Structure and Protein-Protein Interactions of Human UDP-Glucuronosyltransferases

Inhibition of human UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzymes by darolutamide: Prediction of in vivo drug-drug interactions

Darolutamide is a potent second-generation, selective nonsteroidal androgen receptor inhibitor (ARI), which has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in treating castrate-resistant, non-metastatic prostate cancer (nmCRPC). Whether darolutamide affects the activity of UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) is unknown. The purpose of the present study is to evaluate the inhibitory effect of darolutamide on recombinant human UGTs and pooled human liver microsomes (HLMs), and explore the potential for drug-drug interactions (DDIs) mediated by darolutamide through UGTs inhibition. The product formation rate of UGTs substrates with or without darolutamide was determined by HPLC or UPLC-MS/MS to estimate the inhibitory effect and inhibition modes of darolutamide on UGTs were evaluated by using the inhibition kinetics experiments. The results showed that 100 μM darolutamide exhibited inhibitory effects on most of the 12 UGTs tested. Inhibition kinetic studies of the enzyme revealed that darolutamide noncompetitively inhibited UGT1A1 and competitively inhibited UGT1A7 and 2B15, with the Ki of 14.75 ± 0.78 μM, 14.05 ± 0.42 μM, and 6.60 ± 0.08 μM, respectively. In particular, it also potently inhibited SN-38, the active metabolite of irinotecan, glucuronidation in HLMs with an IC50 value of 3.84 ± 0.46 μM. In addition, the in vitro-in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) method was used to quantitatively predict the risk of darolutamide-mediated DDI via inhibiting UGTs. The prediction results showed that darolutamide may increase the risk of DDIs when administered in combination with substrates of UGT1A1, UGT1A7, or UGT2B15. Therefore, the combined administration of darolutamide and drugs metabolized by the above UGTs should be used with caution to avoid the occurrence of potential DDIs.

Genetic Variation in CYP2D6, UGT1A4, SLC6A2 and SLCO1B1 Alters the Pharmacokinetics and Safety of Mirabegron

Mirabegron is a drug used in overactive bladder (OAB) treatment. Genetic variation in pharmacogenes might alter its pharmacokinetics, affecting its efficacy and safety. This research aimed to analyze the impact of genetic variation on mirabegron pharmacokinetics and safety. Volunteers from three bioequivalence trials (n = 79), treated with a single or a multiple dose of mirabegron 50 mg under fed or fasting conditions, were genotyped for 115 variants in pharmacogenes and their phenotypes were inferred. A statistical analysis was performed, searching for associations between genetics, pharmacokinetics and safety. CYP2D6 intermediate metabolizers showed a higher elimination half-life (t1/2) (univariate p-value (puv) = 0.018) and incidence of adverse reactions (ADRs) (puv = 0.008, multivariate p (pmv) = 0.010) than normal plus ultrarapid metabolizers. The UGT1A4 rs2011425 T/G genotype showed a higher t1/2 than the T/T genotype (puv = 0.002, pmv = 0.003). A lower dose/weight corrected area under the curve (AUC/DW) and higher clearance (CL/F) were observed in the SLC6A2 rs12708954 C/C genotype compared to the C/A genotype (puv = 0.015 and 0.016) and ADR incidence was higher when the SLCO1B1 function was decreased (puv = 0.007, pmv = 0.010). The lower elimination and higher ADR incidence when CYP2D6 activity is reduced suggest it might be a useful biomarker in mirabegron treatment. UGT1A4, SLC6A2 and SLCO1B1 might also be involved in mirabegron pharmacokinetics.

Characterization of the UDP-glycosyltransferase UGT33D1 in silkworm Bombyx mori

Uridine diphosphate (UDP)-glycosyltransferases (UGTs) are important metabolizing enzymes functioning by adding a sugar moiety to a small lipophilic substrate molecule and play critical roles in drug/toxin metabolism for all realms of life. In this study, the silkworm Bombyx mori UGT33D1 gene was characterized in detail. UGT33D1 was found localized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) compartment just like other animal UGTs and was mainly expressed in the silkworm midgut. We first reported that UGT33D1 was important to BmNPV infection, as silencing UGT33D1 inhibited the BmNPV infection in silkworm BmN cells, while overexpressing the gene promoted viral infection. The molecular pathways regulated by UGT33D1 were analysed via transcriptome sequencing upon UGT33D1 knockdown, highlighting the important role of the gene in maintaining a balanced oxidoreductive state of the organism. In addition, proteins that physically interact with UGT33D1 were identified through immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry analysis, which includes tubulin, elongation factor, certain ribosomal proteins, histone proteins and zinc finger proteins that had been previously reported for human UGT-interacting proteins. This study provided preliminary but important functional information on UGT33D1 and is hoped to trigger deeper investigations into silkworm UGTs and their functional mechanisms.

The desert woodrat (Neotoma lepida) induces a diversity of biotransformation genes in response to creosote bush resin

Liver biotransformation enzymes have long been thought to enable animals to feed on diets rich in xenobiotic compounds. However, despite decades of pharmacological research in humans and rodents, little is known about hepatic gene expression in specialized mammalian herbivores feeding on toxic diets. Leveraging a recently identified population of the desert woodrat (Neotoma lepida) found to be highly tolerant to toxic creosote bush (Larrea tridentata), we explored the expression changes of suites of biotransformation genes in response to diets enriched with varying amounts of creosote resin. Analysis of hepatic RNA-seq data indicated a dose-dependent response to these compounds, including the upregulation of several genes encoding transcription factors and numerous phase I, II, and III biotransformation families. Notably, elevated expression of five biotransformation families - carboxylesterases, cytochromes P450, aldo-keto reductases, epoxide hydrolases, and UDP-glucuronosyltransferases - corresponded to species-specific duplication events in the genome, suggesting that these genes play a prominent role in N. lepida's adaptation to creosote bush. Building on pharmaceutical studies in model rodents, we propose a hypothesis for how the differentially expressed genes are involved in the biotransformation of creosote xenobiotics. Our results provide some of the first details about how these processes likely operate in the liver of a specialized mammalian herbivore.

Characterization of the glucuronidating pathway of pectolinarigenin, the major active constituent of the Chinese medicine Daji, in humans and its influence on biological activities

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The Chinese medicine Daji (the aerial part of Cirsium japonicum DC.) and its charred product (Cirsii Japonici Herba Carbonisata) have been widely used as hemostatic agents or diuretic agents to prepare a variety of Chinese herbal formula. Pectolinarigenin (PEC), one of the most abundant constituents in both Daji and its charred product, has been considered as the key effective substance responsible for the major pharmacological activities of Daji, including hemostasis, hepatoprotective, anti-tumor and anti-osteoporosis effects. However, the major metabolic pathways of PEC in humans and the influence of PEC metabolism on its biological activities are poorly understood.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To characterize the main metabolic pathway(s) and key enzymes of PEC in human biological systems, as well as to reveal the influence of PEC metabolism on its biological activities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The metabolic stability assays of PEC were investigated in human liver microsomes (HLM). The O-glucuronide of PEC was biosynthesized and characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The key enzymes responsible for O-glucuronidation of PEC in humans were assigned by performing UGT reaction phenotyping, chemical inhibition and enzymatic kinetic assays. The agonist effects of PEC and its O-glucuronide on nuclear factor erythroid2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), Peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPARα and PPARβ) were tested at the cellular level.

RESULTS

PEC could be readily metabolized to form a mono-O-glucuronide in both human liver microsome (HLM) and human intestinal microsome (HIM). The mono-O-glucuronide was bio-synthesized by mouse liver S9 and its structure was fully characterized as PEC-7-O-β-D-glucuronide (PEC-O-7-G). UGT1A1, UGT1A3 and UGT1A9 are key enzymes responsible for PEC-7-O-glucuronidation in HLM, while UGT1A1, UGT1A9 and 1A10 may play key roles in this reaction in HIM. Biological tests revealed that PEC displayed strong agonist effects on Nrf2, PPARα and PPARβ, whereas PEC-7-O-glucuronide showed relatively weak Nrf2 agonist effect and very weak PPAR agonist effects, indicating that PEC-7-O-glucuronidation strongly weaken its agonist effects on Nrf2 and PPAR.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that 7-O-glucuronidation is the major metabolic pathway of PEC in human tissues, while UGT1A1, 1A3 and 1A9 are key contributing enzymes responsible for PEC-7-O-glucuronidation in human liver. It is also found that PEC 7-O-glucuronidation significantly weakens the Nrf2 and PPAR agonist effects. All these findings are very helpful for the pharmacologists to deep understand the metabolic rates of PEC in humans.

Interplay of UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase and CYP2C8 for CYP2C8 Mediated Drug Oxidation and Its Impact on Drug-Drug Interaction Produced by Standardized CYP2C8 Inhibitors, Clopidogrel and Gemfibrozil

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Early investigations into drug-drug interactions (DDIs) involving cytochrome P450 2C8 (CYP2C8) have highlighted the complexity of interactions between CYP2C8 substrate drugs, including montelukast, desloratadine, pioglitazone, repaglinide, and cerivastatin (the latter two being OATP1B1 substrates), and standardized CYP2C8 inhibitors such as clopidogrel (Clop) and gemfibrozil (Gem). These interactions have proven challenging to predict based solely on simple CYP inhibition. A hypothesis has emerged suggesting that these substrate drugs first distribute to UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) before undergoing oxidation by CYP2C8, resulting in bidirectional elimination. The process of drug distribution to UGT is believed to significantly impact these DDIs. This study aims to explore the intricate interplay between UGT and CYP2C8 in the context of DDIs involving CYP2C8 substrates affected by Clop and Gem.

METHODS

Plasma-level data for the unchanged drug and its metabolite, drawn from the respective literature, formed the basis of our analysis. We evaluated the enzymatic inhibitory activities of DDIs and utilized simulations to estimate plasma levels of the unchanged victim drug and its metabolite in each DDI. This was accomplished by employing a functional relationship that considered the fractional contributions of CYP2C8 and UGT to clearance, perpetrator-specific inhibitory activities against CYP2C8, and drug distribution to UGT.

RESULTS

Our findings emphasize the pivotal role of UGT-mediated distribution in the context of CYP2C8 substrate metabolism, particularly in the complex DDIs induced by Clop and Gem. In these DDIs, Gem exerts inhibitory effects on both UGT and CYP2C8, whereas Clop (specifically its metabolite, Clop-COOH) solely targets CYP2C8. Importantly, the inhibition of CYP2C8 by both Clop and Gem is achieved through a non-competitive mechanism, driven by the actions of their acyl-glucuronides. Clop and Gem exhibit inhibition activities accounting for 85% (pAi,CYP2C8 = 7) and 93% (pAi,CYP2C8 = 15), respectively. In contrast, Gem's inhibition of UGT is relatively modest (50%, pAi,UGT(d) = 2), and it operates through a non-specific, competitive process in drug distribution to UGT. Within this context, our UGT-CYP2C8 interplay model offers an accurate means of predicting the alterations resulting from DDIs, encompassing changes in plasma levels of the unchanged drug and its metabolites, as well as shifts in metabolite formation rates. Our analysis highlights the critical importance of considering the fractional contributions of CYP2C8 and UGT to the victim drug's clearance (fm,CYP2C8; fm,UGT) in DDI prediction. Furthermore, our examination of DDIs involving OATP1B1 substrate drugs underscores that accounting for the hepatic uptake transporters' role in the liver is superfluous in DDI prediction.

CONCLUSION

These findings substantially enhance our comprehension of CYP2C8-mediated oxidation and DDIs, holding crucial implications for drug development and the planning of clinical trials involving these inhibitors.

Heterodimerization of Human UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase 1A9 and UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase 2B7 Alters Their Glucuronidation Activities

Human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) play a pivotal role as prominent phase II metabolic enzymes, mediating the glucuronidation of both endobiotics and xenobiotics. Dimerization greatly modulates the enzymatic activities of UGTs. In this study, we examined the influence of three mutations (H35A, H268Y, and N68A/N315A) and four truncations (signal peptide, single transmembrane helix, cytosolic tail, and di-lysine motif) in UGT2B7 on its heterodimerization with wild-type UGT1A9, using a Bac-to-Bac expression system. We employed quantitative fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) techniques and co-immunoprecipitation assays to evaluate the formation of heterodimers between UGT1A9 and UGT2B7 allozymes. Furthermore, we evaluated the glucuronidation activities of the heterodimers using zidovudine and propofol as substrates for UGT2B7 and UGT1A9, respectively. Our findings revealed that the histidine residue at codon 35 was involved in the dimeric interaction, as evidenced by the FRET efficiencies and catalytic activities. Interestingly, the signal peptide and single transmembrane helix domain of UGT2B7 had no impact on the protein-protein interaction. These results provide valuable insights for a comprehensive understanding of UGT1A9/UGT2B7 heterodimer formation and its association with glucuronidation activity. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Our findings revealed that the H35A mutation in UGT2B7 affected the affinity of protein-protein interaction, leading to discernable variations in fluorescence resonance energy transfer efficiencies and catalytic activity. Furthermore, the signal peptide and single transmembrane helix domain of UGT2B7 did not influence heterodimer formation. These results provide valuable insights into the combined effects of polymorphisms and protein-protein interactions on the catalytic activity of UGT1A9 and UGT2B7, enhancing our understanding of UGT dimerization and its impact on metabolite formation.

Subfunctionalization of a monolignol to a phytoalexin glucosyltransferase is accompanied by substrate inhibition

Uridine diphosphate-dependent glycosyltransferases (UGTs) mediate the glycosylation of plant metabolites, thereby altering their physicochemical properties and bioactivities. Plants possess numerous UGT genes, with the encoded enzymes often glycosylating multiple substrates and some exhibiting substrate inhibition kinetics, but the biological function and molecular basis of these phenomena are not fully understood. The promiscuous monolignol/phytoalexin glycosyltransferase NbUGT72AY1 exhibits substrate inhibition (K_i) at 4 μM scopoletin, whereas the highly homologous monolignol StUGT72AY2 is inhibited at 190 μM. We therefore used hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry and structure-based mutational analyses of both proteins and introduced NbUGT72AY1 residues into StUGT72AY2 and vice versa to study promiscuity and substrate inhibition of UGTs. A single F87I and chimeric mutant of NbUGT72AY1 showed significantly reduced scopoletin substrate inhibition, whereas its monolignol glycosylation activity was almost unaffected. Reverse mutations in StUGT72AY2 resulted in increased scopoletin glycosylation, leading to enhanced promiscuity, which was accompanied by substrate inhibition. Studies of 3D structures identified open and closed UGT conformers, allowing visualization of the dynamics of conformational changes that occur during catalysis. Previously postulated substrate access tunnels likely serve as drainage channels. The results suggest a two-site model in which the second substrate molecule binds near the catalytic site and blocks product release. Mutational studies showed that minor changes in amino acid sequence can enhance the promiscuity of the enzyme and add new capabilities such as substrate inhibition without affecting existing functions. The proposed subfunctionalization mechanism of expanded promiscuity may play a role in enzyme evolution and highlights the importance of promiscuous enzymes in providing new functions.

The Uridine diphosphate (UDP)-glycosyltransferases (UGTs) superfamily: the role in tumor cell metabolism

UDP-glycosyltransferases (UGTs), important enzymes in biotransformation, control the levels and distribution of numerous endogenous signaling molecules and the metabolism of a wide range of endogenous and exogenous chemicals. The UGT superfamily in mammals consists of the UGT1, UGT2, UGT3, and UGT8 families. UGTs are rate-limiting enzymes in the glucuronate pathway, and in tumors, they are either overexpressed or underexpressed. Alterations in their metabolism can affect gluconeogenesis and lipid metabolism pathways, leading to alterations in tumor cell metabolism, which affect cancer development and prognosis. Glucuronidation is the most common mammalian conjugation pathway. Most of its reactions are mainly catalyzed by UGT1A, UGT2A and UGT2B. The body excretes UGT-bound small lipophilic molecules through the bile, urine, or feces. UGTs conjugate a variety of tiny lipophilic molecules to sugars, such as galactose, xylose, acetylglucosamine, glucuronic acid, and glucose, thereby inactivating and making water-soluble substrates, such as carcinogens, medicines, steroids, lipids, fatty acids, and bile acids. This review summarizes the roles of members of the four UGT enzyme families in tumor function, metabolism, and multiple regulatory mechanisms, and its Inhibitors and inducers. The function of UGTs in lipid metabolism, drug metabolism, and hormone metabolism in tumor cells are among the most important topics covered.

Mutual Influence of Human Cytochrome P450 Enzymes and UDP-Glucuronosyltransferases on Their Respective Activities in Recombinant Fission Yeast

Cytochromes P450 (CYPs) and UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) are the most important human drug metabolizing enzymes, but their mutual interactions are poorly understood. In this study, we recombinantly co-expressed of each one of the 19 human members of the UGT families 1 and 2 with either CYP2C9, CYP2D6, or CYP4Z1 in fission yeast. Using these strains, we monitored a total of 72 interactions: 57 cases where we tested the influence of UGT co-expression on CYP activity and 15 cases of the opposite approach. In the majority of cases (88%), UGT co-expression had a statistically significant (p < 0.05) effect on P450 activity (58% positive and 30% negative). Strong changes were observed in nine cases, including one case with an activity increase by a factor of 23 (CYP2C9 activity in the presence of UGT2A3) but also four cases with a complete loss of activity. When monitoring the effect of CYP co-expression on the activity of five UGTs, activity changes were generally not so pronounced and, if observed, always detrimental. UGT2B7 activity was not influenced by CYP co-expression, while the other UGTs were affected to varying degrees. These data suggest the notion that mutual influence of CYPs and UGTs on each other's activity is a widespread phenomenon.

Alternative transcript splicing regulates UDP-glucosyltransferase-catalyzed detoxification of DIMBOA in the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda)

Herbivorous insects often possess the ability to detoxify chemical defenses from their host plants. The fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda), which feeds principally on maize, detoxifies the maize benzoxazinoid 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIMBOA) by stereoselective re-glucosylation using a UDP-glucosyltransferase, SfUGT33F28. SfUGT33F28 activity is induced by feeding on a DIMBOA-containing diet, but how this induction is regulated is unknown. In the present work, we describe the alternative splicing of the SfUGT33F28 transcript. Variant transcripts are differentially expressed in response to DIMBOA, and this transcriptional response is mediated by an insect aryl hydrocarbon receptor. These variants have large deletions leading to the production of truncated proteins that have no intrinsic UGT activity with DIMBOA but interact with the full-length enzyme to raise or lower its activity. Therefore, the formation of SfUGT33F28 splice variants induces DIMBOA-conjugating UGT activity when DIMBOA is present in the insect diet and represses activity in the absence of this plant defense compound.

Identification of UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase 2B15 (UGT2B15) as a Target for IGF1 and Insulin Action

Normal growth and development in mammals are tightly controlled by numerous genetic factors and metabolic conditions. The growth hormone (GH)-insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF1) hormonal axis is a key player in the regulation of these processes. Dysregulation of the GH-IGF1 endocrine system is linked to a number of pathologies, ranging from growth deficits to cancer. Laron syndrome (LS) is a type of dwarfism that results from mutation of the GH receptor (GHR) gene, leading to GH resistance and short stature as well as a number of metabolic abnormalities. Of major clinical relevance, epidemiological studies have shown that LS patients do not develop cancer. While the mechanisms associated with cancer protection in LS have not yet been elucidated, genomic analyses have identified a series of metabolic genes that are over-represented in LS patients. We hypothesized that these genes might constitute novel targets for IGF1 action. With a fold-change of 11.09, UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 2B15 (UGT2B15) was the top up-regulated gene in LS. The UGT2B15 gene codes for an enzyme that converts xenobiotic substances into lipophilic compounds and thereby facilitates their clearance from the body. We investigated the regulation of UGT2B15 gene expression by IGF1 and insulin. Both hormones inhibited UGT2B15 mRNA levels in endometrial and breast cancer cell lines. Regulation of UGT2B15 protein levels by IGF1/insulin, however, was more complex and not always correlated with mRNA levels. Furthermore, UGT2B15 expression was dependent on p53 status. Thus, UGT2B15 mRNA levels were higher in cell lines expressing a wild-type p53 compared to cells containing a mutated p53. Animal studies confirmed an inverse correlation between UGT2B15 and p53 levels. In summary, increased UGT2B15 levels in LS might confer upon patient’s protection from genotoxic damage.

Anosmia (smell failure) and dysgeusia (taste distortion) in COVID-19: it is genetic

The COVID-19 pandemic is a very contagious respiratory illness with has affected millions of individuals worldwide. In addition to the well-known symptoms of any respiratory virus, COVID-19 can present with anosmia (failure to smell) and dysgeusia (distortion of the sense of taste). It appears to be a genetic link to the biological mechanisms underlying COVID-19-related anosmia and dysgeusia. Significant locus in the vicinity of the UGT2A1 and UGT2A2 genes are currently considered as the main culprit of the symptoms. However, more studies are needed to delineate a clear pathophysiology.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

A potential implication of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 2B10 in the detoxification of drugs used in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell transplantation setting: an in silico investigation

Background

Sinusoidal occlusion syndrome (SOS) is a potentially severe complication following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) in pediatric patients. Treatment related risk factors such as intensity of conditioning, hepatotoxic co-medication and patient related factors such as genetic variants predispose individuals to develop SOS. The variant allele for SNP rs17146905 in UDP-glucuronosyl transferase 2B10 (UGT2B10) gene was correlated with the occurrence of SOS in an exome-wide association study. UGT2B10 is a phase II drug metabolizing enzyme involved in the N-glucuronidation of tertiary amine containing drugs.

Methods

To shed light on the functionality of UGT2B10 enzyme in the metabolism of drugs used in pediatric HSCT setting, we performed in silico screening against custom based library of putative ligands. First, a list of potential substrates for in silico analysis was prepared using a systematic consensus-based strategy. The list comprised of drugs and their metabolites used in pediatric HSCT setting. The three-dimensional structure of UGT2B10 was not available from the Research Collaboratory Structural Bioinformatics - Protein Data Bank (RCSB - PDB) repository and thus we predicted the first human UGT2B10 3D model by using multiple template homology modeling with MODELLER Version 9.2 and molecular docking calculations with AutoDock Vina Version 1.2 were implemented to quantify the estimated binding affinity between selected putative substrates or ligands and UGT2B10. Finally, we performed molecular dynamics simulations using GROMACS Version 5.1.4 to confirm the potential UGT2B10 ligands prioritized after molecular docking (exhibiting negative free binding energy).

Results

Four potential ligands for UGT2B10 namely acetaminophen, lorazepam, mycophenolic acid and voriconazole n-oxide intermediate were identified. Other metabolites of voriconazole satisfied the criteria of being possible ligands of UGT2B10. Except for bilirubin and 4-Hydroxy Voriconazole, all the ligands (particularly voriconazole and hydroxy voriconazole) are oriented in substrate binding site close to the co-factor UDP (mean ± SD; 0.72 ± 0.33 nm). Further in vitro screening of the putative ligands prioritized by in silico pipeline is warranted to understand the nature of the ligands either as inhibitors or substrates of UGT2B10.

Conclusions

These results may indicate the clinical and pharmacological relevance UGT2B10 in pediatric HSCT setting. With this systematic computational methodology, we provide a rational-, time-, and cost-effective way to identify and prioritize the interesting putative substrates or inhibitors of UGT2B10 for further testing in in vitro experiments.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12860-021-00402-5.

Response of Cytoprotective and Detoxifying Proteins to Vanadate and/or Magnesium in the Rat Liver: The Nrf2-Keap1 System

Oxidative stress (OS) is a mechanism underlying metal-induced toxicity. As a redox-active element, vanadium (V) can act as a strong prooxidant and generate OS at certain levels. It can also attenuate the antioxidant barrier and intensify lipid peroxidation (LPO). The prooxidant potential of V reflected in enhanced LPO, demonstrated by us previously in the rat liver, prompted us to analyze the response of the nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-related factor 2/Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Nrf2-Keap1) system involved in cellular regulation of OS to administration of sodium metavanadate (SMV, 0.125 mg V/mL) and/or magnesium sulfate (MS, 0.06 mg Mg/mL). The levels of some Nrf2-dependent cytoprotective and detoxifying proteins, i.e., glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione S-transferase (GST), glutamate cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC), glutathione synthetase (GSS), NAD(P) H dehydrogenase quinone 1 (NQO1), UDP-glucumno-syltransferase 1 (UGT1), and heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1); glutathione (GSH); metallothionein (MT1); and glutamate-cysteine ligase (GCL) mRNA were measured. We also focused on the V-Mg interactive effects and trends toward interactive action as well as relationships between the examined indices. The elevated levels of Nrf2, GCL mRNA, and GCL catalytic subunit (GCLC) confirm OS in response to SMV and point to the capacity to synthesize GSH. The results also suggest a limitation of the second step in GSH synthesis reflected by the unchanged glutathione synthetase (GSS) and GSH levels. The positive correlations between certain cytoprotective/detoxifying proteins (which showed increasing trends during the SMV and/or MS administration, compared to the control) and between them and malondialdehyde (MDA), the hepatic V concentration/total content, and/or V dose (discussed by us previously) point to cooperation between the components of antioxidant defense in the conditions of the hepatic V accumulation and SMV-induced LPO intensification. The V-Mg interactive effect and trend are involved in changes in Nrf2 and UGT1, respectively. The p62 protein has to be determined in the context of potential inhibition of degradation of Keap1, which showed a visible upward trend, in comparison with the control. The impact of Mg on MT1 deserves further exploration.

Assembling the P450 puzzle: on the sources of nonadditivity in drug metabolism

There is an increasing number of indications of an oversimplification in the premise that the cumulative properties of the human drug-metabolizing ensemble represent a simple aggregate of the properties of the constituting enzymes. Recent studies of the functional effects of hetero-association of multiple cytochrome P450 species and their interactions with metabolically related enzymes revealed a tight integration in the drug-metabolizing ensemble. In our opinion, the sources of interindividual variability in drug metabolism can be elucidated only when considering this ensemble as a multienzyme system, the functional parameters of which are determined by interactions between its constituents. In this article, we present a conceptual model providing a mechanistic explanation for the functional effects of the interactions between multiple P450 species and propose a clue to understanding the nonadditive behavior of the drug-metabolizing ensemble.

Towards understanding the mechanism of action of a polyherbal formulation using a multi-pronged strategy

Herein, we investigate the cognitive effects of a traditional polyherbal formulation, Brahmi Nei (BN) for its effect on cognitive health. Network pharmacological analysis of the bioactives reported in the phytoconstituents of BN was performed by retrieving information from various databases. The in-silico predictions were experimentally validated using in vitro and in vivo models through a combination of biochemical, behavioural and molecular studies. The network pharmacological analysis of the key molecules in BN revealed their ability to modulate molecular targets implicated in memory, cognition, neuronal survival, proliferation, regulation of cellular bioenergetics and oxidative stress. Behavioral studies performed on normal adult rats administered with BN showed a significant improvement in their cognitive performance. Microarray analysis of their brain tissues exhibited an up-regulation of genes involved in oxidative phosphorylation, learning, neuronal differentiation, extension, regeneration and survival while pro-inflammatory and pro-degenerative genes were down-regulated. The oxygen consumption rate in BN-treated hippocampal cells showed a significant improvement in the bioenergetic health index when compared to untreated cells due to the mitochondrial membrane fortifying effect and anti-inflammatory property of the BN constituents. The neuroregenerative potential of BN was manifested in increase in axonal length and neurite outgrowth. Western blots and 2D gel electrophoresis revealed a reduction in pro-apoptotic proteins while increasing Akt and cyclophilin proteins. Taken together, our data reveal that BN, although traditionally used to treat anxiolytic disorders can be explored as a nutraceutical to improve neuronal health as well as a therapeutic option to treat cognitive disorders.

Functional Interaction between Cytochrome P450 and UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase on the Endoplasmic Reticulum Membrane: One of Post-translational Factors Which Possibly Contributes to Their Inter-Individual Differences

Cytochrome P450 (P450) and uridine 5'-diphosphate (UDP)-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) catalyze oxidation and glucuronidation in drug metabolism, respectively. It is believed that P450 and UGT work separately because they perform distinct reactions and exhibit opposite membrane topologies on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). However, given that some chemicals are sequentially metabolized by P450 and UGT, it is reasonable to consider that the enzymes may interact and work cooperatively. Previous research by our team detected protein-protein interactions between P450 and UGT by analyzing solubilized rat liver microsomes with P450-immobilized affinity column chromatography. Although P450 and UGT have been known to form homo- and hetero-oligomers, this is the first report indicating a P450-UGT association. Based on our previous study, we focused on the P450-UGT interaction and reported lines of evidence that the P450-UGT association is a functional protein-protein interaction that can alter the enzymatic capabilities, including enhancement or suppression of the activities of P450 and UGT, helping UGT to acquire novel regioselectivity, and inhibiting substrate binding to P450. Biochemical and molecular bioscientific approaches suggested that P450 and UGT interact with each other at their internal hydrophobic domains in the ER membrane. Furthermore, several in vivo studies have reported the presence of a functional P450-UGT association under physiological conditions. The P450-UGT interaction is expected to function as a novel post-translational factor for inter-individual differences in the drug-metabolizing enzymes.

A New Glycosyltransferase Enzyme from Family 91, UGT91P3, Is Responsible for the Final Glucosylation Step of Crocins in Saffron (Crocus sativus L.)

Crocetin is an apocarotenoid formed from the oxidative cleavage of zeaxanthin, by the carotenoid cleavage enzymes CCD2 (in Crocus species) and specific CCD4 enzymes in Buddleja davidii and Gardenia jasminoides. Crocetin accumulates in the stigma of saffron in the form of glucosides and crocins, which contain one to five glucose molecules. Crocetin glycosylation was hypothesized to involve at least two enzymes from superfamily 1 UDP-sugar dependent glycosyltransferases. One of them, UGT74AD1, produces crocins with one and two glucose molecules, which are substrates for a second UGT, which could belong to the UGT79, 91, or 94 families. An in silico search of Crocus transcriptomes revealed six candidate UGT genes from family 91. The transcript profiles of one of them, UGT91P3, matched the metabolite profile of crocin accumulation, and were co-expressed with UGT74AD1. In addition, both UGTs interact in a two-hybrid assay. Recombinant UGT91P3 produced mostly crocins with four and five glucose molecules in vitro, and in a combined transient expression assay with CCD2 and UGT74AD1 enzymes in Nicotiana benthamiana. These results suggest a role of UGT91P3 in the biosynthesis of highly glucosylated crocins in saffron, and that it represents the last missing gene in crocins biosynthesis.

Pregnancy-Related Hormones Increase UGT1A1-Mediated Labetalol Metabolism in Human Hepatocytes

Pregnancy-related hormones (PRH) are recognized as important regulators of hepatic cytochrome P450 enzyme expression and function. However, the impact of PRH on the hepatic expression and function of uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) remains unclear. Using primary human hepatocytes, we evaluated the effect of PRH exposure on mRNA levels and protein concentrations of UGT1A1, UGT2B7, and other key UGT enzymes, and on the metabolism of labetalol (a UGT1A1 and UGT2B7 substrate commonly prescribed to treat hypertensive disorders of pregnancy). Sandwich-cultured human hepatocytes (SCHH) from female donors were exposed to the PRH estradiol, estriol, estetrol, progesterone, and cortisol individually or in combination. We quantified protein concentrations of UGT1A1, UGT2B7, and four additional UGT1A isoforms in SCHH membrane fractions and evaluated the metabolism of labetalol to its glucuronide metabolites in SCHH. PRH exposure increased mRNA levels and protein concentrations of UGT1A1 and UGT1A4 in SCHH. PRH exposure also significantly increased labetalol metabolism to its UGT1A1-derived glucuronide metabolite in a concentration-dependent manner, which positively correlated with PRH-induced changes in UGT1A1 protein concentrations. In contrast, PRH did not alter UGT2B7 mRNA levels or protein concentrations in SCHH, and formation of the UGT2B7-derived labetalol glucuronide metabolite was decreased following PRH exposure. Our findings demonstrate that PRH alter expression and function of UGT proteins in an isoform-specific manner and increase UGT1A1-mediated labetalol metabolism in human hepatocytes by inducing UGT1A1 protein concentrations. These results provide mechanistic insight into the increases in labetalol clearance observed in pregnant individuals.

Comparative Transcriptomes of the Body Wall of Wild and Farmed Sea Cucumber Isostichopus badionotus

Overfishing of sea cucumber Isostichopus badionotus from Yucatan has led to a major population decline. They are being captured as an alternative to traditional species despite a paucity of information about their health-promoting properties. The transcriptome of the body wall of wild and farmed I. badionotus has now been studied for the first time by an RNA-Seq approach. The functional profile of wild I. badionotus was comparable with data in the literature for other regularly captured species. In contrast, the metabolism of first generation farmed I. badionotus was impaired. This had multiple possible causes including a sub-optimal growth environment and impaired nutrient utilization. Several key metabolic pathways that are important in effective handling and accretion of nutrients and energy, or clearance of harmful cellular metabolites, were disrupted or dysregulated. For instance, collagen mRNAs were greatly reduced and deposition of collagen proteins impaired. Wild I. badionotus is, therefore, a suitable alternative to other widely used species but, at present, the potential of farmed I. badionotus is unclear. The environmental or nutritional factors responsible for their impaired function in culture remain unknown, but the present data gives useful pointers to the underlying problems associated with their aquaculture.

Evidence-based strategies for the characterisation of human drug and chemical glucuronidation in vitro and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase reaction phenotyping

Enzymes of the UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) superfamily contribute to the elimination of drugs from almost all therapeutic classes. Awareness of the importance of glucuronidation as a drug clearance mechanism along with increased knowledge of the enzymology of drug and chemical metabolism has stimulated interest in the development and application of approaches for the characterisation of human drug glucuronidation in vitro, in particular reaction phenotyping (the fractional contribution of the individual UGT enzymes responsible for the glucuronidation of a given drug), assessment of metabolic stability, and UGT enzyme inhibition by drugs and other xenobiotics. In turn, this has permitted the implementation of in vitro - in vivo extrapolation approaches for the prediction of drug metabolic clearance, intestinal availability, and drug-drug interaction liability, all of which are of considerable importance in pre-clinical drug development. Indeed, regulatory agencies (FDA and EMA) require UGT reaction phenotyping for new chemical entities if glucuronidation accounts for ≥25% of total metabolism. In vitro studies are most commonly performed with recombinant UGT enzymes and human liver microsomes (HLM) as the enzyme sources. Despite the widespread use of in vitro approaches for the characterisation of drug and chemical glucuronidation by HLM and recombinant enzymes, evidence-based guidelines relating to experimental approaches are lacking. Here we present evidence-based strategies for the characterisation of drug and chemical glucuronidation in vitro, and for UGT reaction phenotyping. We anticipate that the strategies will inform practice, encourage development of standardised experimental procedures where feasible, and guide ongoing research in the field.

Expression of UDP Glucuronosyltransferases 2B15 and 2B17 is associated with methylation status in prostate cancer cells

Studies have suggested that abrogated expression of detoxification enzymes, UGT2B15 and UGT2B17, are associated with prostate tumour risk and progression. We investigated the role of EGF on the expression of these enzymes since it interacts with signalling pathways to also affect prostate tumour progression and is additionally associated with decreased DNA methylation. The expression of UGT2B15, UGT2B17, de novo methyltransferases, DNMT3A and DNMT3B was assessed in prostate cancer cells (LNCaP) treated with EGF, an EGFR inhibitor PD16893, and the methyltransferase inhibitor, 5-azacytidine, respectively. The results showed that EGF treatment decreased levels of expression of all four genes and that their expression was reversed by PD16893. Treatment with 5-azacytidine, markedly decreased expression of UGT2B15 and UGT2B17 over 85% as well as significantly decreased expression of DNMT3B, but not the expression of DNMT3A. DNMT3B siRNA treated LNCaP cells had decreased expression of UGT2B15 and UGT2B17, while DNMT3A siRNA treated cells had only moderately decreased UGT2B15 expression. Treatment with DNMT methyltransferase inhibitor, RG108, significantly decreased UGT2B17 expression. Additionally, methylation differences between prostate cancer samples and benign prostate samples from an Illumina 450K Methylation Array study were assessed. The results taken together suggest that hypomethylation of the UGT2B15 and UGT2B17 genes contributes to increased risk of prostate cancer and may provide a putative biomarker or epigenetic target for chemotherapeutics. Mechanistic studies are warranted to determine the role of the methylation marks in prostate cancer.

Predicting reactivity to drug metabolism: beyond P450s-modelling FMOs and UGTs

We present a study based on density functional theory calculations to explore the rate limiting steps of product formation for oxidation by Flavin-containing Monooxygenase (FMO) and glucuronidation by the UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) family of enzymes. FMOs are responsible for the modification phase of metabolism of a wide diversity of drugs, working in conjunction with Cytochrome P450 (CYP) family of enzymes, and UGTs are the most important class of drug conjugation enzymes. Reactivity calculations are important for prediction of metabolism by CYPs and reactivity alone explains around 70-85% of the experimentally observed sites of metabolism within CYP substrates. In the current work we extend this approach to propose model systems which can be used to calculate the activation energies, i.e. reactivity, for the rate-limiting steps for both FMO oxidation and glucuronidation of potential sites of metabolism. These results are validated by comparison with the experimentally observed reaction rates and sites of metabolism, indicating that the presented models are suitable to provide the basis of a reactivity component within generalizable models to predict either FMO or UGT metabolism.

UGT2B17 modifies drug response in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia

Background

High UGT2B17 is associated with poor prognosis in untreated chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) patients and its expression is induced in non-responders to fludarabine-containing regimens. We examined whether UGT2B17, the predominant lymphoid glucuronosyltransferase, affects leukaemic drug response and is involved in the metabolic inactivation of anti-leukaemic agents.

Methods

Functional enzymatic assays and patients’ plasma samples were analysed by mass-spectrometry to evaluate drug inactivation by UGT2B17. Cytotoxicity assays and RNA sequencing were used to assess drug response and transcriptome changes associated with high UGT2B17 levels.

Results

High UGT2B17 in B-cell models led to reduced sensitivity to fludarabine, ibrutinib and idelalisib. UGT2B17 expression in leukaemic cells involved a non-canonical promoter and was induced by short-term treatment with these anti-leukaemics. Glucuronides of both fludarabine and ibrutinib were detected in CLL patients on respective treatment, however UGT2B17 conjugated fludarabine but not ibrutinib. AMP-activated protein kinase emerges as a pathway associated with high UGT2B17 in fludarabine-treated patients and drug-treated cell models. The expression changes linked to UGT2B17 exposed nuclear factor kappa B as a key regulatory hub.

Conclusions

Data imply that UGT2B17 represents a mechanism altering drug response in CLL through direct inactivation but would also involve additional mechanisms for drugs not inactivated by UGT2B17.

Homology Modeling of Human Uridine-5'-diphosphate-glucuronosyltransferase 1A6 Reveals Insights into Factors Influencing Substrate and Cosubstrate Binding

The elimination of numerous endogenous compounds and xenobiotics via glucuronidation by uridine-5'-diphosphate glycosyltransferase enzymes (UGTs) is an essential process of the body's chemical defense system. UGTs have distinct but overlapping substrate preferences, but the molecular basis for their substrate specificity remains poorly understood. Three-dimensional protein structures can greatly enhance our understanding of the interactions between enzymes and their substrates, but because of the inherent difficulties in purifying and crystallizing integral endoplasmic reticulum membrane proteins, no complete mammalian UGT structure has yet been produced. To address this problem, we have created a homology model of UGT1A6 using I-TASSER to explore, in detail, the interactions of human UGT1A6 with its substrates. Ligands were docked into our model in the presence of the cosubstrate uridine-5'-diphosphate-glucuronic acid, interacting residues were examined, and poses were compared to those cocrystallized with various plant and bacterial glycosyltransferases (GTs). Our model structurally resembles other GTs, and docking experiments replicated many of the expected UGT-substrate interactions. Some bias toward the template structures' protein-substrate interactions and binding preferences was evident.

Hetero-oligomer formation of mouse UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 2b1 and 1a1 results in the gain of glucuronidation activity towards morphine, an activity which is absent in homo-oligomers of either UGT

UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase (UGT, Ugt) is a major drug metabolizing enzyme family involved in the glucuronidation and subsequent elimination of drugs and small lipophilic molecules. UGT forms homo- and hetero-oligomers that enhance or suppress UGT activity. In our previous study, we characterized mouse Ugt1a1 and all the Ugt isoform belonging to the Ugt2b subfamily and revealed that mouse Ugt2b1 and Ugt1a1 cannot metabolize morphine. Mouse Ugt2b1 had been believed to function similarly to rat UGT2B1, which plays a major role in morphine glucuronidation in rat liver. Thus, in this study, we hypothesized that hetero-oligomerization with another Ugt isoform may affect Ugt2b1 catalytic ability. We co-expressed Ugt1a1 and Ugt2b1 in a baculovirus-insect cell system, and confirmed hetero-oligomer formation by co-immunoprecipitation. As reported previously, microsomes singly expressing Ugt1a1 or Ugt2b1 were inactive towards the glucuronidation of morphine. Interestingly, in contrast, morphine-3-glucuronide, a major metabolite of morphine was formed, when Ugt2b1 and Ugt1a1 were co-expressed. This effect of hetero-oligomerization of Ugt1a1 and Ugt2b1 was also observed for 17β-estradiol glucuronidation. This is the first report demonstrating that UGT acquires a novel catalytic ability by forming oligomers. Protein-protein interaction of Ugts may contribute to robust detoxification of xenobiotics by altering the substrate diversity of the enzymes.

Impact of immobilization technology in industrial and pharmaceutical applications

The current demands of the world's biotechnological industries are enhancement in enzyme productivity and development of novel techniques for increasing their shelf life. Compared to free enzymes in solution, immobilized enzymes are more robust and more resistant to environmental changes. More importantly, the heterogeneity of the immobilized enzyme systems allows an easy recovery of both enzymes and products, multiple reuse of enzymes, continuous operation of enzymatic processes, rapid termination of reactions, and greater variety of bioreactor designs. This review summarizes immobilization definition, different immobilization methods, advantages and disadvantages of each method. In addition, it covers some food industries, protein purification, human nutrition, biodiesel production, and textile industry. In these industries, the use of enzymes has become an inevitable processing strategy when a perfect end product is desired. It also can be used in many other important industries including health care and pharmaceuticals applications. One of the best uses of enzymes in the modern life is their application in diagnose and treatment of many disease especially when used in drug delivery system or when used in nanoform.

In vitro glucuronidation of 7-hydroxycoumarin derivatives in intestine and liver microsomes of Beagle dogs

Beagle dog is a standard animal model for evaluating nonclinical pharmacokinetics of new drug candidates. Glucuronidation in intestine and liver is an important first-pass drug metabolic pathway, especially for phenolic compounds. This study evaluated the glucuronidation characteristics of several 7-hydroxycoumarin derivatives in beagle dog's intestine and liver in vitro. To this end, glucuronidation rates of 7-hydroxycoumarin (compound 1), 7-hydroxy-4-trifluoromethylcoumarin (2), 6-methoxy-7-hydroxycoumarin (3), 7-hydroxy-3-(4-tolyl)coumarin (4), 3-(4-fluorophenyl)coumarin (5), 7-hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)coumarin (6), 7-hydroxy-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)coumarin (7), and 7-hydroxy-3-(1H-1,2,4-tirazole)coumarin (8) were determined in dog's intestine and liver microsomes, as well as recombinant dog UGT1A enzymes. The glucuronidation rates of 1, 2 and 3 were 3-10 times higher in liver than in small intestine microsomes, whereas glucuronidation rates of 5, 6, 7 and 8 were similar in microsomes from both tissues. In the colon, glucuronidation of 1 and 2 was 3-5 times faster than in small intestine. dUGT1A11 glucuronidated efficiently all the substrates and was more efficient catalyst for 8 than any other dUGT1A. Other active enzymes were dUGT1A2 that glucuronidated efficiently 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, while dUGT1A10 glucuronidated efficiently 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7. Kinetic analyses revealed that the compounds' K_m values varied between 1.1 (dUGT1A10 and 2) and 250 µM (dUGT1A7 and 4). The results further strengthen the concept that dog intestine has high capacity for glucuronidation, and that different dUGT1As mediate glucuronidation with distinct substrates selectivity in dog and human.

The UGTome: The expanding diversity of UDP glycosyltransferases and its impact on small molecule metabolism

The UDP glycosyltransferase (UGT) superfamily of enzymes is responsible for the metabolism and clearance of thousands of lipophilic chemicals including drugs, toxins and endogenous signaling molecules. They provide a protective interface between the organism and its chemical-rich environment, as well as controlling critical signaling pathways to maintain healthy tissue function. UGTs are associated with drug responses and interactions, as well as a wide range of diseases including cancer. The human genome contains 22 UGT genes; however as befitting their exceptionally diverse substrate ranges and biological activities, the output of these UGT genes is functionally diversified by multiple processes including alternative splicing, post-translational modification, homo- and hetero-oligomerization, and interactions with other proteins. All UGT genes are subject to extensive alternative splicing generating variant/truncated UGT proteins with altered functions including the capacity to dominantly modulate/inhibit cognate full-length forms. Heterotypic oligomerization of different UGTs can alter kinetic properties relative to monotypic complexes, and potentially produce novel substrate specificities. Moreover, the recently profiled interactions of UGTs with non-UGT proteins may facilitate coordination between different metabolic processes, as well as providing opportunities for UGTs to engage in novel 'moonlighting' functions. Herein we provide a detailed and comprehensive review of all known modes of UGT functional diversification and propose a UGTome model to describe the resulting expansion of metabolic capacity and its potential to modulate drug/xenobiotic responses and cell behaviours in normal and disease contexts.

Emerging structural insights into glycosyltransferase-mediated synthesis of glycans

Glycans linked to proteins and lipids play key roles in biology; thus, accurate replication of cellular glycans is crucial for maintaining function following cell division. The fact that glycans are not copied from genomic templates suggests that fidelity is provided by the catalytic templates of glycosyltransferases that accurately add sugars to specific locations on growing oligosaccharides. To form new glycosidic bonds, glycosyltransferases bind acceptor substrates and orient a specific hydroxyl group, frequently one of many, for attack of the donor sugar anomeric carbon. Several recent crystal structures of glycosyltransferases with bound acceptor substrates reveal that these enzymes have common core structures that function as scaffolds upon which variable loops are inserted to confer substrate specificity and correctly orient the nucleophilic hydroxyl group. The varied approaches for acceptor binding site assembly suggest an ongoing evolution of these loop regions provides templates for assembly of the diverse glycan structures observed in biology.

Curcumin ameliorates glyoxylate-induced calcium oxalate deposition and renal injuries in mice

BACKGROUND

Nephrolithiasis is one of the most common and frequent urologic diseases worldwide. Several pathophysiological mechanisms are involved in stone formation, including oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, fibrosis and autophagy. Curcumin, the predominant active component of turmeric, has been shown to have pleiotropic biological and pharmacological properties, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic effects.

PURPOSE

The current study proposed to systematically investigate the protective effects and the underlying mechanisms of curcumin in a calcium oxalate (CaOx) nephrolithiasis mouse model.

METHODS

The animal model was established in male C57BL/6 mice by successive intraperitoneal injection of glyoxylate (100 mg/kg) for 1 week. Curcumin was orally given to mice 7 days before the injection of glyoxylate and for a total of 14 days at 50 mg/kg or 100 mg/kg. Bilateral renal tissue was harvested and processed for oxidative stress index detection, histopathological examinations and other analyses.

RESULTS

Coadministration of curcumin could significantly reduce glyoxylate-induced CaOx deposition and simultaneous tissue injury in mouse kidneys. Meanwhile, curcumin alleviated the oxidative stress response via reducing MDA content and increasing SOD, CAT, GPx, GR and GSH levels in this animal model. Moreover, treatment with curcumin significantly inhibited apoptosis and autophagy induced by hyperoxaluria. Curcumin also attenuated the high expression of IL-6, MCP-1, OPN, CD44, α-SMA, Collagen I and collagen fibril deposition, which were elevated by hyperoxaluria. Furthermore, the results revealed that both the total expression and nuclear accumulation of Nrf2, as well as its main downstream products such as HO-1, NQO1 and UGT, were decreased in the kidneys of mice in the crystal group, while treatment with curcumin could rescue this deterioration.

CONCLUSION

Curcumin could significantly alleviate CaOx crystal deposition in the mouse kidney and the concurrent renal tissue injury. The underlying mechanism involved the combination of antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, inhibiting autophagy, anti-inflammatory, and antifibrotic activity and the ability to decrease expression of OPN and CD44 through the Nrf2 signaling pathway. The pleiotropic antilithic properties, combined with the minimal side effects, make curcumin a good potential choice to prevent and treat new or recurrent nephrolithiasis.

Comparative review of drug-drug interactions with epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors for the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer

The development of small-molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) that target the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) has revolutionized the management of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Because these drugs are commonly used in combination with other types of medication, the risk of clinically significant drug–drug interactions (DDIs) is an important consideration, especially for patients using multiple drugs for coexisting medical conditions. Clinicians need to be aware of the potential for clinically important DDIs when considering therapeutic options for individual patients. In this article, we describe the main mechanisms underlying DDIs with the EGFR-TKIs that are currently approved for the treatment of NSCLC, and, specifically, the potential for interactions mediated via effects on gastrointestinal pH, cytochrome P450-dependent metabolism, uridine diphosphate-glucuronosyltransferase, and transporter proteins. We review evidence of such DDIs with the currently approved EGFR-TKIs (gefitinib, erlotinib, afatinib, osimertinib, and icotinib) and discuss several information sources that are available online to aid clinical decision-making. We conclude by summarizing the most clinically relevant DDIs with these EFGR-TKIs and provide recommendations for managing, minimizing, or avoiding DDIs with the different agents.

Protein/ Hormone Based Nanoparticles as Carriers for Drugs Targeting Protein-Protein Interactions

BACKGROUND

In this review, protein-protein interactions (PPIs) were defined, and their behaviors in normal in disease conditions are discussed. Their status at nuclear, molecular and cellular level was underscored, as for their interference in many diseases. Finally, the use of protein nanoscale structures as possible carriers for drugs targeting PPIs was highlighted.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this review is to suggest a novel approach for targeting PPIs. By using protein nanospheres and nanocapsules, a promising field of study can be emerged.

METHODS

To solidify this argument, PPIs and their biological significance was discussed, same as their role in hormone signaling.

RESULTS

We shed the light on the drugs that targets PPI and we suggested the use of nanovectors to encapsulate these drugs to possibly achieve better results.

CONCLUSION

Protein based nanoparticles, due to their advantages, can be suitable carriers for drugs targeting PPIs. This can open a new opportunity in the emerging field of multifunctional therapeutics.

Overcoming Drug Resistance through the Development of Selective Inhibitors of UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase Enzymes

Drug resistance is a major cause of cancer-related mortality. Glucuronidation of drugs via elevation of UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGT1As) correlates with clinical resistance. The nine UGT1A family members have broad substrate specificities attributed to their variable N-terminal domains and share a common C-terminal domain. Development of UGT1As as pharmacological targets has been hampered by toxicity of pan-UGT inhibitors and by difficulty in isolating pure N-terminal domains or full-length proteins. Here, we developed a strategy to target selected UGT1As which exploited the biochemical tractability of the C-domain and its ability to allosterically communicate with the catalytic site. By combining NMR fragment screening with in vitro glucuronidation assays, we identified inhibitors selective for UGT1A4. Significantly, these compounds selectively restored sensitivity in resistant cancer cells only for substrates of the targeted UGT1A. This strategy represents a crucial first step toward developing compounds to overcome unwanted glucuronidation thereby reversing resistance in patients.

Hyperbilirubinemia, Hypertension, and CKD: the Links

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review aims to highlight recent advances on the role of hyperbilirubinemia in hypertension and chronic kidney disease, with a focus on the pathophysiological mechanisms explaining the protective effects of bilirubin. An overview of pharmacologic induction of hyperbilirubinemia will also be discussed.

RECENT FINDINGS

The findings depict a protective role of bilirubin in the development of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Hyperbilirubinemia is also negatively correlated with the development and progression of chronic kidney disease. Commonly used drugs play a role in pharmacologic induction of hyperbilirubinemia. Bilirubin is therefore an exciting target for new therapeutic interventions for its antioxidant properties can be pivotal in the management of hypertension and in preventing and halting the progression of chronic kidney disease. Longitudinal studies are warranted to evaluate the prospective association between bilirubin levels and incident hypertension and chronic kidney disease in the general population. Interventions to induce hyperbilirubinemia need to be explored as a novel therapeutic approach in fighting disease burden.

Glucuronidated Flavonoids in Neurological Protection: Structural Analysis and Approaches for Chemical and Biological Synthesis

Both plant and mammalian cells express glucuronosyltransferases that catalyze glucuronidation of polyphenols such as flavonoids and other small molecules. Oral administration of select polyphenolic compounds leads to the accumulation of the corresponding glucuronidated metabolites at μM and sub-μM concentrations in the brain, associated with amelioration of a range of neurological symptoms. Determining the mechanisms whereby botanical extracts impact cognitive wellbeing and psychological resiliency will require investigation of the modes of action of the brain-targeted metabolites. Unfortunately, many of these compounds are not commercially available. This article describes the latest approaches for the analysis and synthesis of glucuronidated flavonoids. Synthetic schemes include both standard organic synthesis, semisynthesis, enzymatic synthesis and use of synthetic biology utilizing heterologous enzymes in microbial platform organisms.

Revisiting the Latency of Uridine Diphosphate-Glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs)-How Does the Endoplasmic Reticulum Membrane Influence Their Function?

Uridine diphosphate-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) are phase 2 conjugation enzymes mainly located in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of the liver and many other tissues, and can be recovered in artificial ER membrane preparations (microsomes). They catalyze glucuronidation reactions in various aglycone substrates, contributing significantly to the body's chemical defense mechanism. There has been controversy over the last 50 years in the UGT field with respect to the explanation for the phenomenon of latency: full UGT activity revealed by chemical or physical disruption of the microsomal membrane. Because latency can lead to inaccurate measurements of UGT activity in vitro, and subsequent underprediction of drug clearance in vivo, it is important to understand the mechanisms behind this phenomenon. Three major hypotheses have been advanced to explain UGT latency: compartmentation, conformation, and adenine nucleotide inhibition. In this review, we discuss the evidence behind each hypothesis in depth, and suggest some additional studies that may reveal more information on this intriguing phenomenon.

Advances in the Understanding of Protein-Protein Interactions in Drug Metabolizing Enzymes through the Use of Biophysical Techniques

In recent years, a growing appreciation has developed for the importance of protein-protein interactions to modulate the function of drug metabolizing enzymes. Accompanied with this appreciation, new methods and technologies have been designed for analyzing protein-protein interactions both in vitro and in vivo. These technologies have been applied to several classes of drug metabolizing enzymes, including: cytochrome P450's (CYPs), monoamine oxidases (MAOs), UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs), glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), and sulfotransferases (SULTs). In this review, we offer a brief description and assessment of the impact of many of these technologies to the study of protein-protein interactions in drug disposition. The still expanding list of these techniques and assays has the potential to revolutionize our understanding of how these enzymes carry out their important functions in vivo.

Endogenous Protein Interactome of Human UDP-Glucuronosyltransferases Exposed by Untargeted Proteomics

The conjugative metabolism mediated by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzymes (UGTs) significantly influences the bioavailability and biological responses of endogenous molecule substrates and xenobiotics including drugs. UGTs participate in the regulation of cellular homeostasis by limiting stress induced by toxic molecules, and by controlling hormonal signaling networks. Glucuronidation is highly regulated at genomic, transcriptional, post-transcriptional and post-translational levels. However, the UGT protein interaction network, which is likely to influence glucuronidation, has received little attention. We investigated the endogenous protein interactome of human UGT1A enzymes in main drug metabolizing non-malignant tissues where UGT expression is most prevalent, using an unbiased proteomics approach. Mass spectrometry analysis of affinity-purified UGT1A enzymes and associated protein complexes in liver, kidney and intestine tissues revealed an intricate interactome linking UGT1A enzymes to multiple metabolic pathways. Several proteins of pharmacological importance such as transferases (including UGT2 enzymes), transporters and dehydrogenases were identified, upholding a potential coordinated cellular response to small lipophilic molecules and drugs. Furthermore, a significant cluster of functionally related enzymes involved in fatty acid β-oxidation, as well as in the glycolysis and glycogenolysis pathways were enriched in UGT1A enzymes complexes. Several partnerships were confirmed by co-immunoprecipitations and co-localization by confocal microscopy. An enhanced accumulation of lipid droplets in a kidney cell model overexpressing the UGT1A9 enzyme supported the presence of a functional interplay. Our work provides unprecedented evidence for a functional interaction between glucuronidation and bioenergetic metabolism.