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Zhang Z, Zhang Y. Transcriptional regulation of cancer stem cell: regulatory factors elucidation and cancer treatment strategies. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2024; 43:99. [PMID: 38561775 PMCID: PMC10986082 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-024-03021-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Cancer stem cells (CSCs) were first discovered in the 1990s, revealing the mysteries of cancer origin, migration, recurrence and drug-resistance from a new perspective. The expression of pluripotent genes and complex signal regulatory networks are significant features of CSC, also act as core factors to affect the characteristics of CSC. Transcription is a necessary link to regulate the phenotype and potential of CSC, involving chromatin environment, nucleosome occupancy, histone modification, transcription factor (TF) availability and cis-regulatory elements, which suffer from ambient pressure. Especially, the expression and activity of pluripotent TFs are deeply affected by both internal and external factors, which is the foundation of CSC transcriptional regulation in the current research framework. Growing evidence indicates that regulating epigenetic modifications to alter cancer stemness is effective, and some special promoters and enhancers can serve as targets to influence the properties of CSC. Clarifying the factors that regulate CSC transcription will assist us directly target key stem genes and TFs, or hinder CSC transcription through environmental and other related factors, in order to achieve the goal of inhibiting CSC and tumors. This paper comprehensively reviews the traditional aspects of transcriptional regulation, and explores the progress and insights of the impact on CSC transcription and status through tumor microenvironment (TME), hypoxia, metabolism and new meaningful regulatory factors in conjunction with the latest research. Finally, we present opinions on omnidirectional targeting CSCs transcription to eliminate CSCs and address tumor resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengyue Zhang
- Department of Oncology, Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 201900, People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Precision Medicine, Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200125, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanjie Zhang
- Department of Oncology, Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 201900, People's Republic of China.
- Shanghai Institute of Precision Medicine, Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200125, People's Republic of China.
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2
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Singvogel K, Schittek B. Dormancy of cutaneous melanoma. Cancer Cell Int 2024; 24:88. [PMID: 38419052 PMCID: PMC10903048 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-024-03278-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Many cancer-related deaths including melanoma result from metastases that develop months or years after the initial cancer therapy. Even the most effective drugs and immune therapies rarely eradicate all tumor cells. Instead, they strongly reduce cancer burden, permitting dormant cancer cells to persist in niches, where they establish a cellular homeostasis with their host without causing clinical symptoms. Dormant cancers respond poorly to most drugs and therapies since they do not proliferate and hide in niches. It therefore remains a major challenge to develop novel therapies for dormant cancers. In this review we focus on the mechanisms regulating the initiation of cutaneous melanoma dormancy as well as those which are involved in reawakening of dormant cutaneous melanoma cells. In recent years the role of neutrophils and niche components in reawakening of melanoma cells came into focus and indicate possible future therapeutic applications. Sophisticated in vitro and in vivo melanoma dormancy models are needed to make progress in this field and are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Singvogel
- Division of Dermatooncology, Department of Dermatology, University of Tübingen, Liebermeisterstr. 25, D -72076 , Tübingen, Germany
| | - Birgit Schittek
- Division of Dermatooncology, Department of Dermatology, University of Tübingen, Liebermeisterstr. 25, D -72076 , Tübingen, Germany.
- Cluster of Excellence iFIT (EXC 2180) "Image-Guided and Functionally Instructed Tumor Therapies", University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
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3
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Liu Q, Yan X, Yuan Y, Li R, Zhao Y, Fu J, Wang J, Su J. HTRA2/OMI-Mediated Mitochondrial Quality Control Alters Macrophage Polarization Affecting Systemic Chronic Inflammation. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1577. [PMID: 38338855 PMCID: PMC10855076 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25031577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Systemic chronic inflammation (SCI) due to intrinsic immune over-activation is an important factor in the development of many noninfectious chronic diseases, such as neurodegenerative diseases and diabetes mellitus. Among these immune responses, macrophages are extensively involved in the regulation of inflammatory responses by virtue of their polarization plasticity; thus, dysregulation of macrophage polarization direction is one of the potential causes of the generation and maintenance of SCI. High-temperature demand protein A2 (HtrA2/Omi) is an important regulator of mitochondrial quality control, not only participating in the degradation of mis-accumulated proteins in the mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt) to maintain normal mitochondrial function through its enzymatic activity, but also participating in the regulation of mitochondrial dynamics-related protein interactions to maintain mitochondrial morphology. Recent studies have also reported the involvement of HtrA2/Omi as a novel inflammatory mediator in the regulation of the inflammatory response. HtrA2/Omi regulates the inflammatory response in BMDM by controlling TRAF2 stabilization in a collagen-induced arthritis mouse model; the lack of HtrA2 ameliorates pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in macrophages. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms by which HtrA2/Omi proteins are involved in macrophage polarization remodeling by influencing macrophage energy metabolism reprogramming through the regulation of inflammatory signaling pathways and mitochondrial quality control, elucidating the roles played by HtrA2/Omi proteins in inflammatory responses. In conclusion, interfering with HtrA2/Omi may become an important entry point for regulating macrophage polarization, providing new research space for developing HtrA2/Omi-based therapies for SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Jing Su
- Key Laboratory of Pathobiology, Department of Pathophysiology, Ministry of Education, College of Basical Medical Sciences, Jilin University, 126 Xinmin Street, Changchun 130012, China
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4
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Fontana F, Macchi C, Anselmi M, Rizzuto AS, Ruscica M, Limonta P. PGC1-α-driven mitochondrial biogenesis contributes to a cancer stem cell phenotype in melanoma. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2024; 1870:166897. [PMID: 37758066 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2023.166897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
Little is known about the metabolic regulation of cancer stem cells (CSCs) in melanoma. Here, we used A375 and WM115 cell lines to dissect the role of mitochondria in conferring CSC traits. Notably, we observed that A375 and WM115 melanospheres, known to be enriched in ABCG2+ CSCs, showed higher mitochondrial mass compared with their adherent counterpart. In particular, they displayed increased PGC1-α expression and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) complex levels, leading to a metabolic switch characterized by enhanced mitochondrial membrane potential, oxygen consumption, ATP synthesis and ROS production. Interestingly, PGC1-α silencing resulted in the suppression of CSC features, including clonogenic ability, migration, spheroid formation and ABCG2 enrichment. Similarly, XCT790 and SR-18292, two PGC1-α inhibitors, were able not only to reduce melanoma tumorigenicity and invasion but also to block melanosphere growth and propagation and ABCG2+ cell proliferation. In conclusion, improved mitochondrial biogenesis is associated with a stem-like phenotype in melanoma, and therapeutically targeting the mitochondria-enriched CSC subpopulation might overcome tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Fontana
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences "Rodolfo Paoletti", Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.
| | - Chiara Macchi
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences "Rodolfo Paoletti", Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Martina Anselmi
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences "Rodolfo Paoletti", Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Massimiliano Ruscica
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences "Rodolfo Paoletti", Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy; Department of Cardio-Thoracic-Vascular Diseases, Foundation IRCCS Cà Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Patrizia Limonta
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences "Rodolfo Paoletti", Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
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Fiorillo M, Ricci E, Fava M, Longobucco C, Sotgia F, Rizza P, Lanzino M, Bonofiglio D, Conforti FL, Catalano S, Barone I, Morelli C, Aquila S, Lisanti MP, Sisci D. FoxO3a Drives the Metabolic Reprogramming in Tamoxifen-Resistant Breast Cancer Cells Restoring Tamoxifen Sensitivity. Cells 2023; 12:2777. [PMID: 38132097 PMCID: PMC10742319 DOI: 10.3390/cells12242777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 11/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Tamoxifen-resistant breast cancer cells (TamR-BCCs) are characterized by an enhanced metabolic phenotype compared to tamoxifen-sensitive cells. FoxO3a is an important modulator of cell metabolism, and its deregulation has been involved in the acquisition of tamoxifen resistance. Therefore, tetracycline-inducible FoxO3a was overexpressed in TamR-BCCs (TamR/TetOn-AAA), which, together with their control cell line (TamR/TetOn-V), were subjected to seahorse metabolic assays and proteomic analysis. FoxO3a was able to counteract the increased oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and extracellular acidification rate (ECAR) observed in TamR by reducing their energetic activity and glycolytic rate. FoxO3a caused glucose accumulation, very likely by reducing LDH activity and mitigated TamR biosynthetic needs by reducing G6PDH activity and hindering NADPH production via the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP). Proteomic analysis revealed a FoxO3a-dependent marked decrease in the expression of LDH as well as of several enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism (e.g., Aldolase A, LDHA and phosphofructokinase) and the analysis of cBioPortal datasets of BC patients evidenced a significant inverse correlation of these proteins and FoxO3a. Interestingly, FoxO3a also increased mitochondrial biogenesis despite reducing mitochondrial functionality by triggering ROS production. Based on these findings, FoxO3a inducing/activating drugs could represent promising tools to be exploited in the management of patients who are refractory to antiestrogen therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Fiorillo
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy; (M.F.); (E.R.); (M.F.); (C.L.); (P.R.); (M.L.); (D.B.); (F.L.C.); (S.C.); (I.B.); (D.S.)
| | - Elena Ricci
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy; (M.F.); (E.R.); (M.F.); (C.L.); (P.R.); (M.L.); (D.B.); (F.L.C.); (S.C.); (I.B.); (D.S.)
| | - Mariarosa Fava
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy; (M.F.); (E.R.); (M.F.); (C.L.); (P.R.); (M.L.); (D.B.); (F.L.C.); (S.C.); (I.B.); (D.S.)
| | - Camilla Longobucco
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy; (M.F.); (E.R.); (M.F.); (C.L.); (P.R.); (M.L.); (D.B.); (F.L.C.); (S.C.); (I.B.); (D.S.)
| | - Federica Sotgia
- Translational Medicine, School of Environment and Life Sciences, Biomedical Research Centre (BRC), University of Salford, Greater Manchester M5 4WT, UK; (F.S.); (M.P.L.)
| | - Pietro Rizza
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy; (M.F.); (E.R.); (M.F.); (C.L.); (P.R.); (M.L.); (D.B.); (F.L.C.); (S.C.); (I.B.); (D.S.)
| | - Marilena Lanzino
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy; (M.F.); (E.R.); (M.F.); (C.L.); (P.R.); (M.L.); (D.B.); (F.L.C.); (S.C.); (I.B.); (D.S.)
| | - Daniela Bonofiglio
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy; (M.F.); (E.R.); (M.F.); (C.L.); (P.R.); (M.L.); (D.B.); (F.L.C.); (S.C.); (I.B.); (D.S.)
| | - Francesca Luisa Conforti
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy; (M.F.); (E.R.); (M.F.); (C.L.); (P.R.); (M.L.); (D.B.); (F.L.C.); (S.C.); (I.B.); (D.S.)
| | - Stefania Catalano
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy; (M.F.); (E.R.); (M.F.); (C.L.); (P.R.); (M.L.); (D.B.); (F.L.C.); (S.C.); (I.B.); (D.S.)
| | - Ines Barone
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy; (M.F.); (E.R.); (M.F.); (C.L.); (P.R.); (M.L.); (D.B.); (F.L.C.); (S.C.); (I.B.); (D.S.)
| | - Catia Morelli
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy; (M.F.); (E.R.); (M.F.); (C.L.); (P.R.); (M.L.); (D.B.); (F.L.C.); (S.C.); (I.B.); (D.S.)
| | - Saveria Aquila
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy; (M.F.); (E.R.); (M.F.); (C.L.); (P.R.); (M.L.); (D.B.); (F.L.C.); (S.C.); (I.B.); (D.S.)
| | - Michael P. Lisanti
- Translational Medicine, School of Environment and Life Sciences, Biomedical Research Centre (BRC), University of Salford, Greater Manchester M5 4WT, UK; (F.S.); (M.P.L.)
| | - Diego Sisci
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, Italy; (M.F.); (E.R.); (M.F.); (C.L.); (P.R.); (M.L.); (D.B.); (F.L.C.); (S.C.); (I.B.); (D.S.)
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6
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Rocca C, Soda T, De Francesco EM, Fiorillo M, Moccia F, Viglietto G, Angelone T, Amodio N. Mitochondrial dysfunction at the crossroad of cardiovascular diseases and cancer. J Transl Med 2023; 21:635. [PMID: 37726810 PMCID: PMC10507834 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-023-04498-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023] Open
Abstract
A large body of evidence indicates the existence of a complex pathophysiological relationship between cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Mitochondria are crucial organelles whose optimal activity is determined by quality control systems, which regulate critical cellular events, ranging from intermediary metabolism and calcium signaling to mitochondrial dynamics, cell death and mitophagy. Emerging data indicate that impaired mitochondrial quality control drives myocardial dysfunction occurring in several heart diseases, including cardiac hypertrophy, myocardial infarction, ischaemia/reperfusion damage and metabolic cardiomyopathies. On the other hand, diverse human cancers also dysregulate mitochondrial quality control to promote their initiation and progression, suggesting that modulating mitochondrial homeostasis may represent a promising therapeutic strategy both in cardiology and oncology. In this review, first we briefly introduce the physiological mechanisms underlying the mitochondrial quality control system, and then summarize the current understanding about the impact of dysregulated mitochondrial functions in cardiovascular diseases and cancer. We also discuss key mitochondrial mechanisms underlying the increased risk of cardiovascular complications secondary to the main current anticancer strategies, highlighting the potential of strategies aimed at alleviating mitochondrial impairment-related cardiac dysfunction and tumorigenesis. It is hoped that this summary can provide novel insights into precision medicine approaches to reduce cardiovascular and cancer morbidities and mortalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmine Rocca
- Cellular and Molecular Cardiovascular Pathophysiology Laboratory, Department of Biology, E and E.S. (DiBEST), University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, 87036, Cosenza, Italy
| | - Teresa Soda
- Department of Health Science, University Magna Graecia of Catanzaro, 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Ernestina Marianna De Francesco
- Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Garibaldi-Nesima Hospital, 95122, Catania, Italy
| | - Marco Fiorillo
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036, Rende, Italy
| | - Francesco Moccia
- Laboratory of General Physiology, Department of Biology and Biotechnology "L. Spallanzani", University of Pavia, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Viglietto
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro, 88100, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Tommaso Angelone
- Cellular and Molecular Cardiovascular Pathophysiology Laboratory, Department of Biology, E and E.S. (DiBEST), University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, 87036, Cosenza, Italy.
- National Institute of Cardiovascular Research (I.N.R.C.), 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Nicola Amodio
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro, 88100, Catanzaro, Italy.
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7
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Mani S, Ralph SJ, Swargiary G, Rani M, Wasnik S, Singh SP, Devi A. Therapeutic Targeting of Mitochondrial Plasticity and Redox Control to Overcome Cancer Chemoresistance. Antioxid Redox Signal 2023; 39:591-619. [PMID: 37470214 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2023.0379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
Significance: Mitochondria are subcellular organelles performing essential metabolic functions contributing to cellular bioenergetics and regulation of cell growth or death. The basic mitochondrial function in fulfilling the need for cell growth and vitality is evidenced whereby cancer cells with depleted mitochondrial DNA (rho zero, p0 cells) no longer form tumors until newly recruited mitochondria are internalized into the rho zero cells. Herein lies the absolute dependency on mitochondria for tumor growth. Hence, mitochondria are key regulators of cell death (by apoptosis, necroptosis, or other forms of cell death) and are, therefore, important targets for anticancer therapy. Recent Advances: Mitochondrial plasticity regulating their state of fusion or fission is key to the chemoresistance properties of cancer cells by promoting pro-survival pathways, enabling the mitochondria to mitigate against the cellular stresses and extreme conditions within the tumor microenvironment caused by chemotherapy, hypoxia, or oxidative stress. Critical Issues: This review discusses many characteristics of mitochondria, the processes and pathways controlling the dynamic changes occurring in the morphology of mitochondria, the roles of reactive oxygen species, and their relationship with mitochondrial fission or fusion. It also examines the relationship of redox to mitophagy when mitochondria become compromised and its effect on cancer cell survival, stemness, and the changes accompanying malignant progression from primary tumors to metastatic disease. Future Directions: A challenging question that arises is whether the changes in mitochondrial dynamics and their regulation can provide opportunities for improving drug targeting during cancer treatment and enhancing survival outcomes. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 39, 591-619.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shalini Mani
- Centre for Emerging Diseases, Department of Biotechnology, Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida, India
| | - Stephen J Ralph
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, Australia
| | - Geeta Swargiary
- Centre for Emerging Diseases, Department of Biotechnology, Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida, India
| | - Madhu Rani
- Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
| | - Samiksha Wasnik
- Department of Regenerative Medicine, Loma Linda University Health, Loma Linda, California, USA
| | - Shashi Prakash Singh
- Special Centre of Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Annu Devi
- Special Centre of Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
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Fan M, Shi Y, Zhao J, Li L. Cancer stem cell fate determination: mito-nuclear communication. Cell Commun Signal 2023; 21:159. [PMID: 37370081 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-023-01160-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are considered to be responsible for tumor recurrence and metastasis. Therefore, clarification of the mechanisms involved in CSC stemness maintenance and cell fate determination would provide a new strategy for cancer therapy. Unregulated cellular energetics has been accepted as one of the hallmarks of cancer cells, but recent studies have revealed that mitochondrial metabolism can also actively determine CSC fate by affecting nuclear stemness gene expression. Herein, from the perspective of mito-nuclear communication, we review recent progress on the influence of mitochondria on CSC potential from four aspects: metabolism, dynamics, mitochondrial homeostasis, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengchen Fan
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Medical College of Yan'an University, Yanan, 716000, China
- Department of Cell Biology, National Translational Science Center for Molecular Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Ying Shi
- Department of Cell Biology, National Translational Science Center for Molecular Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Jumei Zhao
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Medical College of Yan'an University, Yanan, 716000, China.
| | - Ling Li
- Department of Cell Biology, National Translational Science Center for Molecular Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China.
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Zhu Y, Wang Y, Li Y, Li Z, Kong W, Zhao X, Chen S, Yan L, Wang L, Tong Y, Shao H. Carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A promotes mitochondrial fission by enhancing MFF succinylation in ovarian cancer. Commun Biol 2023; 6:618. [PMID: 37291333 PMCID: PMC10250469 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-04993-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are dynamic organelles that are important for cell growth and proliferation. Dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics are highly associated with the initiation and progression of various cancers, including ovarian cancer. However, the regulatory mechanism underlying mitochondrial dynamics is still not fully understood. Previously, our study showed that carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A (CPT1A) is highly expressed in ovarian cancer cells and promotes the development of ovarian cancer. Here, we find that CPT1A regulates mitochondrial dynamics and promotes mitochondrial fission in ovarian cancer cells. Our study futher shows that CPT1A regulates mitochondrial fission and function through mitochondrial fission factor (MFF) to promote the growth and proliferation of ovarian cancer cells. Mechanistically, we show that CPT1A promotes succinylation of MFF at lysine 302 (K302), which protects against Parkin-mediated ubiquitin-proteasomal degradation of MFF. Finally, the study shows that MFF is highly expressed in ovarian cancer cells and that high MFF expression is associated with poor prognosis in patients with ovarian cancer. MFF inhibition significantly inhibits the progression of ovarian cancer in vivo. Overall, CPT1A regulates mitochondrial dynamics through MFF succinylation to promote the development of ovarian cancer. Moreover, our findings suggest that MFF is a potential therapeutic target for ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaqin Zhu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Resource Developing of Endangered Chinese Crude Drugs in Northwest of China, Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Medicinal Resources and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, 710119, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yue Wang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Resource Developing of Endangered Chinese Crude Drugs in Northwest of China, Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Medicinal Resources and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, 710119, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Ying Li
- National Engineering Laboratory for Resource Developing of Endangered Chinese Crude Drugs in Northwest of China, Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Medicinal Resources and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, 710119, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Zhongqi Li
- National Engineering Laboratory for Resource Developing of Endangered Chinese Crude Drugs in Northwest of China, Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Medicinal Resources and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, 710119, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Wenhui Kong
- National Engineering Laboratory for Resource Developing of Endangered Chinese Crude Drugs in Northwest of China, Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Medicinal Resources and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, 710119, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiaoxuan Zhao
- National Engineering Laboratory for Resource Developing of Endangered Chinese Crude Drugs in Northwest of China, Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Medicinal Resources and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, 710119, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Shuting Chen
- National Engineering Laboratory for Resource Developing of Endangered Chinese Crude Drugs in Northwest of China, Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Medicinal Resources and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, 710119, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Liting Yan
- National Engineering Laboratory for Resource Developing of Endangered Chinese Crude Drugs in Northwest of China, Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Medicinal Resources and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, 710119, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Lenan Wang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Resource Developing of Endangered Chinese Crude Drugs in Northwest of China, Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Medicinal Resources and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, 710119, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yunli Tong
- National Engineering Laboratory for Resource Developing of Endangered Chinese Crude Drugs in Northwest of China, Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Medicinal Resources and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, 710119, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Huanjie Shao
- National Engineering Laboratory for Resource Developing of Endangered Chinese Crude Drugs in Northwest of China, Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Medicinal Resources and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, 710119, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China.
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10
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Wedam R, Greer YE, Wisniewski DJ, Weltz S, Kundu M, Voeller D, Lipkowitz S. Targeting Mitochondria with ClpP Agonists as a Novel Therapeutic Opportunity in Breast Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15071936. [PMID: 37046596 PMCID: PMC10093243 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15071936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed malignancy worldwide and the leading cause of cancer mortality in women. Despite the recent development of new therapeutics including targeted therapies and immunotherapy, triple-negative breast cancer remains an aggressive form of breast cancer, and thus improved treatments are needed. In recent decades, it has become increasingly clear that breast cancers harbor metabolic plasticity that is controlled by mitochondria. A myriad of studies provide evidence that mitochondria are essential to breast cancer progression. Mitochondria in breast cancers are widely reprogrammed to enhance energy production and biosynthesis of macromolecules required for tumor growth. In this review, we will discuss the current understanding of mitochondrial roles in breast cancers and elucidate why mitochondria are a rational therapeutic target. We will then outline the status of the use of mitochondria-targeting drugs in breast cancers, and highlight ClpP agonists as emerging mitochondria-targeting drugs with a unique mechanism of action. We also illustrate possible drug combination strategies and challenges in the future breast cancer clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohan Wedam
- Women's Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Yoshimi Endo Greer
- Women's Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - David J Wisniewski
- Women's Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Sarah Weltz
- Women's Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Manjari Kundu
- Women's Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Donna Voeller
- Women's Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Stanley Lipkowitz
- Women's Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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11
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Liao X, Ruan X, Wu X, Deng Z, Qin S, Jiang H. Identification of Timm13 protein translocase of the mitochondrial inner membrane as a potential mediator of liver fibrosis based on bioinformatics and experimental verification. J Transl Med 2023; 21:188. [PMID: 36899394 PMCID: PMC9999505 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-023-04037-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To explore the association between translocase of the inner mitochondrial membrane 13 (Timm13) and liver fibrosis. METHODS Gene expression profiles of GSE167033 were collected from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO). Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between liver disease and normal samples were analyzed using GEO2R. Gene Ontology and Enrichment function were performed, a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed via the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins (STRING), and the hub genes of the PPI network were calculated by MCODE plug-in in Cytoscape. We validated the transcriptional and post-transcriptional expression levels of the top correlated genes using fibrotic animal and cell models. A cell transfection experiment was conducted to silence Timm13 and detect the expression of fibrosis genes and apoptosis genes. RESULTS 21,722 genes were analyzed and 178 DEGs were identified by GEO2R analysis. The top 200 DEGs were selected and analyzed in STRING for PPI network analysis. Timm13 was one of the hub genes via the PPI network. We found that the mRNA levels of Timm13 in fibrotic liver tissue decreased (P < 0.05), and the mRNA and protein levels of Timm13 also decreased when hepatocytes were stimulated with transforming growth factor-β1. Silencing Timm13 significantly reduced the expression of profibrogenic genes and apoptosis related genes. CONCLUSIONS The results showed that Timm13 is closely related to liver fibrosis and silencing Timm13 significantly reduced the expression of profibrogenic genes and apoptosis related genes, which will provide novel ideas and targets for the clinical diagnosis and treatment of liver fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomin Liao
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, 6 Shuangyong Road, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Xianxian Ruan
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, 6 Shuangyong Road, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Xianbin Wu
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, 530000, Guangxi, China
| | - Zhejun Deng
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, 6 Shuangyong Road, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Shanyu Qin
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, 6 Shuangyong Road, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China.
| | - Haixing Jiang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, 6 Shuangyong Road, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China.
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12
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Xing J, Qi L, Liu X, Shi G, Sun X, Yang Y. Roles of mitochondrial fusion and fission in breast cancer progression: a systematic review. World J Surg Oncol 2022; 20:331. [PMID: 36192752 PMCID: PMC9528125 DOI: 10.1186/s12957-022-02799-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mitochondria play critical roles in cellular physiological activity as cellular organelles. Under extracellular stimulation, mitochondria undergo constant fusion and fission to meet different cellular demands. Mitochondrial dynamics, which are involved in mitochondrial fusion and fission, are regulated by specialized proteins and lipids, and their dysregulation causes human diseases, such as cancer. The advanced literature about the crucial role of mitochondrial dynamics in breast cancer is performed. Methods All related studies were systematically searched through online databases (PubMed, Web of Science, and EMBASE) using keywords (e.g., breast cancer, mitochondrial, fission, and fusion), and these studies were then screened through the preset inclusion and exclusion criteria. Results Eligible studies (n = 19) were evaluated and discussed in the systematic review. These advanced studies established the roles of mitochondrial fission and fusion of breast cancer in the metabolism, proliferation, survival, and metastasis. Importantly, the manipulating of mitochondrial dynamic is significant for the progresses of breast cancer. Conclusion Understanding the mechanisms underlying mitochondrial fission and fusion during tumorigenesis is important for improving breast cancer treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jixiang Xing
- First College of Clinical Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Luyao Qi
- The Seventh People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 200137, China
| | - Xiaofei Liu
- Department of Breast and Thyroid, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Guangxi Shi
- Department of Breast and Thyroid, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Xiaohui Sun
- Department of Breast and Thyroid, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Yi Yang
- Department of Breast and Thyroid, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China.
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13
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Zhou S, Han Y, Yang R, Pi X, Li J. TIMM13 as a prognostic biomarker and associated with immune infiltration in skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM). Front Surg 2022; 9:990749. [PMID: 36061054 PMCID: PMC9428353 DOI: 10.3389/fsurg.2022.990749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Providing protection against aggregation and guiding hydrophobic precursors through the mitochondria’s intermembrane space, this protein functions as a chaperone-like protein. SLC25A12 is imported by TIMM8 as a result of its interaction with TIMM13. In spite of this, it is still unknown how TIMM13 interacts with skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs). Methods Aberrant expression of TIMM13 in SKCM and its clinical outcome was evaluated with the help of multiple databases, including the Xiantao tool (https://www.xiantao.love/), HPA, and UALCAN. TISIDB and Tumor Immune Estimation Resources (TIMER) databases were applied to explore the association between TIMM13 and tumor infiltration immune cells. OS nomogram was constructed, and model performance was examined. Finally, TIMM13 protein expression was validated by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Results TIMM13 expression was higher in SKCM samples than in peritumor samples. TIMM13 was strongly associated with sample type, subgroup, cancer stage, lymph node stage, and worse survival. Further, upregulation of TIMM13 was significantly associated with immunoregulators, and chemokines, as well as T cells, B cells, monocytes, neutrophils, macrophages, and T-cell regulators. An analysis of bioinformatic data uncovered that TIMM13 expression was strongly associated with PD1 (T-cell exhaustion marker). The nomogram showed good predictive performance based on calibration plot. TIMM13 was highly expressed in melanoma tissue samples than in normal samples. Conclusion In brief, TIMM13 may be a prognostic biomarker for SKCM. It might modulate the tumor immune microenvironment and lead to a poorer prognosis. In addition, it is necessary to study the targeted therapy of TIMM13.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sitong Zhou
- Department of Dermatology, The First People’s Hospital of Foshan, Foshan, China
| | - Yuanyuan Han
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Yunnan Key Laboratory of Vaccine Research and Development on Severe Infectious Diseases, Kunming, China
| | - Ronghua Yang
- Department of Burn and Plastic Surgery, Guangzhou First People's Hospital, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
- Correspondence: Jiehua Li Xiaobing Pi Ronghua Yang
| | - Xiaobing Pi
- Department of Dermatology, The First People’s Hospital of Foshan, Foshan, China
- Correspondence: Jiehua Li Xiaobing Pi Ronghua Yang
| | - Jiehua Li
- Department of Dermatology, The First People’s Hospital of Foshan, Foshan, China
- Correspondence: Jiehua Li Xiaobing Pi Ronghua Yang
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14
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Recent insights into the effects of metabolism on breast cancer cell dormancy. Br J Cancer 2022; 127:1385-1393. [PMID: 35715635 PMCID: PMC9553927 DOI: 10.1038/s41416-022-01869-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer (BC) remains the most common cancer, as well as the leading cause of cancer mortality in women worldwide [1]. Approximately 30% of patients with early-stage BC experience metastasis or a recurrent form of the disease [2]. The phenomenon of BC dormancy, where metastasised cancer cells remain in a quiescent phase at their disseminated location and for unknown reasons can become actively proliferative again, further adds to BC’s clinical burden with treatment at this secondary stage typically proving futile. An emerging avenue of research focuses on the metabolic properties of dormant BC cells (BCCs) and potential metabolic changes causing BCCs to enter/exit their quiescent state. Here we explore several studies that have uncovered changes in carbon metabolism underlying a dormant state, with conflicting studies uncovering shifts towards both glycolysis and/or oxidative phosphorylation. This review highlights that the metabolic states/shifts of dormant BCCs seem to be dependent on different BC subtypes and receptor status; however, more work needs to be done to fully map these differences. Building on the research that this review outlines could provide new personalised therapeutic possibilities for BC patients.
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15
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The dynamin-related protein 1 is decreased and the mitochondrial network is altered in Friedreich's ataxia cardiomyopathy. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2021; 143:106137. [PMID: 34923139 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2021.106137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Friedreich ataxia is an autosomal recessive congenital neurodegenerative disease caused by a deficiency in the frataxin protein and is often diagnosed in young adulthood. An expansion of guanine-adenine-adenine repeats in the first intron of the FXN gene leads to decreased frataxin expression. Frataxin plays an essential role in mitochondrial metabolism. Most Friedreich ataxia patients are diagnosed with left ventricular hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and 60% of patients die with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. However, the mitochondrial anatomy in Friedreich ataxia hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is still poorly understood. We investigated mitochondrial fission, fusion, and function using biochemical, microscopy, and computational stochastic analysis in human induced pluripotent stem cell derived cardiomyocytes from a patient with Friedreich ataxia hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and a healthy individual. We found a significantly higher mitochondrial footprint, decreased mitochondrial fission protein dynamin-related protein, and mitochondrial fission rate over fusion with more giant mitochondrial clusters in human induced pluripotent stem cell derived cardiomyocytes from a patient with Friedreich ataxia hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, compared to an unaffected individual. We also found significantly depolarized mitochondrial membrane potential and higher reactive oxygen species levels in Friedreich ataxia human induced pluripotent stem cell cardiomyocytes. Our results show that frataxin's depletion may dampen the mitochondrial fission machinery by reducing dynamin-related protein1. The loss of mitochondrial fission might lead to elevated reactive oxygen species and depolarized mitochondrial membrane potential, which may cause oxidative damage in Friedreich ataxia hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Further investigations are needed to identify the mechanism of downregulating dynamin-related protein1 due to the frataxin deficiency in Friedreich ataxia hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.
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16
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Fontana F, Limonta P. The multifaceted roles of mitochondria at the crossroads of cell life and death in cancer. Free Radic Biol Med 2021; 176:203-221. [PMID: 34597798 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2021.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria are the cytoplasmic organelles mostly known as the "electric engine" of the cells; however, they also play pivotal roles in different biological processes, such as cell growth/apoptosis, Ca2+ and redox homeostasis, and cell stemness. In cancer cells, mitochondria undergo peculiar functional and structural dynamics involved in the survival/death fate of the cell. Cancer cells use glycolysis to support macromolecular biosynthesis and energy production ("Warburg effect"); however, mitochondrial OXPHOS has been shown to be still active during carcinogenesis and even exacerbated in drug-resistant and stem cancer cells. This metabolic rewiring is associated with mutations in genes encoding mitochondrial metabolic enzymes ("oncometabolites"), alterations of ROS production and redox biology, and a fine-tuned balance between anti-/proapoptotic proteins. In cancer cells, mitochondria also experience dynamic alterations from the structural point of view undergoing coordinated cycles of biogenesis, fusion/fission and mitophagy, and physically communicating with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), through the Ca2+ flux, at the MAM (mitochondria-associated membranes) levels. This review addresses the peculiar mitochondrial metabolic and structural dynamics occurring in cancer cells and their role in coordinating the balance between cell survival and death. The role of mitochondrial dynamics as effective biomarkers of tumor progression and promising targets for anticancer strategies is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Fontana
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università Degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy.
| | - Patrizia Limonta
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università Degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy.
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17
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Lin J, Wang Y, Lin Z. HAX1 maintains the glioma progression in hypoxia through promoting mitochondrial fission. J Cell Mol Med 2021; 25:11170-11184. [PMID: 34755451 PMCID: PMC8650040 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.17038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
HCLS1‐associated protein X‐1 (HAX1), an anti‐apoptotic molecular, overexpresses in glioma. However, the role of HAX1 in glioma cell surviving in hypoxic environment remains unclear. Western blotting, qRT‐PCR, Transwell assay, TUNEL assay, wounding healing assay, clone formation, tumour xenograft model and immunohistochemical staining were used to investigate the role of HAX1 in glioma. HAX1 regulated by HIF‐1α was increased in glioma cells cultured in hypoxia. Silencing of HAX1 could cause an increased apoptosis of glioma cells cultured in hypoxia. Silencing of HAX1 also decreased the proliferation, migration and invasion of glioma cells cultured in hypoxia. Increased mitochondrial fission could prevent glioma cells from the damage induced by HAX1 knockdown in hypoxia. Furthermore, HAX1 was found to regulate glioma cells through phosphorylated AKT/Drp signal pathway. In conclusion, our study suggested that HAX1 promoted survival of glioma cells in hypoxic environment via AKT/Drp signal pathway. Our study also provided a potential therapeutic target for glioma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinghui Lin
- Department of Neurosurgery, Ningbo First Hospital, Ningbo, China
| | - Yang Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Ningbo First Hospital, Ningbo, China
| | - Zhiqing Lin
- Department of Neurosurgery, Ningbo First Hospital, Ningbo, China
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18
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Mani S, Swargiary G, Ralph SJ. Targeting the redox imbalance in mitochondria: A novel mode for cancer therapy. Mitochondrion 2021; 62:50-73. [PMID: 34758363 DOI: 10.1016/j.mito.2021.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Changes in reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels affect many aspects of cell behavior. During carcinogenesis, moderate ROS production modifies gene expression to alter cell function, elevating metabolic activity and ROS. To avoid extreme ROS-activated death, cancer cells increase antioxidative capacity, regulating sustained ROS levels that promote growth. Anticancer therapies are exploring inducing supranormal, cytotoxic oxidative stress levels either inhibiting antioxidative capacity or promoting excess ROS to selectively destroy cancer cells, triggering mechanisms such as apoptosis, autophagy, necrosis, or ferroptosis. This review exemplifies pro-oxidants (natural/synthetic/repurposed drugs) and their clinical significance as cancer therapies providing revolutionary approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shalini Mani
- Centre for Emerging Diseases, Department of Biotechnology, Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida, India.
| | - Geeta Swargiary
- Centre for Emerging Diseases, Department of Biotechnology, Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida, India
| | - Stephen J Ralph
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Southport, Australia.
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19
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Zhao Y, Zhang H, Wang H, Ye M, Jin X. Role of formin INF2 in human diseases. Mol Biol Rep 2021; 49:735-746. [PMID: 34698992 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-021-06869-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Formin proteins catalyze actin nucleation and microfilament polymerization. Inverted formin 2 (INF2) is an atypical diaphanous-related formin characterized by polymerization and depolymerization of actin. Accumulating evidence showed that INF2 is associated with kidney disease focal segmental glomerulosclerosis and cancers, such as colorectal and thyroid cancer where it functions as a tumor suppressor, glioblastoma, breast, prostate, and gastric cancer, via its oncogenic function. However, studies on the underlying molecular mechanisms of the different roles of INF2 in diverse cancers are limited. This review comprehensively describes the structure, biochemical features, and primary pathogenic mutations of INF2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiting Zhao
- Department of Hepato-Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery, The Affiliated Ningbo Medical Center of LiHuiLi Hospital of Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315048, China.,The Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315020, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, and Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China.,The Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315020, China
| | - Haibiao Wang
- Department of Hepato-Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery, The Affiliated Ningbo Medical Center of LiHuiLi Hospital of Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315048, China. .,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, and Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China.
| | - Meng Ye
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, and Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China. .,The Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315020, China.
| | - Xiaofeng Jin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, and Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China. .,The Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315020, China.
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20
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Kumar S, Ashraf R, C K A. Mitochondrial dynamics regulators: implications for therapeutic intervention in cancer. Cell Biol Toxicol 2021; 38:377-406. [PMID: 34661828 DOI: 10.1007/s10565-021-09662-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Regardless of the recent advances in therapeutic developments, cancer is still among the primary causes of death globally, indicating the need for alternative therapeutic strategies. Mitochondria, a dynamic organelle, continuously undergo the fusion and fission processes to meet cell requirements. The balanced fission and fusion processes, referred to as mitochondrial dynamics, coordinate mitochondrial shape, size, number, energy metabolism, cell cycle, mitophagy, and apoptosis. An imbalance between these opposing events alters mitochondWangrial dynamics, affects the overall mitochondrial shape, and deregulates mitochondrial function. Emerging evidence indicates that alteration of mitochondrial dynamics contributes to various aspects of tumorigenesis and cancer progression. Therefore, targeting the mitochondrial dynamics regulator could be a potential therapeutic approach for cancer treatment. This review will address the role of imbalanced mitochondrial dynamics in mitochondrial dysfunction during cancer progression. We will outline the clinical significance of mitochondrial dynamics regulators in various cancer types with recent updates in cancer stemness and chemoresistance and its therapeutic potential and clinical utility as a predictive biomarker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjay Kumar
- Division of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Tirupati, Karkambadi Road, Rami Reddy Nagar, Mangalam, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, 517507, India.
| | - Rahail Ashraf
- Division of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Tirupati, Karkambadi Road, Rami Reddy Nagar, Mangalam, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, 517507, India
| | - Aparna C K
- Division of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Tirupati, Karkambadi Road, Rami Reddy Nagar, Mangalam, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, 517507, India
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21
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Galvan DL, Mise K, Danesh FR. Mitochondrial Regulation of Diabetic Kidney Disease. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 8:745279. [PMID: 34646847 PMCID: PMC8502854 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2021.745279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The role and nature of mitochondrial dysfunction in diabetic kidney disease (DKD) has been extensively studied. Yet, the molecular drivers of mitochondrial remodeling in DKD are poorly understood. Diabetic kidney cells exhibit a cascade of mitochondrial dysfunction ranging from changes in mitochondrial morphology to significant alterations in mitochondrial biogenesis, biosynthetic, bioenergetics and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). How these changes individually or in aggregate contribute to progression of DKD remain to be fully elucidated. Nevertheless, because of the remarkable progress in our basic understanding of the role of mitochondrial biology and its dysfunction in DKD, there is great excitement on future targeted therapies based on improving mitochondrial function in DKD. This review will highlight the latest advances in understanding the nature of mitochondria dysfunction and its role in progression of DKD, and the development of mitochondrial targets that could be potentially used to prevent its progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel L Galvan
- Section of Nephrology, The University of Texas at MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Koki Mise
- Section of Nephrology, The University of Texas at MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States.,Department of Nephrology, Rheumatology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Farhad R Danesh
- Section of Nephrology, The University of Texas at MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States.,Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
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22
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Impaired Mitochondrial Bioenergetics Function in Pediatric Chronic Overlapping Pain Conditions with Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders. Pain Res Manag 2021; 2021:6627864. [PMID: 34426756 PMCID: PMC8380178 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6627864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Background Fatigue is often the primary complaint of children with functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGDI) and other chronic overlapping pain disorders (COPC). The basis for this symptom remains unknown. We evaluated mitochondrial function in the white blood cells of these patients. Methods This prospective Children's Wisconsin IRB approved study recruited subjects aging 10–18 years from pediatric neurogastroenterology clinics and healthy comparison subjects (HC). Environmental and oxidative stressors can damage the mitochondrial respiratory chain. The known low-grade inflammation in COPC could, therefore, impact the respiratory chain and theoretically account for the disabling fatigue so often voiced by patients. Mitochondrial energy generation can be easily measured in peripheral mononuclear cells (PMC) as a general marker by the Seahorse XF96 Extracellular Flux Analyzer. We measured 5 parameters of oxygen consumption using this methodology: basal respiration (BR), ATP linked oxygen consumption (ATP-LC), maximal oxygen consumption rate (max R), spare respiratory capacity (SRC), and extracellular acidification rate (ECAR), which reflect non-electron chain energy generation through glycolysis. In health, we expect high ATP linked respiration, high reserve capacity, low proton leak, and low non-mitochondrial respiration. In disease, the proton leak typically increases, ATP demand increases, and there is decreased reserve capacity with increased non-mitochondrial respiration. Findings and clinical data were compared to healthy control subjects using a Mann–Whitney test for skewed variables, Fisher's exact test for dichotomous variables, and regression tree for association with functional outcome (functional disability inventory, FDI). Results 19 HC and 31 COPC showed no statistically significant difference in age. FGID, orthostatic intolerance, migraine, sleep disturbance, and chronic fatigue were present in the majority of COPC subjects. BR, ECAR, and ATP-LC rates were lower in the COPC group. The low BR and ATP-LC suggest that mitochondria are stressed with decreased ability to produce ATP. Tree analysis selected SRC as the best predictor of functional disability: patients with SRC >150 had a greater FDI (more disability) compared to patients with SRC <=150, p-value = 0.021. Conclusion Subjects with COPC have reduced mitochondrial capacity to produce ATP. Predisposing genetic factors or reversible acquired changes may be responsible. A higher SRC best predicts disability. Since a higher SRC is typically associated with more mitochondrial reserve, the SRC may indicate an underutilized available energy supply related to inactivity, or a “brake” on mitochondrial function. Prospective longitudinal studies can likely discern whether these findings represent deconditioning, true mitochondrial dysfunction, or both.
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23
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Pomegranate Extract (POMx) Induces Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Apoptosis of Oral Cancer Cells. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10071117. [PMID: 34356350 PMCID: PMC8301084 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10071117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2021] [Revised: 07/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The anticancer effect of pomegranate polyphenolic extract POMx in oral cancer cells has rarely been explored, especially where its impact on mitochondrial functioning is concerned. Here, we attempt to evaluate the proliferation modulating function and mechanism of POMx against human oral cancer (Ca9-22, HSC-3, and OC-2) cells. POMx induced ATP depletion, subG1 accumulation, and annexin V/Western blotting-detected apoptosis in these three oral cancer cell lines but showed no toxicity to normal oral cell lines (HGF-1). POMx triggered mitochondrial membrane potential (MitoMP) disruption and mitochondrial superoxide (MitoSOX) generation associated with the differential downregulation of several antioxidant gene mRNA/protein expressions in oral cancer cells. POMx downregulated mitochondrial mass, mitochondrial DNA copy number, and mitochondrial biogenesis gene mRNA/protein expression in oral cancer cells. Moreover, POMx induced both PCR-based mitochondrial DNA damage and γH2AX-detected nuclear DNA damage in oral cancer cells. In conclusion, POMx provides antiproliferation and apoptosis of oral cancer cells through mechanisms of mitochondrial impairment.
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Bhattacharya S, Oliveira NK, Savitt AG, Silva VKA, Krausert RB, Ghebrehiwet B, Fries BC. Low Glucose Mediated Fluconazole Tolerance in Cryptococcus neoformans. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7060489. [PMID: 34207384 PMCID: PMC8233753 DOI: 10.3390/jof7060489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 06/13/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic meningoencephalitis is caused by Cryptococcus neoformans and is treated in many parts of the world with fluconazole (FLC) monotherapy, which is associated with treatment failure and poor outcome. In the host, C. neoformans propagates predominantly under low glucose growth conditions. We investigated whether low glucose, mimicked by growing in synthetic media (SM) with 0.05% glucose (SMlowglu), affects FLC-resistance. A > 4-fold increase in FLC tolerance was observed in seven C. neoformans strains when minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined in SMlowglu compared to MIC in SM with normal (2%) glucose (SMnlglu). In SMlowglu, C. neoformans cells exhibited upregulation of efflux pump genes AFR1 (8.7-fold) and AFR2 (2.5-fold), as well as decreased accumulation (2.6-fold) of Nile Red, an efflux pump substrate. Elevated intracellular ATP levels (3.2-fold and 3.4-fold), as well as decreased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species levels (12.8-fold and 17-fold), were found in the presence and absence of FLC, indicating that low glucose altered mitochondrial function. Fluorescence microscopy revealed that mitochondria of C. neoformans grown in SMlowglu were fragmented, whereas normal glucose promoted a reticular network of mitochondria. Although mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) was not markedly affected in SMlowglu, it significantly decreased in the presence of FLC (12.5-fold) in SMnlglu, but remained stable in SMlowglu-growing C. neoformans cells. Our data demonstrate that increased FLC tolerance in low glucose-growing C. neoformans is the result of increased efflux pump activities and altered mitochondrial function, which is more preserved in SMlowglu. This mechanism of resistance is different from FLC heteroresistance, which is associated with aneuploidy of chromosome 1 (Chr1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Somanon Bhattacharya
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA; (S.B.); (V.K.A.S.)
| | - Natalia Kronbauer Oliveira
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Renaissance School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA; (N.K.O.); (A.G.S.); (R.B.K.)
| | - Anne G. Savitt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Renaissance School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA; (N.K.O.); (A.G.S.); (R.B.K.)
| | - Vanessa K. A. Silva
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA; (S.B.); (V.K.A.S.)
| | - Rachel B. Krausert
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Renaissance School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA; (N.K.O.); (A.G.S.); (R.B.K.)
| | - Berhane Ghebrehiwet
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA;
| | - Bettina C. Fries
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA; (S.B.); (V.K.A.S.)
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Renaissance School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA; (N.K.O.); (A.G.S.); (R.B.K.)
- Veterans Administration Medical Center, Northport, NY 11768, USA
- Correspondence:
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Tang M, Yang M, Wu G, Mo S, Wu X, Zhang S, Yu R, Hu Y, Xu Y, Li Z, Liao X, Li J, Song L. Epigenetic Induction of Mitochondrial Fission Is Required for Maintenance of Liver Cancer-Initiating Cells. Cancer Res 2021; 81:3835-3848. [PMID: 34049973 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-21-0436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial dynamics play vital roles in the tumorigenicity and malignancy of various types of cancers by promoting the tumor-initiating potential of cancer cells, suggesting that targeting crucial factors that drive mitochondrial dynamics may lead to promising anticancer therapies. In the current study, we report that overexpression of mitochondrial fission factor (MFF), which is upregulated significantly in liver cancer-initiating cells (LCIC), promotes mitochondrial fission and enhances stemness and tumor-initiating capability in non-LCICs. MFF-induced mitochondrial fission evoked mitophagy and asymmetric stem cell division and promoted a metabolic shift from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis that decreased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, which prevented ROS-mediated degradation of the pluripotency transcription factor OCT4. CRISPR affinity purification in situ of regulatory elements showed that T-box transcription factor 19 (TBX19), which is overexpressed uniquely in LCICs compared with non-LCICs and liver progenitor cells, forms a complex with PRMT1 on the MFF promoter in LCICs, eliciting epigenetic histone H4R3me2a/H3K9ac-mediated transactivation of MFF. Targeting PRMT1 using furamidine, a selective pharmacologic inhibitor, suppressed TBX19-induced mitochondrial fission, leading to a profound loss of self-renewal potential and tumor-initiating capacity of LCICs. These findings unveil a novel mechanism underlying mitochondrial fission-mediated cancer stemness and suggest that regulation of mitochondrial fission via inhibition of PRMT1 may be an attractive therapeutic option for liver cancer treatment. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings show that TBX19/PRMT1 complex-mediated upregulation of MFF promotes mitochondrial fission and tumor-initiating capacity in liver cancer cells, identifying PRMT1 as a viable therapeutic target in liver cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miaoling Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China
| | - Meisongzhu Yang
- Department of Biochemistry, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Geyan Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shuang Mo
- Department of Biochemistry, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xingui Wu
- Department of Biochemistry, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shuxia Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ruyuan Yu
- Department of Biochemistry, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yameng Hu
- Department of Biochemistry, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yingru Xu
- Department of Biochemistry, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ziwen Li
- Department of Biochemistry, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xinyi Liao
- Department of Biochemistry, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jun Li
- Department of Biochemistry, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Libing Song
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China.
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Kim K, Lee EY. Excessively Enlarged Mitochondria in the Kidneys of Diabetic Nephropathy. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10050741. [PMID: 34067150 PMCID: PMC8151708 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10050741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the most serious complication of diabetes and a leading cause of kidney failure and mortality in patients with diabetes. However, the exact pathogenic mechanisms involved are poorly understood. Impaired mitochondrial function and accumulation of damaged mitochondria due to increased imbalance in mitochondrial dynamics are known to be involved in the development and progression of DN. Accumulating evidence suggests that aberrant mitochondrial fission is involved in the progression of DN. Conversely, studies linking excessively enlarged mitochondria to DN pathogenesis are emerging. In this review, we summarize the current concepts of imbalanced mitochondrial dynamics and their molecular aspects in various experimental models of DN. We discuss the recent evidence of enlarged mitochondria in the kidneys of DN and examine the possibility of a therapeutic application targeting mitochondrial dynamics in DN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyoung Kim
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Soonchunhyang University, Asan 31538, Korea
- Department of Medical Sciences, Soonchunhyang University, Asan 31538, Korea
- Correspondence: (K.K.); (E.-Y.L.); Tel.: +82-41-413-5024 (K.K.); +82-41-570-3684 (E.-Y.L.); Fax: +82-41-413-5006 (K.K. & E.-Y.L.)
| | - Eun-Young Lee
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Cheonan Hospital, Cheonan 31151, Korea
- Institute of Tissue Regeneration, College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, Cheonan 31151, Korea
- BK21 FOUR Project, College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, Cheonan 31151, Korea
- Correspondence: (K.K.); (E.-Y.L.); Tel.: +82-41-413-5024 (K.K.); +82-41-570-3684 (E.-Y.L.); Fax: +82-41-413-5006 (K.K. & E.-Y.L.)
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