these capacities is compromised, as demonstrated in the TD group. In contrast, this link is missed in ASD individuals.

Conclusion

Overall, our results clearly show that individuals with autism are not completely blind to aesthetic pleasure: in fact, they retain an implicit ability to experience beauty. These findings could pave the way for the development of new protocols to rehabilitate ASD social functioning, exploiting their conserved implicit aesthetic perception.

Seeking the "Beauty Center" in the Brain: A Meta-Analysis of fMRI Studies of Beautiful Human Faces and Visual Art

During the past two decades, cognitive neuroscientists have sought to elucidate the common neural basis of the experience of beauty. Still, empirical evidence for such common neural basis of different forms of beauty is not conclusive. To address this question, we performed an activation likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analysis on the existing neuroimaging studies of beauty appreciation of faces and visual art by nonexpert adults (49 studies, 982 participants, meta-data are available at https://osf.io/s9xds/ ). We observed that perceiving these two forms of beauty activated distinct brain regions: While the beauty of faces convergently activated the left ventral striatum, the beauty of visual art convergently activated the anterior medial prefrontal cortex (aMPFC). However, a conjunction analysis failed to reveal any common brain regions for the beauty of visual art and faces. The implications of these results are discussed.

The neural mechanism of aesthetic judgments of dynamic landscapes: an fMRI study

Most previous neuroaesthetics research has been limited to considering the aesthetic judgment of static stimuli, with few studies examining the aesthetic judgment of dynamic stimuli. The present study explored the neural mechanisms underlying aesthetic judgment of dynamic landscapes, and compared the neural mechanisms between the aesthetic judgments of dynamic landscapes and static ones. Participants were scanned while they performed aesthetic judgments on dynamic landscapes and matched static ones. The results revealed regions of occipital lobe, frontal lobe, supplementary motor area, cingulate cortex and insula were commonly activated both in the aesthetic judgments of dynamic and static landscapes. Furthermore, compared to static landscapes, stronger activations of middle temporal gyrus (MT/V5), and hippocampus were found in the aesthetic judgments of dynamic landscapes. This study provided neural evidence that visual processing related regions, emotion-related regions were more active when viewing dynamic landscapes than static ones, which also indicated that dynamic stimuli were more beautiful than static ones.

Viewing of figurative paintings affects pseudoneglect as measured by line bisection

Neurologically intact individuals usually show a leftward bias in spatial attention, known as pseudoneglect, likely reflecting a right-hemisphere dominance in the control of spatial attention. A leftward bias also seems to manifest when individuals are asked to provide aesthetic judgments about visual stimuli, like artworks. However, whether artwork perception affects the allocation of spatial attention has never been directly investigated. Here, we assessed whether viewing figurative paintings affects hemispheric imbalance in the control of spatial attention by asking participants to bisect a series of lines presented on a grey background, on figurative paintings or on non-artistic photographs of real-world scenes, while either simply observing or explicitly evaluating each image. In line with previous evidence, participants showed a leftward bisection bias in the baseline condition, reflecting pseudoneglect. Critically, the presence of a painting in the background (irrespective of whether an aesthetic evaluation was required or not) significantly shifted the bias further to the left compared to when lines were bisected over a grey background (baseline) or a photographed scene. This finding suggests that perception of visual art may affect the control of spatial attention, possibly tapping on right-hemisphere resources related to visuospatial exploration, regardless of reward apprehension mechanisms (at least when images do not evoke strong emotional reactions leading to polarized like/dislike judgements).

Neural correlates of visual aesthetic appreciation: insights from non-invasive brain stimulation

During the last decade, non-invasive brain stimulation techniques have been increasingly employed in the field of neuroaesthetics research to shed light on the possible causal role of different brain regions contributing to aesthetic appreciation. Here, I review studies that have employed transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to investigate neurocognitive mechanisms mediating visual aesthetic appreciation for different stimuli categories (faces, bodies, paintings). The review first considers studies that have assessed the possible causal contribution of cortical regions in mediating aesthetic appreciation along the visual ventral and dorsal pathways (i.e., the extrastriate body area, the motion-sensitive region V5/MT+ , the lateral occipital complex and the posterior parietal cortex). It then considers TMS and tDCS studies that have targeted premotor and motor regions, as well as other areas involved in body and facial expression processing (such as the superior temporal sulcus and the somatosensory cortex) to assess their role in aesthetic evaluation. Finally, it discusses studies that have targeted medial and dorsolateral prefrontal regions leading to significant changes in aesthetic appreciation for both biological stimuli (faces and bodies) and artworks. Possible mechanisms mediating stimulation effects on aesthetic judgments are discussed. A final section considers both methodological limitations of the reviewed studies (including levels of statistical power and the need for further replication) and the future potential for non-invasive brain stimulation to significantly contribute to the understanding of the neural bases of visual aesthetic experiences.

Effects of forest bathing (shinrin-yoku) on levels of cortisol as a stress biomarker: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Forest bathing is a traditional practice characterized by visiting a forest and breathing its air. This review aims to investigate the effects of forest bathing on levels of salivary or serum cortisol as a stress biomarker in order to understand whether forest bathing can reduce stress. Medline/PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar were systematically searched for relevant articles. The quality of included trials was assessed following the criteria of the NIH dedicated tools. Afterwards, a qualitative and quantitative synthesis of retrieved evidence was performed. A total of 971 articles were screened; 22 of them were included in the systematic review and 8 in the meta-analysis. In all but two included studies, cortisol levels were significantly lower after intervention in forest groups if compared with control/comparison groups, or a significant pre-post reduction of cortisol levels was reported in the forest groups. The main results of the meta-analysis showed that salivary cortisol levels were significantly lower in the forest groups compared with the urban groups both before (MD = - 0.08 μg/dl [95% CI - 0.11 to - 0.05 μg/dl]; p < 0.01; I² = 46%) and after intervention (MD = - 0.05 μg/dl [95% CI - 0.06 to - 0.04 μg/dl]; p < 0.01; I² = 88%). Overall, forest bathing can significantly influence cortisol levels on a short term in such a way as to reduce stress, and anticipated placebo effects can play an important role in it. Further research is advised because of the limited available data.

Poetic Science: Bidirectional Reflection in Science and Medicine

The arts are making their mark in science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics/medicine (STEAM). Integrating creative expression-poetry and other visual and performing arts-can help clinicians, scientists, and others use familiar social constructs to embody science and medicine, in what may be termed poetic science. Poetic science imbues bidirectional reflections of science and medicine on the clinician or scientist or other inquisitor, creatively engaging the learner's brain cells as mirrors. This ultimately leads to a subjective perspective on the understanding or the proposition of underlying principles. Such an approach is encouraged here with poignant examples that can be accessed publicly online and used widely by readers, teachers, learners, clinicians, scientists, students, and others.

Move Still: The Effects of Implied and Real Motion on the Duration Estimates of Dance Steps

It has been argued that movement can be implied by static cues of images depicting an instance of a dynamic event. Instances of implied motion have been investigated as a special type of stimulus with common processing mechanisms to those of real motion. Timing studies have reported a lengthening of the perceived time for moving as opposed to static stimuli and for stimuli of higher as compared to lower amounts of implied motion. However, the actual comparison of real versus implied motion on timing has never been investigated. In the present study, we compared directly the effect of two hypothetically analogous ballet steps with different amounts of movement and static instances of the dynamic peak of these events in a reproduction task. The analysis revealed an overestimation and lower response variability for real as compared to implied motion stimuli. These findings replicate and extend the apparent duration lengthening for moving as compared to static stimulation, even for static images containing implied motion, questioning whether or not the previously reported correspondence between real and implied motion transfers in the timing domain. This lack of correspondence was further supported by the finding that the amount of movement presented affected only displays of real motion.

Beauty in life: An eye-tracking study on young adults' aesthetic evaluation and vitality judgment of pictorial representations of sleeping and dead subjects

Preferring life to death is deeply rooted in our biology. With the present study, we explored two questions: (1) Can this inclination be transposed to aesthetics, so that a living being is valued as more beautiful than a non-living being? and (2) Are there any differences in the visual exploration of portrayals of a living compared to a dead human? In particular, are there any specific facial features representing the vitality status of a living or dead subject? By answering both questions, young adults' eye gazing was analyzed while they observed, aesthetically judged, and judged the vitality status of faces extracted from paintings representing a sleeping or dead subject. The aesthetic preference for the stimuli as a function of vitality (living, dead) was assessed both during the eye-tracking study and during a follow-up priming behavioral experiment. The analysis of the responses given during the aesthetic judgment task in the eye-tracking study revealed preference for the sleeping compared to the dead subjects, supporting proclivity to attribute greater aesthetic value to living beings. This evidence was substantially confirmed by the follow-up priming behavioral study, which further showed a significant effect of explicit vitality labeling on the aesthetic evaluation of the portrayals of sleeping subjects. As far as the visual exploration of the stimuli is concerned, the main eye-tracking results revealed great attention to the eye region of both sleeping and dead subjects, which was particularly enhanced for the sleeping compared to the dead subjects. For the latter stimuli, focused attention was also found to the mouth region. These results are discussed in light of different theoretical proposals, including the "embodied" theory of aesthetic perception based on the existence of mirror systems.

Social Mind and Long-Lasting Disease: Focus on Affective and Cognitive Theory of Mind in Multiple Sclerosis

The role of social cognition, including theory of mind (ToM), in affecting quality of life (QoL) along the course of diseases has been reported. This is a considerable aspect in chronic pathologies, such as multiple sclerosis (MS), in which supporting and maintaining QoL is of crucial importance. We aimed to investigate the relation between ToM, clinical variables and neuropsychological profile in a cohort of adults with long lasting disease, such as different clinical MS phenotypes (Relapsing Remitting -RR- versus Progressive -Pr). In particular, our study focuses on (1) how (affective and cognitive) ToM impairment occurs in different phenotypes, (2) whether MS ToM impairment is secondary to or independent from cognitive deficit and (3) whether ToM deficit impacts QoL. 42 adults with MS (18 M: 24 F, 52.38 ± 10.31 mean age, 21.24 ± 10.94 mean disease duration, 26 RR and 16 Pr) and 26 matched healthy controls (HC) (7 M: 19 F, 51.35 ± 12.42 mean age) were screened with a neuropsychological and ToM battery, assessing both affective and cognitive components. We found statistically significant groups differences in cognitive but not affective ToM, with a lower performance in PrMS than those with a RRMS disease course. Also, significant predictive effects of neuropsychological tests on ToM were identified in MS group. Finally, MS people with different level of affective ToM differed significantly in QoL. ToM deficit in moderately disabled people with MS involves cognitive but not affective ToM components with implications on QoL. It also appears to be related to cognitive performance. As neurological and neurocognitive profiles influence mentalizing in MS, ToM evaluation should be considered for inclusion in clinical screening.

Beholders' sensorimotor engagement enhances aesthetic rating of pictorial facial expressions of pain

The present study addresses a novel issue by investigating whether beholders' sensorimotor engagement with the emotional content of works of art contributes to the formation of their objective aesthetic judgment of beauty. To this purpose, participants' sensorimotor engagement was modulated by asking them to overtly contract the Corrugator Supercilii facial muscles or to refrain from any voluntary facial movement while judging the aesthetic value of painful and neutral facial expressions in select examples of Renaissance and Baroque paintings. Results demonstrated a specific increase in the aesthetic rating of paintings showing painful facial expressions during the congruent activation of the Corrugator Supercilii muscles. Furthermore, participants' empathetic traits and expertise in art were found to correlate directly with the amplitude of the motor enactment effect on aesthetic judgments. For the first time, we show the role of bottom-up bodily driven sensorimotor processes in the objective aesthetic evaluation of works of art.

Relating movements in aesthetic spaces: Immersing, distancing, and remembering

According to Aby Warburg, the aesthetic experience is informed by a pendulum-like movement of the observer's mind that allows him to immerse as well as to take distance from the artwork's composing elements. To account for Warburg's definition, we are proposing embodied simulation and associative processing as constitutive mechanisms of this pendulum-like movement within the aesthetic experience that enable the observer to relate to the displayed artistic material within aesthetic spaces. Furthermore, we suggest that associative processing elicits constructive memory processes that permit the development of a knowledge within which the objects of art become part of memory networks, potentially informing future ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving in real-world situations, as an individual or collectively.

Empathy, engagement, entrainment: the interaction dynamics of aesthetic experience

A recent version of the view that aesthetic experience is based in empathy as inner imitation explains aesthetic experience as the automatic simulation of actions, emotions, and bodily sensations depicted in an artwork by motor neurons in the brain. Criticizing the simulation theory for committing to an erroneous concept of empathy and failing to distinguish regular from aesthetic experiences of art, I advance an alternative, dynamic approach and claim that aesthetic experience is enacted and skillful, based in the recognition of others' experiences as distinct from one's own. In combining insights from mainly psychology, phenomenology, and cognitive science, the dynamic approach aims to explain the emergence of aesthetic experience in terms of the reciprocal interaction between viewer and artwork. I argue that aesthetic experience emerges by participatory sense-making and revolves around movement as a means for creating meaning. While entrainment merely plays a preparatory part in this, aesthetic engagement constitutes the phenomenological side of coupling to an artwork and provides the context for exploration, and eventually for moving, seeing, and feeling with art. I submit that aesthetic experience emerges from bodily and emotional engagement with works of art via the complementary processes of the perception-action and motion-emotion loops. The former involves the embodied visual exploration of an artwork in physical space, and progressively structures and organizes visual experience by way of perceptual feedback from body movements made in response to the artwork. The latter concerns the movement qualities and shapes of implicit and explicit bodily responses to an artwork that cue emotion and thereby modulate over-all affect and attitude. The two processes cause the viewer to bodily and emotionally move with and be moved by individual works of art, and consequently to recognize another psychological orientation than her own, which explains how art can cause feelings of insight or awe and disclose aspects of life that are unfamiliar or novel to the viewer.

Behavioral and autonomic responses to real and digital reproductions of works of art

Nowadays, works of art can be enjoyed in both their original and reproduced format. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the format of a work of art could influence physiological and cognitive responses in beholders. Two abstract works of art and their digital reproductions were selected as experimental stimuli and displayed for 2min to 60 participants in a museum. HRV, HR, and RMSSD were recorded, while participants observed the works of art. Subsequently, participants provided behavioral ratings of color intensity, emotional intensity, aesthetic evaluation, perceived movement, and desire to touch the works of art. Results demonstrated that the faithful high-quality digital reproduction of works of art could be as arousing as the original works of art, but at the same time, they cannot replace the experience of standing in front of an authentic work of art in terms of explicit hedonic attributed values. Furthermore, specific interactions between individual inclinations to identify with fictional characters and acquired art competences in the context of aesthetic experience were found.

Empathy and the aesthetic: Why does art still move us?

In this article I will argue for the affective-motivation (background affective attitude or orientation) hypothesis that incubates the aesthetic experience and sets the deep frame of our engagement with art. For this, I look at these microgenetic-early passages of (a) affective perception as mapped into the early emergence of tertiary qualities that underlie a sensorimotor synchronization-a coupling of action, emotion and perception via mirroring that result in dynamic embodied anticipatory control and a feeling of proximity/connectedness and (b) developmental passages that are characterized by spatiotemporal coordination and proximity of the self-other/interactive object and thus structure intentionality, shape experience, in an engaging world of action potentialities forming a background affective attitude. As I will argue these qualitative emergent layers provide the minimal for the aesthetic and the 'feeling into' empathy, or their phenomenological counterparts enable engaged, embodied perception and imagination underlying expressive symbolic communication in interpersonal settings but also for the possibility of art. These layers have an 'echoing' effect (pre-attentive) when we let ourselves to be 'moved' from within by art. The underlying mechanism could be found in the mirroring interface of the upcoming bottom-up and feeding forward anticipatory/predictive (top-down) function of the 'embodied action' representations that are affective, imitative and grounded in the body-affective matrix-carrying experiential affordances and keeping the intersubjective ties between spectator and beheld/object. Given the asymmetry on action tendency between them that affords the 'subordination of the goal-directed action' into to the means of the action's unfolding, aesthetic experiences can go deeply back reconstructing the first level of emerging consciousness where both the aesthetic and ethic became actualities. This could be by itself deeply rewarding, amplifying the experience to the 'edge'. This is a 'hot' cognition self-restructuring related to morality when facing the sufferings-so there might be something special bout art and negative emotions in relation to empathy.

From Savannas to Settlements: Exploring Cognitive Foundations for the Design of Urban Spaces

Urban configurations in developing countries have become the subject of urban design, with good design promoting economic benefits. Yet, the common practice of urban design lacks a principled scientific foundation. In this respect, cognitive neuroscience could provide a unique perspective and potential foundational insights regarding how embodied cognition links configuration with movement. Although the neural networks that underlie navigation abilities in the brain have been extensively studied, the manner in which these networks might best constrain urban configurations has not been examined specifically. Moreover, it remains an open issue whether the neurological development and functional topographies in the brain that could potentially constrain such urban configurations might also replicate the geometric structures of those environments that were the cradle of human evolution. We propose urban grid-form settlement patterns may be a result of the naturally evolved structures of the human brain. We suggest then that a potential agenda for experimentation and debate could focus on neurological underpinnings of movement choices in urban places. Such an agenda would benefit from bridging a gap between C.P. Snow’s two cultures, i.e., among architects and neuroscientists. Here, we provide a perspective to engender such further dialog on the design of embodied urban spaces and the potential neural systems that may constrain their design.

Landscape and Health: Connecting Psychology, Aesthetics, and Philosophy through the Concept of Affordance

In this paper we address a frontier topic in the humanities, namely how the cultural and natural construction that we call landscape affects well-being and health. Following an updated review of evidence-based literature in the fields of medicine, psychology, and architecture, we propose a new theoretical framework called "processual landscape," which is able to explain both the health-landscape and the medical agency-structure binomial pairs. We provide a twofold analysis of landscape, from both the cultural and naturalist points of view: in order to take into account its relationship with health, the definition of landscape as a cultural product needs to be broadened through naturalization, grounding it in the scientific domain. Landscape cannot be distinguished from the ecological environment. For this reason, we naturalize the idea of landscape through the notion of affordance and Gibson's ecological psychology. In doing so, we stress the role of agency in the theory of perception and the health-landscape relationship. Since it is the result of continuous and co-creational interaction between the cultural agent, the biological agent and the affordances offered to the landscape perceiver, the processual landscape is, in our opinion, the most comprehensive framework for explaining the health-landscape relationship. The consequences of our framework are not only theoretical, but ethical also: insofar as health is greatly affected by landscape, this construction represents something more than just part of our heritage or a place to be preserved for the aesthetic pleasure it provides. Rather, we can talk about the right to landscape as something intrinsically linked to the well-being of present and future generations.