Pathogens-The Hidden Face of Forest Invasions by Wood-Boring Insect Pests

Specimen preparation for X-ray micro-computed tomography of forest pests

X-ray micro-computed tomography (XCT) is an X-ray-based three-dimensional (3D) imaging technique that enables non-destructive imaging of both external and internal structures. It is widely used for studying biological specimens such as animals and plants. In this review, we discuss various specimen preparation methods for the technique, particularly focusing on forest pests, with six representative cases. Specimen preparation methods for forest pests can be broadly categorized into three groups based on mounting types: (i) simple mounting, (ii) liquid-cell mounting, and (iii) dry-cell mounting. The simple mounting method is particularly suitable for adult beetles due to their exoskeleton. The dehydration process minimizes specimen movement during scanning, ensuring better imaging quality. In the case of liquid-cell mounting, the specimen is immersed in a liquid medium for scanning, which effectively preserves the soft tissues of larvae and pupae. The dry-cell mounting does not involve fixation or dehydration and is particularly useful for analyzing immobilized specimens. To enhance the quality of 3D images, selecting an appropriate preparation method is essential. Since forest pests display varying sizes and types, the choice of preparation method should be based on the specific characteristics of the specimens of interest and research objectives. This review provides valuable insights for researchers and practitioners seeking to identify the most suitable and effective mounting method for XCT scanning of forest pests.

Using Insect Larvae and Their Microbiota for Plastic Degradation

Plastic pollution is one of the biggest current global threats to the environment given that petroleum-based plastic is recalcitrant and can stay in the environment for decades, even centuries, depending on the specific plastic type. Since less than 10% of all plastic made is recycled, and the other solutions (such as incineration or landfill storage) are pollutant methods, new, environmentally friendly solutions are needed. In this regard, the latest biotechnological discovery on this topic is the capability of insect larvae to use plastic polymers as carbon feedstock. This present review describes the most relevant information on the insect larvae capable of degrading plastic, mainly Galleria mellonella (Fabricius, 1798), Tenebrio molitor (Linnaeus, 1758), and Zophobas atratus (Fabricius, 1776), and also adds new information about other less commonly studied "plastivore" insects such as termites. This review covers the literature from the very first work describing plastic degradation by larvae published in 2014 all the way to the very latest research available (till June 2024), focusing on the identification of a wide variety of plastic-degrading microorganisms isolated from larvae guts and on the understanding of the potential molecular mechanisms present for degradation to take place. It also describes the latest discoveries, which include the identification of novel enzymes from waxworm saliva.

De Novo Transcriptome Assembly of Cedar (Cedrela odorata L.) and Differential Gene Expression Involved in Herbivore Resistance

Timber trees are targets of herbivorous attacks. The identification of genes associated with pest resistance can be accomplished through differential expression analysis using transcriptomes. We reported the de novo assembly of cedar (Cedrela odorata L.) transcriptome and the differential expression of genes involved in herbivore resistance. The assembly and annotation of the transcriptome were obtained using RNAseq from healthy cedar plants and those infested with Chrysobothris yucatanensis. A total of 325.6 million reads were obtained, and 127,031 (97.47%) sequences were successfully assembled. A total of 220 herbivory-related genes were detected, of which 170 genes were annotated using GO terms, and 161 genes with 245 functions were identified-165, 75, and 5 were molecular functions, biological processes, and cellular components, respectively. To protect against herbivorous infestation, trees produce toxins and volatile compounds which are modulated by signaling pathways and gene expression related to molecular functions and biological processes. The limited number of genes identified as cellular components suggests that there are minimal alterations in cellular structure in response to borer attack. The chitin recognition protein, jasmonate ZIM-domain (JAZ) motifs, and response regulator receiver domain were found to be overexpressed, whereas the terpene synthase, cytochrome P450, and protein kinase domain gene families were underexpressed. This is the first report of a cedar transcriptome focusing on genes that are overexpressed in healthy plants and underexpressed in infested plants. This method may be a viable option for identifying genes associated with herbivore resistance.

Possible Biological Control of Ash Dieback Using the Mycoparasite Hymenoscyphus Fraxineus Mitovirus 2

Invasive fungal diseases represent a major threat to forest ecosystems worldwide. As the application of fungicides is often unfeasible and not a sustainable solution, only a few other control options are available, including biological control. In this context, the use of parasitic mycoviruses as biocontrol agents of fungal pathogens has recently gained particular attention. Since the 1990s, the Asian fungus Hymenoscyphus fraxineus has been causing lethal ash dieback across Europe. In the present study, we investigated the biocontrol potential of the mitovirus Hymenoscyphus fraxineus mitovirus 2 (HfMV2) previously identified in Japanese populations of the pathogen. HfMV2 could be successfully introduced via co-culturing into 16 of 105 HfMV2-free isolates. Infection with HfMV2 had contrasting effects on fungal growth in vitro, from cryptic to detrimental or beneficial. Virus-infected H. fraxineus isolates whose growth was reduced by HfMV2 showed overall a lower virulence on ash (Fraxinus excelsior) saplings as compared with their isogenic HfMV2-free lines. The results suggest that mycoviruses exist in the native populations of H. fraxineus in Asia that have the potential for biological control of ash dieback in Europe. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Comparative transcriptomics reveals divergence in pathogen response gene families amongst 20 forest tree species

Forest trees provide critical ecosystem services for humanity that are under threat due to ongoing global change. Measuring and characterizing genetic diversity are key to understanding adaptive potential and developing strategies to mitigate negative consequences arising from climate change. In the area of forest genetic diversity, genetic divergence caused by large-scale changes at the chromosomal level has been largely understudied. In this study, we used the RNA-seq data of 20 co-occurring forest trees species from genera including Acer, Alnus, Amelanchier, Betula, Cornus, Corylus, Dirca, Fraxinus, Ostrya, Populus, Prunus, Quercus, Ribes, Tilia, and Ulmus sampled from Upper Peninsula of Michigan. These data were used to infer the origin and maintenance of gene family variation, species divergence time, as well as gene family expansion and contraction. We identified a signal of common whole genome duplication events shared by core eudicots. We also found rapid evolution, namely fast expansion or fast contraction of gene families, in plant-pathogen interaction genes amongst the studied diploid species. Finally, the results lay the foundation for further research on the genetic diversity and adaptive capacity of forest trees, which will inform forest management and conservation policies.

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) technology to control forest insect pests and fungal pathogens: challenges and opportunities

Climate change alters the seasonal synchronization between plants and respective pests plus pathogens. The geographical infiltration helps to shift their hosts, resulting in novel outbreaks that damage forests and ecology. Traditional management schemes are unable to control such outbreaks, therefore unconventional and competitive governance is needed to manage forest pests and pathogens. RNA interference (RNAi) mediated double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) treatment method can be implemented to protect forest trees. Exogenous dsRNA triggers the RNAi-mediated gene silencing of a vital gene, and suspends protein production, resulting in the death of targeted pathogens and pests. The dsRNA treatment method is successful for many crop insects and fungi, however, studies of dsRNA against forest pests and pathogens are depleting. Pesticides and fungicides based on dsRNA could be used to combat pathogens that caused outbreaks in different parts of the world. Although the dsRNA has proved its potential, the crucial dilemma and risks including species-specific gene selection, and dsRNA delivery methods cannot be overlooked. Here, we summarized the major fungi pathogens and insect pests that have caused outbreaks, their genomic information, and studies on dsRNA fungi-and pesticides. Current challenges and opportunities in dsRNA target decision, delivery using nanoparticles, direct applications, and a new method using mycorrhiza for forest tree protection are discussed. The importance of affordable next-generation sequencing to minimize the impact on non-target species is discussed. We suggest that collaborative research among forest genomics and pathology institutes could develop necessary dsRNA strategies to protect forest tree species.

Insect wood borers on commercial North American tree species growing in China: review of Chinese peer-review and grey literature

Invasive insect wood borers are a threat to global forests and tree-related industries as they can damage trees and spread plant pathogens. Reports of damages by wood borers on plants that were planted overseas may facilitate the identification of potential invaders and speed up risk assessment. However, much of this information remains unavailable to the international plant protection community due to language barriers, lack of digitization, or limited circulation of regional literature. Here, we investigated reports of wood borers on 7 important North American commercial tree species planted in China (Carya illinoinensis, Liquidambar styraciflua, Pinus elliottii, Pinus taeda, Quercus texana, Quercus rubra, and Quercus virginiana) in peer-reviewed as well as "grey" (nonpeer-reviewed) Chinese literature. A total of 60 unique wood borer records were found, yielding reports of 4 orders, 39 genera, and 44 species of insect wood borers. Among Coleoptera, longhorned beetles (Cerambycidae) were the most commonly reported colonizers of North American trees in China. Chinese peer-reviewed reports of pests on alien plants are a valuable tool to survey for potential wood-boring invaders of North America, and wherever North American trees are planted and have the potential to encounter Asian invasive insects. Digitization and dissemination of non-English literature are essential for contemporary risk assessment. On the other hand, the nonpeer reviewed "grey" literature, primarily agency reports and student theses, provided only 5% of the records; many incidental observations were unreliable.

Impacts of Dutch elm disease-causing fungi on foliage photosynthetic characteristics and volatiles in Ulmus species with different pathogen resistance

Global warming affects the abiotic and biotic growth environment of plants, including the spread of fungal diseases such as Dutch elm disease (DED). Dutch elm disease-resistance of different Ulmus species varies, but how this is reflected in leaf-level physiological pathogen responses has not been investigated. We studied the impacts of mechanical injury alone and mechanical injury plus inoculation with the DED-causing pathogens Ophiostoma novo-ulmi subsp. novo-ulmi and O. novo-ulmi subsp. americana on Ulmus glabra, a more vulnerable species, and U. laevis, a more resistant species. Plant stress responses were evaluated for 12 days after stress application by monitoring leaf net CO2 assimilation rate (A), stomatal conductance (gs), ratio of ambient to intercellular CO2 concentration (Ca/Ci) and intrinsic water-use efficiency (A/gs), and by measuring biogenic volatile (VOC) release by plant leaves. In U. glabra and U. laevis, A was not affected by time, stressors or their interaction. Only in U. glabra, gs and Ca/Ci decreased in time, yet recovered by the end of the experiment. Although the emission compositions were affected in both species, the stress treatments enhanced VOC emission rates only in U. laevis. In this species, mechanical injury especially when combined with the pathogens increased the emission of lipoxygenase pathway volatiles and dimethylallyl diphosphate and geranyl diphosphate pathway volatiles. In conclusion, the more resistant species U. laevis had a more stable photosynthesis, but stronger pathogen-elicited volatile response, especially after inoculation by O. novo-ulmi subsp. novo-ulmi. Thus, stronger activation of defenses might underlay higher DED-resistance in this species.

Discovery of entomopathogenic fungi across geographical regions in southern China on pine sawyer beetle Monochamus alternatus and implication for multi-pathogen vectoring potential of this beetle

Entomopathogen-based biocontrol is crucial for blocking the transmission of vector-borne diseases; however, few cross-latitudinal investigations of entomopathogens have been reported for vectors transmitting woody plant diseases in forest ecosystems. The pine sawyer beetle Monochamus alternatus is an important wood borer and a major vector transmitting pine wilt disease, facilitating invasion of the pinewood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (PWN) in China. Due to the limited geographical breadth of sampling regions, species diversity of fungal associates (especially entomopathogenic fungi) on M. alternatus adults and their potential ecological functions have been markedly underestimated. In this study, through traditional fungal isolation with morphological and molecular identification, 640 fungal strains (affiliated with 15 genera and 39 species) were isolated from 81 beetle cadavers covered by mycelia or those symptomatically alive across five regional populations of this pest in southern China. Multivariate analyses revealed significant differences in the fungal community composition among geographical populations of M. alternatus, presenting regionalized characteristics, whereas no significant differences were found in fungal composition between beetle genders or among body positions. Four region-representative fungi, namely, Lecanicillium attenuatum (Zhejiang), Aspergillus austwickii (Sichuan), Scopulariopsis alboflavescens (Fujian), and A. ruber (Guangxi), as well as the three fungal species Beauveria bassiana, Penicillium citrinum, and Trichoderma dorotheae, showed significantly stronger entomopathogenic activities than other fungi. Additionally, insect-parasitic entomopathogenic fungi (A. austwickii, B. bassiana, L. attenuatum, and S. alboflavescens) exhibited less to no obvious phytopathogenic activities on the host pine Pinus massoniana, whereas P. citrinum, Purpureocillium lilacinum, and certain species of Fusarium spp.-isolated from M. alternatus body surfaces-exhibited remarkably higher phytopathogenicity. Our results provide a broader view of the entomopathogenic fungal community on the vector beetle M. alternatus, some of which are reported for the first time on Monochamus spp. in China. Moreover, this beetle might be more highly-risk in pine forests than previously considered, as a potential multi-pathogen vector of both PWN and phytopathogenic fungi.

Transcontinental Dispersal of Nonendemic Fungal Pathogens through Wooden Handicraft Imports

This study examined the viability and diversity of fungi harbored in imported wooden handicraft products sold in six retail stores in Florida, United States. Despite being subjected to trade regulations that require various sterilization/fumigation protocols, our study demonstrates high survival and diversity of fungi in wood products originating from at least seven countries on three continents. Among these fungi were nonendemic plant and human pathogens, as well as mycotoxin producers. Several products that are sold for use in food preparation and consumption harbored a novel (to North America) plant and human pathogen, Paecilomyces formosus. In addition, a high number of species isolated were thermophilic and included halophilic species, suggesting adaptability and selection through current wood treatment protocols that utilize heat and/or fumigation with methyl-bromide. This research suggests that current federal guidelines for imports of wooden goods are not sufficient to avoid the transit of potential live pathogens and demonstrates the need to increase safeguards at both points of origin and entry for biosecurity against introduction from invasive fungal species in wood products. Future import regulations should consider living fungi, their tolerance to extreme conditions, and their potential survival in solid substrates. Mitigation efforts may require additional steps such as more stringent fumigation and/or sterilization strategies and limiting use of wood that has not been processed to remove bark and decay. IMPORTANCE This study, the first of its kind, demonstrates the risk of importation of nonendemic foreign fungi on wooden handicrafts into the United States despite the application of sanitation protocols. Previous risk assessments of imported wood products have focused on potential for introduction of invasive arthropods (and their fungal symbionts) or have focused on other classes of wood products (timber, wooden furniture, garden products, etc.). Little to no attention has been paid to wooden handicrafts and the fungal pathogens (of plants and humans) they may carry. Due to the large size and diversity of this market, the risk for introduction of potentially dangerous pathogens is significant as illustrated by the results of this study.

Potential impacts of emerald ash borer and adaptation strategies on wildlife communities in black ash wetlands

Black ash wetlands cover approximately 1.2 million ha of wetland forest in the western Great Lakes region, providing critical habitat for wildlife. The future of these wetlands is critically threatened by a variety of factors, including emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis; emerald ash borer [EAB]), which has been eliminating native populations of otherwise healthy ash throughout the Great Lakes region since it was discovered in 2002. To quantify the potential impacts of tree mortality from EAB on wildlife communities, we measured seasonal bird, mammal, and amphibian diversity in black ash wetlands using a dual approach: (1) documenting bird and amphibian species across 27 mature reference black ash wetlands in northern Minnesota, USA and (2) assessing how bird, mammal, and amphibian communities respond to experimental manipulations of black ash forests that emulate mortality and management strategies related to the potential impact of EAB. In total, 85 wildlife species were recorded for the entire study including 57 bird species, 5 amphibian species, and 23 mammal species. Results from the reference sites show that hydrologic regime, percentage of ash canopy cover, and understory cover were important habitat characteristics for bird and amphibian communities. Results from the experimental sites show there may be short-term increases in species richness for mammal and bird communities associated with changes in forest structure due to ash mortality; however, anticipated changes resulting from EAB-caused mortality, particularly the conversion of these sites to non-forested wetlands, will lead to significant shifts in bird and mammal community composition. Loss of ash may cause declines in forest-dependent species and increases in open-canopy and wetland-associated species. Additionally, whereas increased ponding extent and longer hydroperiods may be beneficial for some amphibian species, the loss of the forest canopy will result in an overall decrease in bird diversity and reduce forest connectivity for all species. Our results indicate the potential for significant large-scale impacts of black ash mortality on forest-associated wildlife. Management strategies that focus on establishing alternative trees species to maintain long-term forest cover and structural complexity in these wetlands will help to maintain and conserve wildlife diversity.

The Effects of Frost Cracks and Large Poplar Borer Damage on Stem Rot in Hybrid Aspen (Populus tremula L. × Populus tremuloides Michx.) Clones

Hybrid aspen (Populus tremula L. × Populus tremuloides Michx.) plantations may produce valuable sawlogs for the growing timber market and contribute to carbon sequestration. However, environmental risks such as stem rot, the spread of which is facilitated by insect or frost damage, may reduce the proportion of valuable timber. It is important to understand the various factors affecting the spread of aspen rot to mitigate negative impacts with tree breeding. This study aimed to assess the impact of frost cracks and large poplar borer on stem rot in hybrid aspen clones in two clonal trials in Latvia. Genetic parameters for the traits were also estimated. The presence of insect passages substantially increased the probability of stem rot without distinct clonal differences. A negative and mainly insignificant correlation was observed between rot and stem cracking. The highest broad-sense heritability (H2 = 0.21) and strong site-site genotypic correlation (0.86) showed that the probability of stem rot is genetically determined in the study material. Significant differences in diameter at breast height, the presence of stem rot, and its severity were found among the clones, albeit without undesirable positive correlation between growth and presence of decay. This indicated its potential to improve both productivity and rot resistance.

Olean (1,7-dioxaspiro[5.5]undecane): A Novel Intraspecific Chemical Cue in Coraebus undatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae)

Simple Summary

The flathead oak borer Coraebus undatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) is a major pest of cork oak (Quercus suber) along the Mediterranean Basin that generates significant economic losses in the cork industry. Larvae bore long galleries and feed on the cork generating layer, thus affecting its quality. At present, the semiochemistry of this species is poorly known, and therefore the elucidation of chemicals involved in its intraspecific communication may allow the development of novel control tools. We determined that both sexes release the compound 1,7-dioxaspiro[5.5]undecane, and the biological activity of the compound was addressed by means of electroantennography and behavioral assays. The attractiveness of the compound on both sexes under laboratory conditions contrasts to its performance in field trials, which may be explained by features inherent to the methodological design (e.g., the absence of a contextually related visual stimulus or trap deployment height). This is the first time in which an intraspecific compound has been reported as attractive for the species, and practical implications for the assessment of its activity under natural conditions are also further discussed.

Abstract

The main aim of this work was to identify semiochemicals from the jewel beetle Coraebus undatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) that may aid in the improvement of current monitoring tools. First, HS-SPME collections revealed that individually sampled adults (>7 days old) of both sexes release the spiroacetal 1,7-dioxaspiro[5.5]undecane (olean). Electroantennographic recordings from both sexes exposed to increasing amounts of olean followed a dose-dependent pattern, with females being more responsive than males to the highest amount of the compound (100 µg). In double-choice assays, adults older than seven days were significantly attracted to olean, whereas this attraction was not detected in insects aged less than seven days. Indeed, a repellent effect was observed in young females. Subsequent field trials employing sticky purple prism traps revealed that there were no differences among the number of insects caught in control and olean-baited traps at two different release rates (0.75 and 3.75 mg/day). Interestingly, all the trapped specimens were determined as mated females, regardless of the presence of olean. Overall, these findings provide a basis for unraveling the chemical ecology of the species, although further research is still needed to determine the specific role of this compound within the chemical communication of the species.

The Threat of Pests and Pathogens and the Potential for Biological Control in Forest Ecosystems

Forests are an essential component of the natural environment, as they support biodiversity, sequester carbon, and play a crucial role in biogeochemical cycles—in addition to producing organic matter that is necessary for the function of terrestrial organisms. Forests today are subject to threats ranging from natural occurrences, such as lightning-ignited fires, storms, and some forms of pollution, to those caused by human beings, such as land-use conversion (deforestation or intensive agriculture). In recent years, threats from pests and pathogens, particularly non-native species, have intensified in forests. The damage, decline, and mortality caused by insects, fungi, pathogens, and combinations of pests can lead to sizable ecological, economic, and social losses. To combat forest pests and pathogens, biocontrol may be an effective alternative to chemical pesticides and fertilizers. This review of forest pests and potential adversaries in the natural world highlights microbial inoculants, as well as research efforts to further develop biological control agents against forest pests and pathogens. Recent studies have shown promising results for the application of microbial inoculants as preventive measures. Other studies suggest that these species have potential as fertilizers.

Firewood Transport as a Vector of Forest Pest Dispersal in North America: A Scoping Review

Native and nonnative insects and diseases can result in detrimental impacts to trees and forests, including the loss of economic resources and ecosystem services. Increases in globalization and changing human behaviors have created new anthropogenic pathways for long distance pest dispersal. In North America, literature suggests that once a forest or tree pest is established, the movement of firewood by the general public for recreational or home heating purposes is one of the primary pathways for its dispersal. Understanding human perceptions and behaviors is essential to inform the most effective strategies for modifying firewood and pest dispersal by humans. This scoping review seeks to assess trends and gaps in the existing literature, as well as patterns in behavior related to forest pest dispersal through firewood movement in North America. We identified 76 documents that addressed this topic to which we applied inclusion and exclusion criteria to select articles for further analysis. Twenty-five articles met the inclusion criteria and were categorized based on five identified themes: 1) insect incidence in firewood, 2) insect dispersal via firewood, 3) recreational firewood movement, 4) firewood treatments, and 5) behavior and rule compliance. The selected articles show trends that suggest that firewood movement presents a risk for forest insect dispersal, but that behavior can be modified, and compliance, monitoring, and treatments should be strengthened. This scoping review found limited research about western United States, Mexico, and Canada, various insect species and other organisms, regulation and management, awareness, and behavioral dimensions of firewood movement.

High efficiency transformation and mutant screening of the laurel wilt pathogen, Raffaelea lauricola

The fungal pathogen, Raffaelea lauricola, is the causative agent of laurel wilt, a devastating disease affecting the Lauraceae family. The fungus is vectored by ambrosia beetles that carry the fungus in specialized structures (mycangia), with the fungus acting as a symbiont and food source for beetle larvae growing in tree galleries. In order to probe the molecular basis for plant pathogenicity and insect symbiosis of the laurel wilt fungus, molecular tools including establishment of efficient transformation protocols are required. Resistance marker profiling revealed susceptibility of R. lauricola to phosphinothricin, chlorimuron ethyl, hygromycin, and benomyl. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation using either the bar or sur marker resulted in 1-200 transformants/10⁵ spores. A second protocol using lithium acetate-polyethylene glycol (LiAc-PEG) treatment of fungal blastospores yielded 5-60 transformants/μg DNA/10⁸ cells. Transformants were mitotically stable (at least 5 generations), and > 95% of transformants showed a single integration event. R. lauricola strains expressing green and red fluorescent proteins (EGFP and RFP), as well as glucuronidase (GUS), were constructed. Using the Agrobacterium-mediated method, a random T-DNA insertion library was constructed, and genetic screens led to the isolation of developmental mutants as well as mutants displaying enhanced resistance to sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) or fluconazole, and those showing decreased susceptibility to biphenol. These results establish simple and reliable genetic tools for transformation of R. lauricola needed for genetic dissection of the symbiotic and virulent lifestyles exhibited by this fungus and establish a library of insertion mutants that can be used in various genetic screens to dissect molecular pathways. KEY POINTS: • Vectors and transformation protocols were developed for Raffaelea lauricola. • Method was used for construction of a random insertion mutant library. • Mutant library was validated by phenotypic screens for resistance and susceptibility to various agents.

Acquisition of fungi from the environment modifies ambrosia beetle mycobiome during invasion

Microbial symbionts can play critical roles when their host attempts to colonize a new habitat. The lack of symbiont adaptation can in fact hinder the invasion process of their host. This scenario could change if the exotic species are able to acquire microorganisms from the invaded environment. Understanding the ecological factors that influence the take-up of new microorganisms is thus essential to clarify the mechanisms behind biological invasions. In this study, we tested whether different forest habitats influence the structure of the fungal communities associated with ambrosia beetles. We collected individuals of the most widespread exotic (Xylosandrus germanus) and native (Xyleborinus saxesenii) ambrosia beetle species in Europe in several old-growth and restored forests. We characterized the fungal communities associated with both species via metabarcoding. We showed that forest habitat shaped the community of fungi associated with both species, but the effect was stronger for the exotic X. germanus. Our results support the hypothesis that the direct contact with the mycobiome of the invaded environment might lead an exotic species to acquire native fungi. This process is likely favored by the occurrence of a bottleneck effect at the mycobiome level and/or the disruption of the mechanisms sustaining co-evolved insect-fungi symbiosis. Our study contributes to the understanding of the factors affecting insect-microbes interactions, helping to clarify the mechanisms behind biological invasions.