Food Approach and Food Avoidance in Young Children: Relation with Reward Sensitivity and Punishment Sensitivity

The Development of the Food Averse Questionnaire: A Measure of Food Avoidance in Children With and Without Autistic Spectrum Conditions

The aim of this study was to 1) develop a measure of avoidant eating behaviours for both typically developing children (TD), and those with Autism Spectrum Conditions (ASC), and 2) to examine whether these current behaviours are associated with reports of early feeding difficulties in both populations. In study one (n = 336) parents of 4- to 14-year-old children completed a series of questions about food avoidance. Three subscales of food avoidance were identified with a total scale of 31 items; avoidant, rigid-inflexible, and texture sensitive. Analyses found that scores on these subscales were associated with related measures of picky eating, food neophobia, sensory sensitivity and cognitive inflexibility, as well as lower fruit, vegetable, dairy and protein consumption. In study two, 225 children aged 4-14 years and their parents were recruited (143 TD and 78 ASC). Children with ASC were more likely to have feeding problems during the transition to family foods and in the toddler eating period in comparison to TD children. Additionally, children with ASC showed, at the time of the study, higher avoidance, rigid-inflexible eating and texture-sensitive eating behaviours than TD children. This study has developed a reliable scale for food avoidance for children with and without ASC diagnoses. Food avoidance is more severe in children with ASC than in TD children and these difficulties may start before them receiving an ASC diagnosis. Further work is needed to examine the usefulness of this scale in clinical and nonclinical populations.

Executive functioning is linked to feeding practices and food insecurity in Head Start mothers

Lower executive functioning is associated with more reactive, coercive general parenting practices. Parents who experience poverty, a chronic stressor, may have compromised executive functioning that impacts parenting practices, but less is known about the impact on parent feeding practices. This study examined associations between maternal executive functioning and feeding practices among families living in low-income contexts. Participants included 137 mothers of children enrolled in Head Start who completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult version, Child Feeding Questionnaire, Feeding to Manage Child Behavior Questionnaire, and the USDA Food Security Module. Hierarchical linear regression examined the effect of maternal executive function on maternal feeding practices (monitoring of child food intake, food to soothe, and food as a reward) after adjusting for covariates. The moderating effect of food security on this association was also explored. Mothers were white (90%), non-Hispanic (96%), about half had a high school diploma or less (55%), and a third of households experienced food insecurity (35%). Maternal executive functioning explained 9% of the variance for monitoring of child food intake (β = 0.03, p = 0.0006) and 17% of the variance for food to soothe (β = -0.03, p < 0.0001), over and above the variance explained by food security status, employment status, and child BMI z-score. Lower maternal executive functioning was associated with lower odds of household food security (OR: 0.95, CI: 0.92, 0.99). Targeting maternal executive functioning or its environmental supports may be an effective intervention strategy to promote monitoring and less food to soothe, especially among families who experience stressors related to poverty. Longitudinal research is needed to replicate these findings, and to understand the relationship between parent executive function and child weight outcomes.

Appetite Self-Regulation in Childhood: A Narrative Review and Conceptual Model of Processes and Mechanisms With Implications for Research and Practice

The purpose of the present narrative review was to propose a unifying generalized conceptual model of mechanisms and processes in appetite self-regulation (ASR) in childhood. Appetite self-regulation, along with other domains of self-regulation, develops across childhood and contributes to energy intake and balance, diet quality, weight, and therefore long-term health outcomes. There have been efforts to conceptualize and measure components of ASR and associated processes/mechanisms, but, at present, there is no unifying conceptualization of ASR in childhood. A search of key databases supplemented by snowballing was undertaken for definitions/conceptions and theoretical models of ASR with a focus on children. An interpretive synthesis approach was used to identify themes from the definitions and models. The themes formed the basis of the proposed unifying generalized model of ASR in childhood, which is the main contribution of the article. At the center of the model is bottom-up reactivity to food, food cues and hunger, satiation and satiety signals, together with top-down regulatory control. An additional contribution is the proposed 5 interacting and overlapping domains (biological, hedonics, cognitive, behavioral, and traits) that function in and influence both bottom-up reactivity and top-down regulation. The domains also contribute to ASR outcomes of enactment and competence. External contextual and intrapersonal factors are conceived as impacting the domains and the bottom-up, top-down processes. The relevance of the model for explanations of ASR phenomena in childhood and children's food choice and diet quality, as well as its implications for research directions and approaches to preventive intervention, including food parenting practices, are discussed. The model provides a framework for researchers and practitioners to support and interpret children's problems and competence in self-directing food choices, energy intake, and nutrition.

Biopsychosocial pathways model of early childhood appetite self-regulation: Temperament as a key to modulation of interactions among systems

The widespread discrimination against individuals with obesity often stems from a simplistic perception of obesity as a mere consequence of personal choices of overeating and insufficient physical activity. This reductionist perception fails to acknowledge the complexity of the epidemic of obesity, which extends beyond diet and exercise decisions. The concept of appetite self-regulation (ASR) has been explored as a crucial element in identifying obesogenic behavioral approaches to food. Although an extensive understanding of ASR in children is essential as an early precursor and modifiable factor influencing obesity, the prevailing view of self-regulation of eating solely as a matter of cognitive and behavioral processing tends to overlook interacting systems of influences. This narrow approach attributes obesity to the lack of voluntary self-control in food consumption while neglecting to account for the biological, psychological, and social influences implicated in the developmental processes of ASR, which may further contribute to the stigmatization of obesity. The current critical analysis provides a comprehensive developmental framework that could guide future studies with testable hypotheses, outlining pathways of interactions among biopsychosocial systems, all of which contribute to the development of ASR in early childhood. Adopting developmental perspectives allows a holistic approach to investigating ASR, which accounts for intricate interactions between biological (B), psychological (P), and social (S) factors influential in the early manifestation of ASR.

Food parenting and Children's eating behaviour: Exploring the role of coparenting

Parents have primary influence over the development of their children's eating behaviours, however less attention has been given to whether or how their coparenting plays a role in this association. The aim of this study was to investigate the cross-sectional associations between mothers' and fathers' food parenting practices and children's eating behaviour and examine whether coparenting quality moderates or confounds these associations. Parents (222 mothers and 167 fathers) with children 18 months to 5 years completed an online survey that assessed their food parenting practices and coparenting quality. One parent per family (91% mothers) also reported their children's food approach behaviours. We used linear regressions with generalized estimating equations to examine the associations between food parenting practices and children's eating behaviours. To explore moderation by coparenting quality, we included an interaction term in each model (coparenting quality x food parenting practice). To explore confounding, models were adjusted for coparenting quality. All models were stratified by parent gender and included parent educational attainment, child age, and child BMI z-scores as covariates. Among both mothers and fathers, we found that structure and autonomy support food parenting practices were inversely associated with children's food responsiveness, and desire to drink, while coercive control practices were positively associated with these food approach behaviours. We found the opposite direction of association between these food parenting practices and children's enjoyment of food. Among mothers, autonomy support was inversely associated with children's emotional overeating, while coercive control was positively associated with this eating behaviour. Coparenting quality did not moderate or confound the associations. Future studies should continue to explore these associations among families with young children and consider feeding coparenting in the association.

Almli V. Basic taste sensitivity, eating behaviour, food propensity and BMI of preadolescent children: How are they related?

Background

Taste sensitivity has been reported to influence children's eating behaviour and contribute to their food preferences and intake. This study aimed to investigate the associations between taste sensitivity, eating behaviour, food frequency and BMI (Body Mass Index) in preadolescents.

Methods

Preadolescents' taste sensitivity was measured by detection threshold of sweetness (sucrose), sourness (citric acid), saltiness (sodium chloride), bitterness (caffeine, quinine), and umami (monosodium glutamate). In addition, the Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ), the Food Propensity Questionnaire (FPQ) measuring food frequency, and the children's body weight and height were completed by the parents. A total of 69 child-parent dyads participated (preadolescents mean age =10.9 years).

Results

Taste sensitivity to caffeine bitterness was significantly associated with eating behaviour in food responsiveness, emotional overeating, and desire to drink. The preadolescents who were less sensitive to caffeine bitterness had higher food responsiveness scores. Those who were less sensitive to caffeine bitterness and to sweetness had higher emotional overeating scores. In addition, preadolescents who were less sensitive to sourness and bitterness of both caffeine and quinine demonstrated to have higher scores in desire to drink. There was no association between taste sensitivity and FPQ, but significant differences were observed across preadolescents' BMI for FPQ of dairy food items, indicating higher consumption of low-fat milk in the overweight/obese compared to the underweight/normal-weight subjects. There was no significant difference in taste sensitivity according to BMI. Preadolescents' eating behaviour differed across BMI, demonstrating a positive association between BMI and food approach, and a negative association between BMI and food avoidance.

Conclusions

This study contributes to the preliminary understanding of the relationships between taste sensitivity and eating behaviour in preadolescents. The results may be used to develop effective strategies to promote healthy eating practices by considering taste sensitivity in preadolescents.

Child characteristic correlates of food rejection in preschool children: A narrative review

Dietary habits formed in early childhood are key for establishing a healthy diet later in life. Picky eating and food neophobia - the two main forms of food rejection in young children - form an important barricade to establishing such healthy habits. Understanding these types of food rejection is thus essential for promoting healthy eating behaviour in both children and adults. To this end, the present narrative review aims to provide an overview of food rejection research in preschool-aged children, focusing on recent advances in the cognitive literature. Specifically, we evaluate the link between children's cognitive development, chemosensory perception and affective evaluation of food, food knowledge, decision-making strategies, anxiety and disgust sensitivity, and food rejection behaviour. Longitudinal and experimental studies are necessary to establish how the relationships between food rejection and cognitive processes develop over time and to determine their causal directions.

Child-reported vegetable neophobia is associated with risk avoidance for distaste in children aged 4-15 years

Children who are food neophobic and/or picky eaters often refuse intake of especially fruits and vegetables, thereby narrowing their dietary variety and impairing the quality of their food intake. In this preregistered study, we investigated whether picky eating and food neophobia are related to bitter taste sensitivity (PROP taster status) and risk avoidance for distaste. A total of 367 children (201 girls; M age = 8.7 years, range: 4-15 years) participated in the study. They completed the vegetable neophobia subscale of the fruit and vegetable neophobia instrument (FVNI). A caregiver completed the child food rejection scale (CFRS), a parent-report measure of food neophobia and picky eating. Children's bitter taste sensitivity was measured with a PROP (6-n-propylthiouracil) taste strip, and the children completed a modified Children's Gambling Task (Candy Gambling Game) to measure risk avoidance for distaste. In this task, children could select cards from a risky deck (chance of winning two tasty cherry-flavoured jelly beans, but also the risk of getting a distasteful soap-flavoured jelly bean) or a safe deck (chance of winning one tasty jelly bean or no jelly bean). The results show that picky eating and food neophobia (either parent- or self-reported) are not related to PROP taster status. However, children who self-reported higher levels of vegetable neophobia showed less risky choice behaviour in the Candy Gambling Game, although this relationship was not found with parent-reported food neophobia. We conclude that risk avoidance for distaste, but not taste function, is associated with children's self-reported food rejection tendencies. To broaden the food repertoire of children high in food neophobia, it might be useful to reduce the perceived risk of distaste, when introducing a novel food or meal.

Approach-avoidance orientations can predict young children's decision-making

When facing situations that involve risk and reward, some may focus on the opportunity for reward, whereas others may focus on potential risks. Here, we used an original set of pictorial scenarios to try and predict 3- to 8-year-olds' reward-seeking and risk-avoiding behavior in three decision-making scenarios (N = 99; Mage = 5.6; 47% girls). We found that children's reward-risk tendencies did not predict sharing behavior in a dictator-game 'sharing' task. However, they predicted children's monopolizing behavior in a dictator-game 'taking' task and their preferences between taking home a 'risky' or a 'safe' reward in a novel prize-preference task. Overall, using a set of original pictorial scenarios to assess individual differences early on in development now provides initial evidence that bridges individual differences and decision-making domains and exposes behavioral patterns that were thus far hidden.

Facets of impulsivity and reward in relation to binge-eating disorder course of illness among children: findings from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study

BACKGROUND

The present study examined facets of impulsivity and reward sensitivity [as measured by the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and Behavioral Activation and Behavioral Inhibition Scales (BIS/BAS)] as multivariable predictors of subsequent binge-eating disorder (BED) course of illness in middle childhood.

METHODS

The current sample included children aged 9-10 years (N = 9,438) who took part in the baseline and 1-year follow-up assessments of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. BED course was operationalized as those who never developed BED or subthreshold BED (SBED) ('control'), were diagnosed with BED/SBED at year 1 but not baseline ('developers'), were diagnosed with BED/SBED at baseline but not year 1 ('remitters'), or were diagnosed with BED/SBED at both times ('maintainers').

RESULTS

Higher baseline BIS/BAS reward responsivity scores were related to the greater likelihood of belonging to the maintainer group relative to the control and remitter groups (ORs1.12-1.19). Regarding covariates, higher baseline body mass index percentile and internalizing symptoms were related to the greater likelihood of BED development, remittance, and maintenance compared to the control group (ORs = 1.04-1.14); no variables were uniquely related to BED development. Exploratory analyses showed that the likelihood of belonging to the maintainer group compared to the control group was greatest at higher levels of negative urgency in combination with high reward responsivity.

CONCLUSIONS

Heightened reward responsivity may convey risk for poorer BED course in children, while emotional disorder symptomatology may act as a more general risk and maintenance factor for BED.

Patterns of Eating Behavior among 13-Year-Old Adolescents and Associated Factors: Findings from the Generation XXI Birth Cohort

Eating behavior adopted during adolescence may persist into adulthood. The aims of this study were to identify eating behavior patterns among Portuguese adolescents and to explore whether groups differ in terms of early life and family characteristics, severity of depressive symptoms, and body mass index (BMI) z-score. Participants were 3601 13-year-olds enrolled in the birth cohort Generation XXI. Eating behavior was assessed using the self-reported Adult Eating Behavior Questionnaire (AEBQ), validated in this sample. The severity of depressive symptoms was measured through the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), and data on sociodemographic and anthropometrics were collected at birth and 13-years-old. Latent class analysis was conducted, and associations were estimated using multinomial logistic regression models. Five patterns of individuals were identified: "Picky eating", "Disinterest towards food", "Food neophilia", "Emotional eating", and "Food attractiveness". The adolescents' sex, maternal education, BMI z-score, and severity of depressive symptoms were significantly associated with the identified patterns. In particular, adolescents with a higher BMI z-score were more likely in "Food neophilia" while individuals with more severe depressive symptoms were in the "Picky eating", "Emotional eating", and "Food attractiveness" patterns. These findings suggest a starting point for the development and planning of targeted public health interventions.

Influences of Child Temperament and Household Chaos on Preschoolers' Emotional Eating

Background: Emotional eating has been linked to child temperament and family environment factors, such as household chaos. However, few studies have examined how child and home characteristics independently and together influence children's overeating and undereating in response to negative emotions. Objective: The current study examined associations among child temperament, household chaos, and emotional eating in children 18-24 months of age, and interaction effects were also tested. Methods: The study included an analysis sample of 371 families participating in the larger STRONG Kids2 longitudinal birth cohort study (N = 468). The Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire was used to assess child temperament at 18 months, and the Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale was used to assess disorganization in the household at 24 months. Child emotional eating at 24 months was assessed using parental reports of the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire. Results: Negative affectivity and household chaos were independently associated with child emotional overeating. Negative affectivity, effortful control, and household chaos were significantly associated with emotional undereating. No significant interactions were found. Conclusions: Child temperament and household environment independently influence emotional eating in young children, highlighting the need to consider these factors in early prevention. Longitudinal studies are warranted to determine mechanisms that may be involved in these relations.

Indulgent Feeding Style Moderates the Association of Food Responsiveness to Body Mass Index Z-scores of Preschoolers

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the moderating role of caregiver feeding styles in the association between preschool children's food-approaching eating behaviors and body mass index (BMI) z-scores.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study examined 81 caregiver-preschooler dyads from low-income neighborhoods in Santiago, Chile. Moderated multiple linear regression analyses were used to determine the moderating effect of the indulgent feeding style in the relation between eating behaviors and BMI z-scores of preschool children.

RESULTS

The indulgent caregiver feeding style moderated the association between food responsiveness and BMI z-scores of preschoolers. In an indulgent feeding style, food responsiveness was associated with higher child BMI z-scores (β = 0.50; P < 0.001). There was no interaction between enjoyment of food and feeding styles in relation to children's BMI z-scores (β = 0.17; P = 0.58).

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

An indulgent feeding style can be a risk factor for unhealthy weight outcomes in food responsive preschoolers, but not in those who enjoy food. Educating indulgent parents in the feeding context, and prioritizing children with food-approaching behaviors who are sensitive to external food cues may be effective for approaching childhood obesity.

The reward and punishment responsivity and motivation questionnaire (RPRM-Q): A stimulus-independent self-report measure of reward and punishment sensitivity that differentiates between responsivity and motivation

Reward and punishment sensitivity seem important traits in understanding behavior in general and psychopathology in particular. Though the definitions used for reward and punishment sensitivity differentiate between responsivity and motivation, the measures thus far used to assess these constructs do not. Further, specificity of the type of reward (e.g., drugs) and punishment (e.g., spiders) in questionnaires might result in measurement bias especially when examining the relationship with psychopathology. Therefore, we developed a stimulus-independent multidimensional questionnaire of reward and punishment sensitivity that differentiates between responsivity and motivation. This study addresses the psychometric qualities of this newly developed reward and punishment responsivity and motivation questionnaire (RPRM-Q). On the basis of exploratory ordinal factor analysis (N = 273) that was used to examine the quality of the initial pool of 39 items, the number of items was reduced to 18. Confirmatory ordinal factor analysis on the remaining items in an independent sample (N = 328) supported a 18-item four-factor model, and showed acceptable to good internal reliability. The relationship between the subscales of the RPRM-Q and often used questionnaires was examined in the combined sample (N = 601), which showed some first support for the ability of the new questionnaire to differentiate between responsivity and motivation to approach/avoid. The findings indicate that the RPRM-Q might be a helpful instrument to further test the relevance of punishment and reward sensitivity in psychopathology.

Infant temperament and mealtime distractions as predictors of preschool Children's bite speed during family mealtime

Eating behaviors are shaped at an early age, persist into adulthood, and are implicated in the development of physical health outcomes, including obesity. Faster bite speed has been identified as an obesogenic eating behavior, prompting researchers to examine child and family factors associated with children's variability in bite speed. Child temperament, involving phenotypes of reactivity and regulation, and distractions in family food contexts are fruitful areas of investigation, but few studies have examined the interplay among these factors and their associations with bite speed. To address the gap in the literature, we examined relations between early child temperament, family mealtime distractions, and children's observed bite speed. Caregiver report of child temperament at 3 months was measured using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire Very Short Form - Revised. Child mealtime distractions and bite speed were assessed using family mealtime videos that were collected during home visits when children were 18-24 months of age (n = 109). Results revealed that children who were reported to be higher on orienting/regulation at 3 months, and who were more distracted during mealtimes at 18-24 months, had relatively slower bite speeds. No significant interactions were found. The findings from this correlational study inform further investigations into the implications of early temperament and food contexts for the development of eating behaviors implicated in obesity risk.

Food-Approach Eating Behaviors and Brain Morphology: The Generation R Study

Food-approach eating behaviors are associated with an increased risk of developing overweight/obesity and binge-eating disorder, while obesity and binge-eating disorder have also been linked with altered brain morphology in adults. To understand these associations, we examined the association of food-approach eating behaviors during childhood with adolescents' brain morphology. The sample included 1,781 adolescents with assessments of eating behaviors at ages 4 and 10 years and brain imaging data at 13 years from a large, population-based cohort. Food approach eating behaviors (enjoyment of food, emotional overeating, and food responsiveness) were assessed using the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire. Additionally, we assessed binge eating symptoms using two items from the Development and Well-Being Assessment at 13 years of age. Adolescents participated in an MRI procedure and measures of brain morphology, including cerebral white, cerebral gray and subcortical gray matter volumes, were extracted from T1-weighted images processed using FreeSurfer. Enjoyment of food and food responsiveness at the age of 4 and 10 years were positively associated with cerebral white matter and subcortical gray matter volumes at age 13 years (e.g., enjoyment of food at 4 years and cerebral white matter: β = 2.73, 95% CI 0.51, 4.91). Enjoyment of food and food responsiveness at 4 years of age, but not at 10 years, were associated with a larger cerebral gray matter volume at 13 years of age (e.g., enjoyment of food at 4 years: β = 0.24, 95% CI 0.03, 0.45). No statistically significant associations were found for emotional overeating at both ages and brain measurements at 13 years of age. post-hoc analyses showed no associations of food-approach eating behaviors with amygdala or hippocampus. Lastly, we did not observe significant associations of binge-eating symptoms with global brain measurements and a priori-defined regions of interest, including the right frontal operculum, insular and orbitofrontal cortex. Our findings support an association between food-approach eating behaviors, especially enjoyment of food and food responsiveness, and brain morphology in adolescence. Our findings add important knowledge to previous studies that were mostly conducted in adults, by suggesting that the eating behavior-brain link may be visible earlier in life. Further research is needed to determine causality.

Profiles of Behavioral Self-Regulation and Appetitive Traits in Preschool Children: Associations With BMI and Food Parenting Practices

Appetitive traits that contribute to appetite self-regulation have been shown to relate to non-food-related regulation in general domains of child development. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to identify typologies of preschool children's behavioral self-regulation (BSR) and appetitive traits related to appetite self-regulation (ASR), and we examined their relation with children's BMIz and food parenting practices. Participants included 720 children and their parents (90% mothers), drawn from the baseline assessment of a childhood obesity preventive intervention. BSR measures included teacher reports of children's inhibitory control, impulsivity and attentional focusing, as well as an observed measure of inhibitory control. ASR was assessed using parents' reports of children's appetitive traits related to food avoidance (e.g., satiety responsiveness, slowness in eating) and food approach (e.g., enjoyment of food, food responsiveness). Children's body mass index z-score (BMIz) was calculated from measured height and weight. Parents' BMI and food parenting practices were also measured. Four profiles were identified that characterized children with dysregulated behavior, higher food approach and lower food avoidance (16%), dysregulated behavior but lower food approach and higher food avoidance (33%), regulated behavior but highest food approach and lowest food avoidance (16%), and highly-regulated behavior, lowest food approach and highest food avoidance (35%). Children's BMIz was highest in the profile consisting of children with dysregulated behavior, higher food approach and lower food avoidance. BMI was similar in the profile with children with regulated behavior but highest food approach and lowest food avoidance; children in this profile also had parents who reported the highest levels of controlling food parenting practices, and the lowest levels of parental modeling of healthy eating. Compared to all other profiles, children in the profile characterized by highly-regulated behavior, lowest food approach and highest food avoidance had the lowest BMIz and had parents who reported food parenting practices characterized by the highest levels of child control in feeding and the lowest levels of pressure to eat. These findings provide evidence of differing patterns of relations between self-regulation across behavioral and eating domains, and children's obesity risk may vary based on these different patterns.

Subtyping youngsters with obesity: A theory-based cluster analysis

Psychological mechanisms play a crucial role in explaining weight gain. Aim of the present study was to identify subtypes in youngsters with obesity in line with these mechanisms. Defining homogeneous clusters within this heterogeneous group provides relevant information for personalized treatments. Data were collected in N = 572 participants (51% boys, aged 7-19) with extreme obesity (%BMI M = 187.8; SD = 30.9) recruited in an inpatient treatment centre. Based on psychological models of overweight/obesity, the Affect Regulation Model, the Reward Deficiency Model and The Dual Pathway Model, cluster variables were selected assessing emotional eating, reward reactivity and regulative capacities. Youngsters reported on emotional eating (DEBQ Emotional Eating) and reward sensitivity (BAS), while parents reported on children's regulative Executive Functions (BRIEF). Characteristics of the different clusters were examined concerning weight variables (pre and post treatment) and variables indexing problematic eating (DEBQ External Eating, Ch-EDE), affect regulation (FEEL-KJ) and depressive symptoms (CDI). Hierarchical cluster analyses supported the presence of three clusters, further evaluated by K-means cluster analyses. The cluster solutions differed according to age and sex (boys 7-13, boys 14-19, girls 7-13, girls 14-19). In all four age and gender subsamples, an "Emotional Eating" cluster displaying a vulnerable profile (high depression, maladaptive emotion regulation, problematic eating) and a "Reward Deficiency" cluster displaying a more resilient profile were detected. In girls 7-13, a "Weak Executive Functioning" indicative of insufficient self-regulative capacities, showed moderate to high emotional problems and problematic eating. In the other subgroups, the "Mean Level Functioning" cluster also showed elevated emotional problems and problematic eating. Given that different clusters can be identified, and given that these clusters have different profiles on emotional problems and problematic eating, subtyping youngsters with severe obesity is indicated, setting the stage for personalized treatments.

[Association between eating behavior pattern and caries in a population of children aged 3 to 9 years in the province of Alicante]

INTRODUCTION

dental caries is the most common contagious infectious disease of childhood. Much has been studied about the effect of a healthy diet on oral health, but little attention has been paid to the importance of eating patterns.

OBJECTIVES

to establish the relationship between dental caries and eating behavior pattern using the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ) in a sample of children.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

a cross-sectional and descriptive study was carried out by selecting any boy or girl between 3 and 9 years who attended a dental clinic in the province of Alicante (Spain). An oral examination was performed to diagnose caries in children whose parents signed an informed consent. These parents/caregivers were also given the CEBQ to fill out.

RESULTS

a total of 276 children with a mean age of 86.5 months were examined. A higher average score was observed in the "food-avoidant" dimension in: "demand for food" and in the "response to satiety". A statistically significant difference was obtained in the mean values of the variables "slow eating" (p = 0.016) and "response to satiety" (p = 0.001) of the groups with and without caries. That is, the time a person spends eating influences the development of caries. Likewise, the ability of a person to be satisfied is also related to caries.

CONCLUSIONS

The eating behavior pattern of children is a risk factor associated with infant caries.

Socio-demographic disparities in the eating behaviour of Malaysian children during the COVID-19 lockdown

Objective

This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the eating behaviour of Malaysian children aged 2 to 11 years old during the Movement Control Order (MCO) due to the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic.

Methods

A total of 204 Malaysian parents of children aged 2 to 11 years old were recruited for this study using a combination of purposive and snowball sampling approaches. Parents were required to fill an online questionnaire hosted on Google Forms, which consisted of socio-demographic characteristics (including child's gender, age, and ethnicity, as well as parental income during the MCO) and a 35-item list from the Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ). Data analysis was conducted by further stratifying the children's eating behaviour according to socio-demographic characteristics.

Results

No significant differences were observed in the eating behaviour of the children across age and parental income groups during the MCO. Malaysian Indian children had significantly lower mean scores for the food responsiveness (2.50±0.64) and emotional over-eating (2.13±0.72) subscales than Malaysian Chinese children. Girls had a significantly higher mean score for the slowness in eating subscale during the MCO than boys.

Conclusion

Children's eating behaviour were comparable across socio-demographic characteristics. Nonetheless, the findings of the current study provide an overview of Malaysian children's eating behaviour during the MCO.

Child eating behaviors, parental feeding practices and food shopping motivations during the COVID-19 lockdown in France: (How) did they change?

The COVID-19 pandemic caused France to impose a strict lockdown, affecting families' habits in many domains. This study evaluated possible changes in child eating behaviors, parental feeding practices, and parental motivations when buying food during the lockdown, compared to the period before the lockdown. Parents of 498 children aged 3–12 years (238 boys; M = 7.32; SD = 2.27) completed an online survey with items from validated questionnaires (e.g., CEDQ, CEBQ, HomeSTEAD). They reported on their (child's) current situation during the lockdown, and retrospectively on the period before the lockdown. Many parents reported changes in child eating behaviors, feeding practices, and food shopping motivations. When changes occurred, child appetite, food enjoyment, food responsiveness and emotional overeating significantly increased during the lockdown. Increased child boredom significantly predicted increased food responsiveness, emotional overeating and snack frequency in between meals. When parents changed their practices, they generally became more permissive: less rules, more soothing with food, more child autonomy. They bought pleasurable and sustainable foods more frequently, prepared more home-cooked meals and cooked more with the child. Level of education and increased stress level predicted changes in parental practices and motivations. This study provides insights in factors that can induce positive and negative changes in families' eating, feeding and cooking behaviors. This can stimulate future studies and interventions.

Appetitive Traits in a Population-Based Study of Polish Adolescents within the PLACE-19 Study: Validation of the Adult Eating Behavior Questionnaire

Appetitive traits of food approach or food avoidance are commonly measured using the Adult Eating Behavior Questionnaire (AEBQ). However, there is no Polish version of the AEBQ validated for adolescents, and to the best of our knowledge, no study completed with the Polish version of the AEBQ has been published thus far. The present study aimed to validate the AEBQ in a population-based sample of Polish secondary school students and to assess differences in appetitive traits between boys and girls within the Polish Adolescents' COVID-19 Experience (PLACE-19) Study. The PLACE-19 Study was conducted in a group of 2448 adolescents recruited in May 2020 through the random quota sampling of secondary schools. The AEBQ was used to assess food approach subscales (Food Responsiveness, Emotional Over-Eating, and Enjoyment of Food) and food avoidance subscales (Satiety Responsiveness, Emotional Under-Eating, Food Fussiness, and Slowness in Eating). To validate the questionnaire, the standardized factor loadings within confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with weighted least squares (WLS) were analyzed, and invariance was verified. The CFA presented good model fit, with χ² = 4826.105 (degrees of freedom (df) = 384), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.069 (90% confidence interval (CI): 0.067, 0.070), comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.90, and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) = 0.08. The results revealed that, compared to the configural invariance model, the metric invariance model did not result in significantly decreased model fit, with ΔCFI = -0.002 and ΔRMSEA = -0.001, which were lower than the recommended cutoffs of 0.010 and 0.015, respectively. The scalar invariance model also did not result in significantly decreased fit of the model over the metric invariance model, with ΔCFI = -0.005 and ΔRMSEA = 0.000. Girls reported higher levels of Food Responsiveness (p < 0.0001), Emotional Over-Eating (p < 0.0001), Satiety Responsiveness (p < 0.0001), Emotional Under-Eating (p < 0.0001), and Slowness in Eating than boys (p < 0.0001), and the total AEBQ scores of girls were also higher (p < 0.0001). Positive inter-correlations were observed between all food approach subscales, as well as between Emotional Under-Eating and all food approach subscales for girls, boys, and the total sample; positive inter-correlations were also observed between the majority of food avoidance subscales. The present study confirmed the validity of the AEBQ in the studied population, and supported the associations between appetitive traits assessed using the AEBQ; it also indicated higher scores of both food approach and food avoidance subscales in girls than in boys in a population-based sample of Polish secondary school students.

Resting and Functional Pupil Response Metrics Indicate Features of Reward Sensitivity and ASD in Children

The current study examined the relationship between quantitative measures of reward and punishment sensitivity, features of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and resting and functional pupil response metrics across a clinically heterogeneous sample. Scores on a parent-report measure of punishment and reward sensitivity were correlated with ASD features. We also assessed whether pupil measurements could be used as a physiologic correlate of reward sensitivity and predictor of ASD diagnosis. In a logistic regression model, pupil dilation metrics, sex, and IQ, correctly classified 86.3% of participants as having an ASD diagnosis versus not. This research highlights individual differences of reward sensitivity associated with ASD features. Results support the use of pupil metrics and other patient-level variables as predictors of ASD diagnostic status.

Using confidence interval-based estimation of relevance to explore bottom-up and top-down determinants of problematic eating behavior in children and adolescents with obesity from a dual pathway perspective

Prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adolescents is high, not only in Western countries but also in developing countries. Efforts to improve prevention and treatment programs are needed. Given their essential role in weight problems, knowledge of determinants of problematic eating behavior ('External Eating' and 'Emotional Eating') is crucial for intervention development. Inspired by Appelhans' Dual Process Theory of Eating Behavior, the present study evaluated the importance of top-down regulative capacities and bottom-up reactivity, using the CIBER approach. CIBER is an innovative statistical approach to test the importance of behavior determinants, based on confidence intervals, instead of significance testing of point estimates. Survey data on different aspects of executive functioning (as indices of regulative capacities: Inhibition, Cognitive Flexibility, Emotional Control, Initiation, Working Memory, Planning/Organizing, Organization of materials, and Monitoring) and reward sensitivity (as an index of reactivity) were collected in a large sample of children and adolescents (n = 572) with severe obesity (adjBMI > 180%). Results showed that Emotional Eating is determined by Emotional Control, while External Eating is determined by Reward Sensitivity. The finding that differential mechanisms underlie different aspects of problematic eating suggests the need for using tailored intervention techniques to address altered reactivity and weak regulative capacities.

Behavioral and physiological characteristics associated with learning performance on an appetitive probabilistic selection task

Individuals show meaningful variability in food choices. Choices are affected by individual differences in sensitivity to food reward and punishment, so understanding correlates of response to food reinforcement can help characterize food choices. Here, we examined behavioral and physiological correlates of individual differences in how individuals learn from food reward and punishment, as measured by performance on an appetitive probabilistic selection task that used sweet and bitter tastes as reinforcement. Sensitivity to food reward, sensitivity to food punishment, and overall learning performance were measured in 89 adults. Multivariate linear regressions were used to test if variables including body mass index (BMI), external eating, emotional eating, behavioral inhibition/behavioral activation scales (BIS/BAS), and perceived sensitivity to reward and punishment (SPQ/SRQ) were associated with measures of learning performance. External eating (β=-.035, p=.019), BIS (β=-.066, p=.004), and SPQ (β=.003, p=.023) were associated with overall learning performance. BMI (β=-.000, p=.012), emotional eating (β=.055, p=.006), and external eating (β=-.062, p=.004) were associated with sensitivity to food reward. No variables were associated with sensitivity to food punishment. In post hoc analyses, the interaction of sex and SPQ was associated with overall performance (β=-.005, p=.025), such that the relationship was positive in women only (β=.006, p=0.002). Results support that, controlling for key individual characteristics, BMI and susceptibility to food cues are associated with lower sensitivity to food reward, which may affect future food choices and eating behavior.

Gender Differences in Fat-Rich Meat Choice: Influence of Personality and Attitudes

The innate liking of fats may be due to one or more orosensory, post-ingestive, and metabolic signals; however, individuals differ in their preference for fat in meat. One of the variables that mainly impacts eating behaviors and thus should be carefully analyzed is sex/gender, and while sex (female/male, in a binary approximation) refers only to biological characteristics, gender (woman/man, in a binary approximation) refers to cultural attitudes and behavior. This study aimed at exploring the role of gender, age, taste responsiveness (measured as sensitivity to the bitterness of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP)), personality traits, attitudes, and liking of and familiarity with meat on the choice of fat-rich meat products in 1208 women and men aged 18–66. Both a between- and a within-gender approach were adopted. Results showed that gender had a major impact on liking of and familiarity with meat and choice for fat-rich meat compared to age. A lower liking meat in general was found in women, independently of fat content. Women also reported a lower familiarity than men with fatty meat and cold meat and a lower choice of fat-rich meat. Genders differed in the influence of personality and attitudes about fat-rich meat choice. In both genders, the choice of meat higher in fat was associated with liking cold and fatty meat and with age and negatively with liking low-fat meat. Women were in general more interested in health than men, and this may explain the main difference in the choice of fat-rich meat between genders. However, when we look at each gender separately, general health interest was significantly correlated with a lower choice of fat-rich meat only in men. In addition, in men food neophobia was negatively correlated with choice of fat-rich meat. In women, the emotional dimension was found to play an important role, with sensitivity to disgust that was negatively associated with fat-rich meat choice and emotional eating that was positively associated with it. Thanks to the large sample and the gender-sensitive approach adopted, this study showed that different factors affect choice of fat-rich meat by gender, in addition to liking of and familiarity with fat-rich and cold meat and age. This suggests that strategies personalized by gender to reinforce or activate barriers to this type of consumption may be more effective at reducing fat intake, promoting the consumption of meat lower in fat.

Associations of appetitive behaviors in 7-year-old children with their cardiometabolic health at 10 years of age

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Atherosclerosis begins early in life, thus optimal cardiovascular health needs to be promoted early. We investigated whether appetitive behaviors among 7 year olds are associated with their cardiometabolic health years later.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A sample of 2951 children from a Portuguese birth cohort was analyzed. The Children's Eating Behavior Questionnaire assessed eating behaviors, and a measure of cardiometabolic risk (higher risk group: those in the upper quartile of triglycerides, homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance, waist circumference and systolic blood pressure and in the lower quartile of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol z-scores) was created. Linear and logistic regressions were run. Children with more food avoidant behaviors had lower cardiometabolic risk (Satiety Responsiveness - boys: OR = 0.39, 95% CI 0.16; 0.93, girls: OR=0.37, 95% CI 0.17; 0.82 and Slowness in eating - boys: OR = 0.49, 95% CI 0.25; 0.95, girls: OR = 0.49, 95% CI 0.27; 0.91). Food approach behaviors (Food responsiveness (CEBQ-FR), Enjoyment of food (CEBQ-EF) and Emotional overeating (CEBQ-EOE)) increased cardiometabolic risks (e.g. CEBQ-FR: boys: OR = 2.50, 95% CI 1.45; 4.32, girls: OR = 2.33, 95% CI 1.46; 3.71). CEBQ-EF had stronger effects in boys, while CEBQ-EOE was positively associated with cardiometabolic risk among girls. When adjusting for BMIz at 7y, associations did not remain significant. Appetitive behaviors were also associated with isolated cardiometabolic parameters; the strongest association being with waist circumference.

CONCLUSIONS

Appetitive behaviors at 7-years are associated with cardiometabolic risk at age 10. While 'food avoidant' behaviors protect against cardiometabolic risk and 'food approach' behaviors increase cardiometabolic risk, these associations are largely dependent of child's adiposity.

Genetically predicted gene expression of prefrontal DRD4 gene and the differential susceptibility to childhood emotional eating in response to positive environment

Genetic differential susceptibility states that individuals may vary both by exhibiting poor responses when exposed to adverse environments, and disproportionally benefiting from positive settings. The dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) may be particularly implicated in these effects, including disturbed eating behaviors that might lead to obesity. Here, we explore differential susceptibility to positive environments according to the predicted genetically regulated gene expression of prefrontal cortex DRD4 gene. Using MAVAN as the discovery cohort (Maternal Adversity, Vulnerability and Neurodevelopment) and GUSTO as the replication cohort (Growing Up in Singapore Towards Healthy Outcomes), we analyzed the interaction between a) a Positive postnatal environmental score, that accounts for positive outcomes in the postnatal period and b) the genetically regulated gene expression of prefrontal DRD4, computed using a machine learning prediction method (PrediXcan). The outcome measures were the pro-intake domains (Emotional over-eating, Food Responsiveness, Food Enjoyment and Desire to Drink) from the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire at 48 months of age (MAVAN) and 60 months of age (GUSTO). The interaction between the positive environment and the predicted prefrontal DRD4 gene expression was significant for emotional over-eating in MAVAN (β = -0.403, p < 0.02), in which the high gene expression group had more or less emotional eating according to the exposure to lower or higher positive environment respectively, showing evidence of differential susceptibility criteria. In the replication cohort, a similar result was found with the pro-intake domain Desire to drink (β = -0.583, p < 0.05). These results provide further evidence for the genetic differential susceptibility, accounting for the benefit of positive environments.

Appetitive Traits and Weight in Children: Evidence for Parents' Controlling Feeding Practices as Mediating Mechanisms

Children's food approach and food avoidance are appetitive traits with genetic or biological bases. Nonetheless, parents play a critical role in children's dietary intake through parenting and feeding practices. The present study tested parents' controlling feeding practices (i.e., restriction and pressure to eat) as mediating mechanisms between child appetitive traits and child BMI in an economically and ethnically diverse sample. Participants were 139 children aged 4 to 6 years (51.8% males, M = 4.77 years, SD = 0.84) and their parents. Results showed that restriction and pressure to eat mediated the relation between child food approach or food avoidance and child BMI. Mediation effects did not differ across poverty status or racial/ethnic groups. Also, the type of controlling feeding that parents exert related to children's weight status in diametrically different or opposite ways. Thus, food-related parenting appears to be a promising point of entry for childhood obesity prevention programs. Findings are consistent with a biopsychosocial model of the development of eating and weight in childhood which takes into account both parent and child behavior and characteristics and links child biology and behavior with psychosocial processes and environment.

[Current status of parental feeding behaviors in Urumqi, China, and its association with body mass index of children]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association between parental feeding behaviors and body mass index (BMI) of children, and to provide a scientific basis for the prevention and intervention of overweight and obesity in children.

METHODS

Stratified random cluster sampling was used to select 976 children from 7 kindergartens in Xinshi District of Urumqi, and a questionnaire survey and physical measurement were performed to obtain related data.

RESULTS

A total of 976 questionnaires were distributed and 924 (94.7%) usable questionnaires were collected. The overall detection rates of underweight, overweight, and obesity in children were 3.1% (29 children), 9.2% (85 children), and 6.7% (62 children), respectively. The highest level of parental feeding behavior was monitoring, followed by restriction and pressure to eat. The parents of the Han children had significantly higher levels of restriction and pressure to eat than those of the Uygur children (P<0.01). As for parental feeding behaviors, restriction to eat was positively correlated with BMI of the Han and Uygur boys (P<0.01); pressure to eat was negatively correlated with BMI of the Han boys and girls (P<0.01) and was positively correlated with BMI of the Uygur boys and girls (P<0.01); monitoring was negatively correlated with BMI of the Han and Uygur boys and girls (P<0.05). Among the parents of the Han and Uygur boys, the parents of the overweight/obese children had significantly higher scores of restriction to eat than those of the children with normal weight (P<0.05); among the parents of the Uygur boys and girls, the parents of the overweight/obese children had significantly higher scores of pressure to eat than those of the children with normal weight (P<0.01); among the parents of the Uygur and Han boys and girls, the parents of the overweight/obese children had significantly lower scores of monitoring than those of the children with normal weight (P<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The parental feeding behavior is good in Urumqi, and the parental feeding behavior of the Uygur children is a little better than that of the Han children. Parental feeding behavior is closely correlated with BMI of children, and such correlation differs across ethnic groups and sexes. A high level of monitoring and low levels of restriction and pressure to eat may help to prevent and control the development of overweight and obesity in children.

[Current status of parental feeding behaviors in Urumqi, China, and its association with body mass index of children]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association between parental feeding behaviors and body mass index (BMI) of children, and to provide a scientific basis for the prevention and intervention of overweight and obesity in children.

METHODS

Stratified random cluster sampling was used to select 976 children from 7 kindergartens in Xinshi District of Urumqi, and a questionnaire survey and physical measurement were performed to obtain related data.

RESULTS

A total of 976 questionnaires were distributed and 924 (94.7%) usable questionnaires were collected. The overall detection rates of underweight, overweight, and obesity in children were 3.1% (29 children), 9.2% (85 children), and 6.7% (62 children), respectively. The highest level of parental feeding behavior was monitoring, followed by restriction and pressure to eat. The parents of the Han children had significantly higher levels of restriction and pressure to eat than those of the Uygur children (P<0.01). As for parental feeding behaviors, restriction to eat was positively correlated with BMI of the Han and Uygur boys (P<0.01); pressure to eat was negatively correlated with BMI of the Han boys and girls (P<0.01) and was positively correlated with BMI of the Uygur boys and girls (P<0.01); monitoring was negatively correlated with BMI of the Han and Uygur boys and girls (P<0.05). Among the parents of the Han and Uygur boys, the parents of the overweight/obese children had significantly higher scores of restriction to eat than those of the children with normal weight (P<0.05); among the parents of the Uygur boys and girls, the parents of the overweight/obese children had significantly higher scores of pressure to eat than those of the children with normal weight (P<0.01); among the parents of the Uygur and Han boys and girls, the parents of the overweight/obese children had significantly lower scores of monitoring than those of the children with normal weight (P<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The parental feeding behavior is good in Urumqi, and the parental feeding behavior of the Uygur children is a little better than that of the Han children. Parental feeding behavior is closely correlated with BMI of children, and such correlation differs across ethnic groups and sexes. A high level of monitoring and low levels of restriction and pressure to eat may help to prevent and control the development of overweight and obesity in children.

Child temperament predicts the adiposity rebound. A 9-year prospective sibling control study

METHODS

We repeatedly examined 25889 siblings within the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study, following them from the mothers' pregnancy through child age 8 years. Information on the children's height and weight was collected by means of health registries and maternal reports. Information on the siblings' temperament was collected by questionnaires completed when they were 1.5, 3, and 5 years old. We examined the associations of temperament at different child ages with the timing of the adiposity rebound among siblings and controls by means of growth curve and multilevel analyses.

RESULTS

Within siblings, high scores on the approach trait of sociability predicted an earlier adiposity rebound and high scores on the avoidance trait of shyness predicted a later adiposity rebound with timing differences ranging between 6 and 16 weeks. Surprisingly, negative emotionality did not predict the adiposity rebound. The associations between temperament and the adiposity rebound increased with increasing child age. The results within controls-comparing siblings with the population, broadly paralleled those within siblings.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings encourage the notion that child temperament functions as an early marker for the adiposity rebound. Future studies may advance our knowledge by including measures of child personality along the taxonomy of the adult Five Personality Factors.

Parental feeding behavior in relation to children's tasting behavior: An observational study

Children's eating habits are shaped in part by parental feeding practices. While maladaptive practices have already received a lot of research attention, the effects of adaptive strategies, especially in elementary school aged children of different weight status, are less examined. This study examines how parents (1) model and (2) encourage their child to taste an unknown food. Thereby, attention is paid to the distinction between encouraging what (i.e. adaptive type of encouragement) and the amount (i.e. maladaptive type of encouragement) children eat/drink. Twenty-five families with a child with overweight and 30 families with a child of healthy weight (7-13 years) participated in a taste task. Both the child's tasting behavior and the parents' modelling and encouragement behavior were observed and related to the child's age and weight status. As 94.3% of the children tasted the unknown food, weight status differences between tasters and non-tasters could not be investigated. Only 26.9% of the parents used modelling to enhance tasting behavior; this was unrelated to age and weight status. 77.4% of the parents encouraged their children to taste (encouragement of what children eat/drink), and this was significantly more prevalent in parents of younger children and of healthy-weight children. 21.1% of the parents also encouraged their children to finish the juice (encouragement of amount children eat/drink) and this was also more prevalent in parents of the healthy-weight group. These results evidenced that parental modelling is not often used to enhance tasting behavior in children. In contrast, parental encouragement was frequently observed, especially in parents of younger children and of healthy-weight children. Encouragement, however, seems difficult to measure and more research on adaptive parental encouragement is needed.

Parenting styles, feeding styles and food-related parenting practices in relation to toddlers' eating styles: A cluster-analytic approach

Introduction

Toddlers’ eating behaviors are influenced by the way parents interact with their children. The objective of this study was to explore how five major constructs of general parenting behavior cluster in parents of toddlers. These parenting clusters were further explored to see how they differed in the use of feeding strategies (i.e. feeding styles and food parenting practices) and by reported child eating styles.

Methods

An online survey with 1005 mothers/caregivers (legal guardians) with at least one child between 12 and 36 months old was conducted in the United States in 2012, assessing general parenting behavior, feeding style, food parenting practices and the child eating styles.

Results

A three cluster solution of parenting style was found and clusters were labelled as overprotective/supervising, authoritarian, and authoritative. The clusters differed in terms of general parenting behaviors. Both overprotective and authoritative clusters showed high scores on structure, behavioral control, and nurturance. The overprotective cluster scored high on overprotection. The ‘authoritarian’ cluster showed lowest levels of nurturance, structure and behavioral control. Overprotective and authoritative parents showed very similar patterns in the use of food parenting practices, e.g. monitoring food intake, modeling, and promoting healthy food intake and availability at home. Overprotective parents also reported higher use of pressure to eat and involvement. Authoritarian parents reported high use of giving the child control over their food behaviors, emotion regulation, using food as a reward, and controlling food intake for weight control. Children’s eating styles did not largely vary by parenting cluster.

Conclusion

This study showed that a relatively new parenting style of overprotection is relevant for children’s eating behaviors. Overprotective parents reported food parenting practices that are known to be beneficial for children’s food intake, such as modelling healthy food intake, as well as more unfavorable practices such as pressure. Longitudinal data on parenting practices and their relation to healthy eating in children is needed to inform communication and interventions for parents, reinforcing key feeding strategies which have positive effects on child eating behaviors and addressing parenting styles that have unintended negative effects.

Cognitive training as a potential treatment for overweight and obesity: A critical review of the evidence

The aim of this review is to critically evaluate the effectiveness and candidate mechanisms of action of psychological interventions which aim to either (a) improve the capacity for self-regulatory, reflective processes or (b) reduce the impact of automatic appetitive processes, in an attempt to influence food intake and associated weight-gain. Our aim was to examine three important issues regarding each type of intervention: i) whether the intervention influenced behaviour in the laboratory, ii) whether the intervention influenced behaviour and/or body mass index in the real world, and iii) whether the proposed mechanism of action was supported by evidence. We systematically searched three commonly used databases and identified 32 articles which were relevant to at least one of these issues. The majority of studies attempted to manipulate food intake in the laboratory using associative learning paradigms, in normal-weight female participants. Most of the laboratory studies demonstrated the predicted effects of interventions on behaviour in the laboratory, but studies that attempted to translate these interventions outside of the laboratory yielded more mixed findings. The hypothesised mechanisms of action received inconsistent support across studies. We identified several limitations which may complicate interpretation of findings in this area, including heterogeneity of study methods, small sample sizes, and absence of adequate control groups. We provide recommendations for future studies that aim to develop and evaluate these promising interventions for the reduction of overweight and obesity.

Reward sensitivity and body weight: the intervening role of food responsive behavior and external eating

BACKGROUND

During the last three decades, the prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity has increased worldwide. It is well established that different child-related factors such as food approach behaviors (i.e. eating behaviors that imply movements towards food) contribute to the development of overweight. However, research is lacking on the underlying mechanisms leading to food approach behaviors, which in turn lead to overweight.

SUBJECT/METHODS

Via parent-report questionnaires, we investigated the relation between the personality trait reward sensitivity and body weight in a convenience sample of 211 children aged 2.5-9 years. We further investigated the intervening role of food approach behaviors in the association between reward sensitivity and body weight.

RESULTS

Unexpectedly, there was no direct association between reward sensitivity and body weight. Despite the absence of a direct effect, a significant indirect association was found between reward sensitivity and body weight through the intervening food approach variables (i.e. food responsive behavior and external eating).

CONCLUSIONS

These results highlight the importance of the focus on eating behaviors as well as trait characteristics in prevention programs for overweight.