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Anderson AJ, Perone S. The kids are bored: Trait boredom in early childhood and links to self-regulation, coping strategies, and parent-child interactions. J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 243:105919. [PMID: 38581758 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2024.105919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2024] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Abstract
Boredom is a negative emotion that most people experience on occasion. However, some people experience boredom more or are unable to tolerate it, which is called trait boredom. Trait boredom has been well-studied in adolescence and adulthood, but little is known about trait boredom in childhood. The main goal of this study was to measure trait boredom in 4- to 6-year-olds (N = 130) and to test whether it relates to self-regulatory processes in a similar fashion that has been observed in adults and identify strategies children use to cope with boredom. We found boredom in childhood was related to self-regulatory processes in a similar fashion as it does in adults, and most children used social stimulation strategies (e.g., asking to play with a parent) or behavioral strategies (e.g., playing with toys) to cope with boredom. The findings are discussed within the context of prevention and the emotion regulation and boredom literature.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sammy Perone
- Department of Human Development, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99163, USA
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2
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Saddaf Khan N, Qadir S, Anjum G, Uddin N. StresSense: Real-Time detection of stress-displaying behaviors. Int J Med Inform 2024; 185:105401. [PMID: 38493546 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2024.105401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/02/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wrist-worn gadgets like smartphones are ideal for unobtrusively gathering user data, in various fields such as health and fitness monitoring, communication, and productivity enhancement. They seamlessly integrate into users' daily lives, providing valuable insights and features without the need for constant attention or disruption. In sensitive domains like mental health, these devices provide user-friendly, privacy-protected means of diagnosis and treatment, offering a secure and cost-effective avenue for seeking help. OBJECTIVES This study addresses the limitations of traditional mental health assessment techniques, such as intrusive sensing and subjective self-reporting, by harnessing the unobtrusive data collection capabilities of smartphones. Equipped with accelerometers and other sensors, these devices offer a novel approach to mental health research. Our objective was to develop methods for real-time detection of stress and boredom behavior markers using smart devices and machine learning algorithms. METHODOLOGY By leveraging data from accelerometers (A), gyroscopes (G), and magnetometers (M), we compiled a dataset indicative of stress-related behaviors and trained various machine-learning models for predictive accuracy. The methodology involved collecting data from motion sensors (A, G, and M) on the dominant arm's wrist-worn smartphone, followed by data preprocessing, transformation from time series format, and training a Deep Neural Network (DNN) model for activity recognition. FINDINGS Remarkably, the DNN achieved an accuracy of 93.50% on test data, outperforming traditional and ensemble machine learning methods across different window sizes, and demonstrated real-time accuracy of 77.78%, validating its practical application. CONCLUSION In conclusion, this research presents a novel dataset for detecting stress and boredom behaviors using smartphones, reducing reliance on costly devices and offering a more objective assessment. It also proposes a DNN-based method for wrist-worn devices to accurately identify complex activities associated with stress and boredom, with benefits in terms of privacy and user convenience. This advancement represents a significant contribution to the field of mental health research, providing a less intrusive and more user-friendly approach to monitoring mental well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nida Saddaf Khan
- CITRIC Health Data Science Centre, Medical College, Agha Khan University, Stadium Road, P.O. Box 3500, Karachi 74800, Pakistan; Telecommunication Research Lab (TRL), School of Mathematics and Computer Science, Institute of Business Administration, Karachi, Pakistan.
| | - Saleeta Qadir
- National High-Performance Computing Center, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität, Erlangen-Nürnberg, Schloßplatz 4, 91054 Erlangen, Germany; Telecommunication Research Lab (TRL), School of Mathematics and Computer Science, Institute of Business Administration, Karachi, Pakistan.
| | - Gulnaz Anjum
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Forskningsveien 3A, Harald Schjelderups hus, 0373 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Nasir Uddin
- School of Computer Science, National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Karachi Campus, Pakistan.
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Stone RA, Haycraft E, Blissett J, Farrow C. Utilising online paradigms to explore the effect of boredom and sadness on children's snack choice: The role of parental feeding practices and child temperament. Appetite 2024; 198:107366. [PMID: 38648954 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2024.107366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Emotional eating (EE) is defined as eating in response to negative emotions (e.g., sadness and boredom). Child temperament and parental feeding practices are predictive of child EE and may interact to shape child EE. Previous research has demonstrated that children eat more when they are experiencing sadness, however, boredom-EE (despite how common boredom is in children) has yet to be explored experimentally using remote methodologies. The current study explores whether feeding practices and child temperament interact with mood to predict children's snack selection in an online hypothetical food choice task. Using online experimental methods, children aged 6-9-years (N = 347) were randomised to watch a mood-inducing video clip (control, sadness, or boredom). Children completed a hypothetical food choice task from images of four snacks in varying portion sizes. The kilocalories in children's online snack choices were measured. Parents reported their feeding practices and child's temperament. Results indicated that the online paradigm successfully induced feelings of boredom and sadness, but these induced feelings of boredom and sadness did not significantly shape children's online food selection. Parental reports of use of restriction for health reasons (F = 8.64, p = .004, n2 = 0.25) and children's negative emotionality (F = 6.81, p = .009, n2 = 0.020) were significantly related to greater total kilocalorie selection by children. Three-way ANCOVAs found no evidence of any three-way interactions between temperament, feeding practices, and mood in predicting children's online snack food selection. These findings suggest that children's hypothetical snack food selection may be shaped by non-responsive feeding practices and child temperament. This study's findings also highlight different methods that can be successfully used to stimulate emotional experiences in children by using novel online paradigms, and also discusses the challenges around using online methods to measure children's intended food choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca A Stone
- School of Psychology and Institute of Health and Neurodevelopment, College of Health & Life Sciences, Aston University, Aston Triangle, Birmingham, B47 ET, UK.
| | - Emma Haycraft
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, LE11 3TU, UK.
| | - Jacqueline Blissett
- School of Psychology and Institute of Health and Neurodevelopment, College of Health & Life Sciences, Aston University, Aston Triangle, Birmingham, B47 ET, UK.
| | - Claire Farrow
- School of Psychology and Institute of Health and Neurodevelopment, College of Health & Life Sciences, Aston University, Aston Triangle, Birmingham, B47 ET, UK.
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Spencer-Mueller EK, Fenske MJ. Note-taking for the win: Doodling does not reduce boredom or mind-wandering, nor enhance attention or retention of lecture material. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2024:17470218231222402. [PMID: 38087918 DOI: 10.1177/17470218231222402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Doodling and fidgeting-traditionally viewed in educational contexts as markers of inattention and poor classroom behaviour-have more recently been considered as possible routes to improve performance by reducing boredom and its negative impact on memory. However, there is a surprising lack of well-controlled studies examining this possibility, despite the widespread adoption of fidget toys and doodling exercises within classroom settings. Here we report two experiments (total N = 222) that assess the impact of doodling on boredom, attention, mind-wandering, and subsequent recall of auditory information. In Experiment 1, participants first listened to a 15-min section of a lecture known to induce boredom. Immediately thereafter they were asked to jot down important information from a short voicemail that they listened to while either doodling (adding shading to shapes) or doing nothing in between note-taking. In Experiment 2, participants listened to a 45-min section of the same lecture under one of four conditions: structured doodling (i.e., shade in shapes), unstructured doodling, note-taking, or listen-only. Thought probes assessed self-perceived levels of state boredom, mind-wandering, and attention throughout the lecture. Across studies, doodling neither reduced boredom or mind-wandering nor increased attention or retention of information compared with other conditions. In contrast, attention and test performance were highest (and boredom and mind-wandering lowest) for those focused solely on note-taking.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark J Fenske
- Department of Psychology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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Iannattone S, Mezzalira S, Bottesi G, Gatta M, Miscioscia M. Emotion dysregulation and psychopathological symptoms in non-clinical adolescents: The mediating role of boredom and social media use. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health 2024; 18:5. [PMID: 38184635 PMCID: PMC10771649 DOI: 10.1186/s13034-023-00700-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/08/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Emotion dysregulation, boredom, and problematic social media use are well-known vulnerability factors for psychopathology during adolescence; nevertheless, the interplay between these factors remains underinvestigated in the literature. Therefore, the present cross-sectional study aimed to explore the mediating role of boredom and problematic social media use in the relations between emotion dysregulation and both internalizing and externalizing problems in a non-clinical group of Italian adolescents. METHOD 721 students (64.6% girls; Mage = 15.49 years ± 1.82) were involved and completed self-report tools assessing emotion dysregulation, boredom, problematic social media use, and psychopathological symptoms. Path analysis was used to test whether boredom and problematic social media use mediated the relation between emotion dysregulation and psychopathology, distinguishing between internalizing and externalizing problems. RESULTS Path models showed that emotion dysregulation predicted both internalizing and externalizing problems, as well as boredom and problematic social media use. Importantly, boredom mediated the associations between emotion dysregulation and both psychopathological dimensions, while problematic social media use mediated only the relation with externalizing problems. CONCLUSIONS Our results highlight that the influence of emotion dysregulation on psychopathology can manifest through different paths, leading to specific symptomatology based on interactions between various variables. In particular, boredom seems to be a transdiagnostic factor for psychopathology in adolescence, whereas problematic social media use would be a dimension-specific factor. The practical implications of these findings are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Iannattone
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, via Venezia 8, Padua, 35131, Italy.
| | - Selene Mezzalira
- Department of Engineering, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy
| | - Gioia Bottesi
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, via Venezia 8, Padua, 35131, Italy
| | - Michela Gatta
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Marina Miscioscia
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
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Nettinga J, Naseem S, Yakobi O, Willoughby T, Danckert J. Exploring EEG resting state as a function of boredom proneness in pre-adolescents and adolescents. Exp Brain Res 2024; 242:123-135. [PMID: 37978080 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-023-06733-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Boredom is a prominent experience commonly reported in school settings and associated with poor academic achievement. Little is known, however, about the age-related trajectory of boredom. Here we examined self-reported ratings of boredom in a cross-sectional sample of 8 to 15-year olds (n = 185) as a function of resting state EEG. Results indicated that reports of boredom in school rose as a function of age. Resting state EEG showed a decrease in theta power with age perhaps reflective of increased control. While no effects were evident in beta and alpha bands, we did observe an interaction between boredom and age for frontal asymmetry such that for those higher in boredom, the asymmetry increased with age. Finally, for theta to beta ratios there were main effects of age (i.e., a decrease in theta/beta ratio with age) and boredom such that those higher in boredom had higher theta/beta ratios over frontal and central brain areas. The results are discussed in the context of prior work on school-related boredom and provide several important avenues for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie Nettinga
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada.
| | - Sarah Naseem
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Ofir Yakobi
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Teena Willoughby
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catherines, ON, L2S 3A1, Canada
| | - James Danckert
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada
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An J, Payne LL, Lee M, Janke MC. Understanding Boredom and Leisure in Later Life: A Systematic Review. Innov Aging 2023; 7:igad109. [PMID: 37941827 PMCID: PMC10630011 DOI: 10.1093/geroni/igad109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and Objectives Anecdotal evidence and references to boredom appear frequently in mass media, but only a few studies directly examine the phenomenon of boredom, and existing literature within the context of leisure has primarily focused on adolescents. Social isolation and loneliness often intertwine with boredom, and chronic conditions are major factors that increase the risk of experiencing boredom in later life. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to examine the significance of boredom among older adults and assess the existing literature to gain a more holistic understanding of boredom and how it has been studied among older adults in the context of leisure. Research Design and Methods Following the PRISMA guidelines, this study gathered literature from 5 electronic databases through December 2022. This systematic review investigated both qualitative and quantitative evidence, and standardized data extraction and study quality assessments were conducted. Results A comprehensive search initially revealed 2,757 potentially relevant articles, 8 of which met the full inclusion criteria. Three studies investigated the phenomenon of leisure-boredom, and 5 studies assessed the experience of boredom in general and its relationship with leisure engagement. A majority of the studies, especially ones that examined older adults' experience of overall boredom experience, lacked a thorough description of the phenomenon and did not use reliable and/or valid measurements. Discussion and Implications Findings from 8 articles offer insights into boredom; however, the discussion examines the limitations of these studies and reasons why studying boredom is important. We also speculate as to why little research has addressed leisure boredom among older adults and propose a research agenda for increasing our understanding of the ways older adults experience boredom, the effects boredom has on health and well-being, and how boredom can be alleviated and/or managed in the context of leisure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaesung An
- Department of Hospitality, Recreation and Tourism, California State University East Bay, Hayward, California, USA
| | - Laura L Payne
- Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, Illinois, USA
| | - Milae Lee
- Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, Illinois, USA
| | - Megan C Janke
- Department of Kinesiology, Berry College, Mount Berry, Georgia, USA
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Kenah K, Tavener M, Bernhardt J, Spratt NJ, Janssen H. "Wasting time": a qualitative study of stroke survivors' experiences of boredom in non-therapy time during inpatient rehabilitation. Disabil Rehabil 2023:1-9. [PMID: 37409578 DOI: 10.1080/09638288.2023.2230131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Stroke survivors regularly report experiencing boredom during inpatient rehabilitation which may detrimentally affect mood, learning and engagement in activities important for functional recovery. This study explores how stroke survivors meaningfully occupy their non-therapy time and their experiences of boredom, to further our understanding of this complex phenomenon. METHODS Secondary analysis of transcripts from semi-structured interviews with stroke survivors exploring activity during non-therapy time. Transcripts were coded and analysed using a hybrid approach of inductive and deductive thematic analysis, guided by a published boredom framework. RESULTS Analysis of 58 interviews of 36 males and 22 females, median age 70 years, revealed four main themes: (i) Resting during non-therapy time is valued, (ii) Managing "wasted" time, (iii) Meaningful environments support autonomy and restore a sense of normality, and (iv) Wired to be social. Whilst limited therapy, social opportunities and having "nothing to do" were common experiences, those individuals who felt in control and responsible for driving their own stroke recovery tended to report less boredom during their rehabilitation stay. CONCLUSION Creating rehabilitation environments that support autonomy, socialisation and opportunities to participate in activity are clear targets to reduce boredom during non-therapy time, increase meaningful engagement and possibly improve rehabilitation outcomes post-stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrina Kenah
- School of Health Sciences, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- Monash Health, Cheltenham, VIC, Australia
| | - Meredith Tavener
- School of Medicine and Public Health, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Julie Bernhardt
- NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Stroke Rehabilitation and Brain Recovery, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia
| | - Neil J Spratt
- NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Stroke Rehabilitation and Brain Recovery, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- Dept Neurology, John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- School of Biomedical Science and Pharmacy, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Heidi Janssen
- School of Health Sciences, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Stroke Rehabilitation and Brain Recovery, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- Hunter Stroke Service, Hunter New England Local Health District, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
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Pfeifer E, Pothmann K, Claaßen S, Wittmann M. Increased relaxation, less boredom, and a faster passage of time during a period of silence in the forest. Prog Brain Res 2023; 277:157-180. [PMID: 37301568 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2022.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION There is growing evidence of the beneficial effects of exposure to nature on health and well-being. Time spent in nature can decrease stress, anxiety, depression, and improve mood. In the present study, we compared the experience of a short period of silence in the natural environment of a forest with the same amount of silence in a seminar room. METHODS We applied an intra-subject design with two 6:30-min sessions of silence in two different environments (forest, seminar room). The participants (n=41) were assigned to four groups. Two groups started with the indoor condition and two groups with the outdoor condition. After 1 week, the two groups were exposed to the other condition. Participants filled out personality-trait scales on meaning in life and belief in oneness with the world, as well as state scales assessing emotional reactions, relaxation, boredom, and the subjective sense of self, time, and space. RESULTS Participants felt significantly more relaxed and less bored in the forest compared to indoors. They experienced time less intensely, judging it to pass faster and to last shorter in the forest. Regarding trait variables, the higher the search for meaning, the higher oneness beliefs in participants. The higher oneness beliefs, the more positive participants felt during silence in the forest. DISCUSSION Interest in nature-assisted therapy is increasing in the healthcare sector. Exposure to silence in the natural setting of a forest could prove to be an effective complement to interventions applied in nature-assisted therapy, such as forest therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Pfeifer
- Catholic University of Applied Sciences, Freiburg, Germany; Faculty of Psychotherapy Science, Sigmund Freud University, Vienna, Austria.
| | | | - Stefan Claaßen
- Catholic University of Applied Sciences, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Marc Wittmann
- Institute for Frontier Areas of Psychology and Mental Health, Freiburg, Germany
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Embrey JR, Donkin C, Newell BR. Is all mental effort equal? The role of cognitive demand-type on effort avoidance. Cognition 2023; 236:105440. [PMID: 36931050 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
Abstract
Humans are often termed "cognitive misers" for their aversion to mental effort. Both in and outside the laboratory people often show preferences for low-effort tasks and are willing to forgo financial reward to avoid more demanding alternatives. Mental effort, however, does not seem to be ubiquitously avoided: people play crosswords, board games, and read novels, all as forms of leisure. While such activities undoubtedly require effort, the type of cognitive demands they impose appear markedly different from the tasks typically used in psychological research on mental effort (e.g., N-Back, Stroop Task, vigilance tasks). We investigate the effect disparate demands, such as tasks which require problem solving (e.g., solve the missing number: 1, 3, 7, 15, 31,?) compared to those which require rule-implementation (e.g., N-Back task), have on people's aversion to or preference for increased mental effort. Across four experiments using three different tasks, and a mixture of online and lab-based settings, we find that aversion to effort remains largely stable regardless of the types of cognitive demands a task imposes. The results are discussed in terms of other factors that might induce the pursuit of mental effort over and above the type of cognitive demands imposed by a task.
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Cheng L. Delving into the role of mindfulness on the relationship among creativity, anxiety, and boredom of young EFL learners. Heliyon 2023; 9:e13733. [PMID: 36873160 PMCID: PMC9975316 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Anxiety may contribute to agitation and distress in learners that can influence learning. Along with anxiety, boredom has been the focus of many recent investigations in the context of second language (L2) learning involving young learners. Anxiety and boredom would limit learners' imagination power, and can deter creativity, one of the indispensable skills in the 21st century. Mindfulness is another construct that is in line with creativity and its perspective to control anxiety is assured in literature. The proposed programs of mindfulness can influence creativity positively in the moment and over time. This is made possible by enhancing the level of the person's attention on daily activities which yields creative outcomes. In a world where stress and, often, distress undermine creativity, mindfulness emerges as an essential contributor to learners' success in educational practice. The current review focuses on young English as a foreign language (EFL) learners given that many believe stress and anxiety are commonplace among youth, leading to a decrease in creativity. Research findings reveal that mindfulness enhances creativity. Therefore, the improvement of students' well-being can be achieved by gradually incorporating mindfulness into the educational domain. Considering the important role of these factors in the language learning process, the purpose of this review is to examine the possible interactional effect of mindfulness in relation to creativity, learners' anxiety, and boredom in the context of L2 education among young learners. This is followed by proposing some suggestions for future research, as well as pedagogical implications.
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Pfattheicher S, Lazarević LB, Nielsen YA, Westgate EC, Krstić K, Schindler S. I enjoy hurting my classmates: On the relation of boredom and sadism in schools. J Sch Psychol 2023; 96:41-56. [PMID: 36641224 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsp.2022.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Schools can be a place of both love and of cruelty. We examined one type of cruelty that occurs in the school context: sadism, that is, harming others for pleasure. Primarily, we proposed and tested whether boredom plays a crucial role in the emergence of sadistic actions at school. In two well-powered studies (N = 1038; student age range = 10-18 years) using both self- and peer-reports of students' boredom levels and their sadistic tendencies, we first document that sadistic behavior occurs at school, although at a low level. We further show that those students who are more often bored at school are more likely to engage in sadistic actions (overall r = .36, 95% CI [0.24, 0.49]). In sum, the present work contributes to a better understanding of sadism in schools and points to boredom as one potential motivator. We discuss how reducing boredom might help to prevent sadistic tendencies at schools.
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Hughes E. Meaninglessness and monotony in pandemic boredom. Phenomenol Cogn Sci 2023; 22:1-15. [PMID: 36713814 PMCID: PMC9857899 DOI: 10.1007/s11097-023-09888-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Boredom is an affective experience that can involve pervasive feelings of meaninglessness, emptiness, restlessness, frustration, weariness and indifference, as well as the slowing down of time. An increasing focus of research in many disciplines, interest in boredom has been intensified by the recent Covid-19 pandemic, where social distancing measures have induced both a widespread loss of meaning and a significant disturbance of temporal experience. This article explores the philosophical significance of this aversive experience of 'pandemic boredom.' Using Heidegger's work as a unique vantage point, this article draws on survey data collected by researchers in an ongoing project titled 'Experiences of Social Distancing During the Covid-19 Pandemic' to give an original phenomenological interpretation of the meaninglessness and monotony of pandemic boredom. On a Heideggerian interpretation, pandemic boredom involves either a situative confrontation with relative meaninglessness that upholds our absorption in the everyday world, or an existential confrontation with absolute meaninglessness that forces us to take up the question of our existence. Arguing that boredom during the pandemic makes this distinction difficult to sustain, I consider some of the ways in which pandemic boredom might be seen to expose and then exceed the distinctive methodological limitations of Heidegger's philosophical interpretation of boredom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Hughes
- Department of Philosophy, University of York, Heslington, York, YO10 5DD UK
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14
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Olié E, Dubois J, Benramdane M, Guillaume S, Courtet P. Poor mental health is associated with loneliness and boredom during Covid-19-related restriction periods in patients with pre-existing depression. J Affect Disord 2022; 319:446-61. [PMID: 36184986 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 09/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In 2020-2021, many European countries put in place temporary lockdown measures due to the increase in COVID-19 cases, although such measures have negative psychological effects. As pre-existing mental disorders are a risk factor of negative psychological consequences during pandemics, it is important to identify specific predictors of psychological distress caused by restrictive measures in patients with history of depressive episodes. The aims of this study were i) to determine whether depressive, anxious symptomatology and suicidal ideation (i.e. mental health outcomes) were influenced by stay-at-home orders, and ii) to identify the psychosocial dimensions that influenced these mental health outcomes in patients with pre-existing depression during/after COVID-19-related restrictions. METHODS This study concerned 296 psychiatric patients with history of depressive episode in the 2 years before the COVID-19 outbreak. Participants received a computerized form to self-measure depression, suicidal ideation, and anxiety (5 times during 2020-2021, two lockdown periods and three non- lockdown periods). Loneliness, boredom, habits, substance consumption, and access to psychiatric care also were self-reported. RESULTS Loneliness and boredom were independent risk factors of anxiety and depression, and their changes dynamically affected the psychological state. Suicidal ideation was mostly driven by depressive symptomatology. CONCLUSIONS Our results highlight the need to target these dimensions in the most vulnerable patients in order to prevent the psychological consequences of the repeated COVID-19-related restrictions.
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15
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Deng YQ, Shi G, Zhang B, Zheng X, Liu Y, Zhou C, Wang X. The effect of mind wandering on cognitive flexibility is mediated by boredom. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2022; 231:103789. [PMID: 36356338 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive theory of boredom presumes that boredom, an important potential indicator for self-dysregulation, represents to be the result of attention failure. And lapses of attention have been shown to act as a key signal in mind wandering (especially spontaneous mind wandering), which has been found to be positively associated with boredom. If both mind wandering and boredom concurrently occupy individuals' on-task processing resources, it would definitely influence their cognitive flexibility, which is an essential component for self-regulation. Until now, however, there has been little discussion about mind wandering, boredom, and cognitive flexibility at the same time. The present study investigated the hypothesis that boredom can mediate the effect of mind wandering on cognitive flexibility at trait-level by adopting a cross-sectional exploratory study design and anonymous structured questionnaires in three studies (N = 449,182 and 190 for Studies 1, 2 and 3, respectively). Correlation analysis demonstrated that mind wandering (especially spontaneous mind wandering) was positively related to boredom, and that cognitive flexibility was negatively related to mind wandering and boredom, respectively. Mediation analysis revealed an indirect effect of mind wandering (especially spontaneous mind wandering) on cognitive flexibility through boredom. In conclusion, these findings are useful to build a theoretical framework for future clinical practice. An implication of these findings is the possibility that efficacious strategies targeting at reducing boredom are needed to decrease the detriment effect of spontaneous mind wandering on cognitive flexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Qin Deng
- Institute of Sports Science, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, PR China; School of Psychology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, PR China.
| | - Guangyuan Shi
- Center for psychological development, Tsinghua university, Beijing, PR China
| | - Binn Zhang
- School of Psychology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Xinyan Zheng
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Ying Liu
- School of Psychology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Chenglin Zhou
- School of Psychology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Xiaochun Wang
- School of Psychology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, PR China.
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16
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Mustoo Başer L, Poyraz Çökmüş F, Tvrtković S, Obuća F, Ünal-Aydın P, Aydın O, Spada MM. The role of desire thinking in the problematic use of social networking sites among adults. Addict Behav Rep 2022; 16:100463. [PMID: 36238695 PMCID: PMC9552017 DOI: 10.1016/j.abrep.2022.100463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The problematic use of social networking sites (SNS) is associated with several psychiatric disorders. This behavior closely resembles addiction in terms of neurological basis and behavioral patterns. Nevertheless, successful intervention strategies and the etiology of problematic SNS use are not yet thoroughly investigated. We aimed to study whether desire thinking is associated with problematic SNS use among adults when controlling for some confounders, including boredom, affect, and impulsivity. With the help of convenience sampling, we enrolled 546 Turkish adults in this study to whom we administered a sociodemographic form, the Social Media Addiction Scale (SMAS), the Leisure Boredom Scale (LBS), the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11), and the Desire Thinking Questionnaire (DTQ). To explore the association between the variables, we performed Pearson correlational and hierarchical regression analyses. The results showed that higher scores on two sub-dimensions of desire thinking, namely verbal perseveration and imaginal prefiguration, were associated with higher scores on problematic SNS use after we controlled for boredom, affect, and impulsivity. This study demonstrates that desire thinking may play a role in problematic SNS use among adults. We recommend targeting desire thinking as a potential area in treatments which may help alleviate problematic SNS use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lejla Mustoo Başer
- International University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Department of Psychology, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Fikret Poyraz Çökmüş
- Izmir Tınaztepe University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Selma Tvrtković
- International University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Department of Psychology, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Faruk Obuća
- International University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Department of Psychology, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Pınar Ünal-Aydın
- International University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Department of Psychology, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Orkun Aydın
- International University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Department of Psychology, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina,Corresponding author.
| | - Marcantonio M. Spada
- Division of Psychology, School of Applied Sciences, London South Bank University, London, UK
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17
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Abstract
Emotional eating is associated with weight gain and difficulty losing weight during weight loss interventions. Theoretical and empirical work suggest boredom may be an important predictor of problematic eating behaviors. Yet, little work has examined the role of boredom in emotional eating. Further, individual differences in the ability to recognize internal cues (i.e., interoception) may alter the impact of boredom on emotional eating. This study hypothesized that boredom proneness would predict unique variance in emotional eating after accounting for negative and positive affect, and that the association between boredom proneness and emotional eating would be stronger among those with poorer interoceptive ability compared to those with better interoceptive ability. Hypotheses were tested in two large samples using multiple linear regression. Participants aged 18-65 were recruited from MTurk (n = 365; 59.2% female) and an undergraduate research pool (n = 461; 52.9% female). Participants completed self-report measures: Boredom Proneness Scale; Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire- Emotional Eating; Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness-2; Intuitive Eating Scale-2- Reliance on Hunger and Satiety Cues; and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. Boredom proneness was a significant predictor of emotional eating in both samples, even accounting for the broad dimensions of negative and positive affect (ps < .001). Interoception did not moderate the association between boredom proneness and emotional eating in either sample (ps > .05), but was an independent predictor of emotional eating (ps < .001). Boredom proneness and interoceptive ability may warrant attention as targets in the prevention and treatment of emotional eating. Future work should continue exploring different emotion categories and different facets of interoception in emotional eating, as well as examine novel mechanisms that could inform intervention efforts.
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18
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Tudu PN. The Danger in Danger - A study on the psychological impact of COVID-19 lockdown on people in the Indian context. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 2022; 77:103027. [PMID: 35572807 PMCID: PMC9087150 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.103027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The present study attempts to find the factors resulting in increased risk of anxiety and stress due to nation-wide lockdown imposed to reduce the transmission of coronavirus in the Indian context. Grounded theory approach is used to collect, analyze, and code the data elicited from 37 semi-structured interviews. Qualitative analysis of the data found that the lockdown during coronavirus outbreak led to boredom, financial loss, and intimate terrorism which resulted in an elevated risk of anxiety and stress. It was also revealed that risk of anxiety and stress further increased during the lockdown due to the moderating role of the media and doom scrolling. Significance of the study rests in developing a grounded theory framework for stress and anxiety in the Indian context that can help the government and the associated bodies as well as the healthcare departments to devise strategies and policies to reduce the risk of nation-wide lockdown on the mental health of the people. This study is one of the initial attempts that use the grounded theory to unearth and add to the existing literature the intervening and intriguing factors which directly or indirectly increases individuals' anxiousness and stress during COVID-19 lockdown in the Indian context.
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19
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Abstract
Disengaging from unattainable goals and reengaging in alternative goals is essential for effective goal pursuit; yet, surprisingly little is known about associated personality factors. Here, we focused on individual differences in self-control (domain-general self-control, if–then planning) and boredom (boredom proneness, boredom avoidance and escape tendencies). Concerning goal adjustment in everyday life (Study 1; N = 323 crowdworkers), if–then planning was associated with worse disengagement and better reengagement. While boredom proneness was associated with poorer reengagement, boredom avoidance and escape tendencies were associated with better reengagement. When goal striving was thwarted during the COVID-19 pandemic (Study 2; N = 97 students), similar associations emerged along with links to anxiety and depression. However, disengagement was no longer associated with if–then planning but instead with better self-control and higher boredom proneness. These results show differential relationships of goal disengagement and reengagement with self-control and boredom, paving the way to a better understanding of who struggles or shines when effective goal adjustment is required.
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20
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Hager NM, Judah MR, Milam AL. Loneliness and Depression in College Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic: the Role of Boredom and Repetitive Negative Thinking. Int J Cogn Ther 2022; 15:134-152. [PMID: 35432692 PMCID: PMC8990489 DOI: 10.1007/s41811-022-00135-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic triggered increased rates of depression, especially among college students. Due to social distancing guidelines, loneliness has been suspected as a prominent factor in depression during the pandemic. Research is needed to identify possible mechanisms through which loneliness conveys risk for pandemic-era depression. Two potential mechanisms are boredom and repetitive negative thinking (RNT). This study examined cross-sectional associations between depression, loneliness, boredom, and RNT in a sample of college students (N = 199) in April 2020 immediately following campus closure. Results showed a serial indirect effect of loneliness on depression through boredom then RNT. Moreover, specific indirect effects of loneliness on depression were found through boredom and RNT, individually. Though limited by the cross-sectional design, these data align with cognitive-behavioral theory and identify boredom and RNT as possible mechanisms of the association between loneliness and depression in college students during the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan M. Hager
- Department of Psychology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529 USA
- Virginia Consortium Program in Clinical Psychology, Norfolk, VA USA
| | | | - Alicia L. Milam
- Department of Psychology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529 USA
- Virginia Consortium Program in Clinical Psychology, Norfolk, VA USA
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21
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Kenah K, Bernhardt J, Spratt NJ, Oldmeadow C, Janssen H. Depression and a lack of socialization are associated with high levels of boredom during stroke rehabilitation: An exploratory study using a new conceptual framework. Neuropsychol Rehabil 2022; 33:497-527. [PMID: 35142257 DOI: 10.1080/09602011.2022.2030761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
This exploratory sub-study aimed to develop a framework to conceptualize boredom in stroke survivors during inpatient rehabilitation, establish the effect of an activity promotion intervention on boredom, and to investigate factors that are associated with boredom. A framework was developed and explored within a cluster non-randomised controlled trial. Self-reported boredom was measured in 160 stroke survivors 13 (±5) days after rehabilitation admission; 91 participants received usual-care (control) and 69 had access to a patient-driven model of activity promotion (intervention). Individuals with pre-existing dementia or unable to participate in standard rehabilitation were excluded. Hierarchical logistic regression analysis was used to identify demographic, health and activity measures associated with boredom. Results indicated 39% of participants were highly bored. There was no statistically significant difference in boredom levels between treatment groups (difference -11%, 95% CI -26% to 4%). The presence of depression (OR 6.17, 95% CI 2.57-14.79) and lower levels of socialization (OR 0.96, 95% CI 0.92-0.99) predicted high boredom levels. This comprehensive framework provides a foundation for understanding the many interacting factors associated with boredom. Results suggest managing depression and improving opportunities for socialization may support meaningful engagement in rehabilitation to optimize recovery following stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrina Kenah
- School of Health Sciences, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia.,Monash Health, Cheltenham, Australia
| | - Julie Bernhardt
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Stroke Rehabilitation and Brain Recovery, Heidelberg, Australia
| | - Neil J Spratt
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Stroke Rehabilitation and Brain Recovery, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia.,Department Neurology, John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle, Australia
| | | | - Heidi Janssen
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Stroke Rehabilitation and Brain Recovery, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia.,Hunter Stroke Service, Hunter New England Local Health District, Newcastle, Australia
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22
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Afellat FZ, Abdalla MJ, Alipour H. The impact of boredom on the attitudes and behaviours of edutourists during the era of COVID-19 and the mediating role of psychological distress. Tour Manag Perspect 2021; 40:100885. [PMID: 34642623 PMCID: PMC8494727 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmp.2021.100885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 08/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This research examined the effects of boredom on the attitudes and behaviours of international students and their indirect psychological impact during the COVİD-19 pandemic. A partial least square method (PLS-SEM) was used to analyse the data taken from a sample of 260 students. As a result of this research, a significant negative effect of boredom on edutourists' attitudes as well as an insignificant positive effect on their behaviours was determined; furthermore, the students' attitudes did not affect their behaviours. A positive connection between boredom and psychological distress was significant. Additionally, results demonstrated that psychological distress did not mediate the aforementioned relationships. Nevertheless, the results of the multi-group analysis unearthed different responses among male and female students during the COVID-19. The study provides practical and theoretical implications, limitations, and areas for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Zahrae Afellat
- Faculty of Tourism, Eastern Mediterranean University, TRNC. Via Mersin 10, 99450, Turkey
| | - Moh'd Juma Abdalla
- Faculty of Tourism, Eastern Mediterranean University, TRNC. Via Mersin 10, 99450, Turkey
| | - Habib Alipour
- Faculty of Tourism, Eastern Mediterranean University, TRNC. Via Mersin 10, 99450, Turkey
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23
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Li Y, Luan S, Li Y, Hertwig R. Changing emotions in the COVID-19 pandemic: A four-wave longitudinal study in the United States and China. Soc Sci Med 2021; 285:114222. [PMID: 34418734 PMCID: PMC8529947 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Rationale Tracking the trajectory of people's emotional and behavioral reactions to the COVID-19 pandemic sheds light on how people cope with the emerging crisis, evaluates the impact of emotional reactions on preventive behaviors, and provides insights into how preventive behaviors can be encouraged and maintained in the long term. Objective We addressed two related questions: How did emotions change across various stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, and to what extent were preventive behaviors predicted by emotional reactions and information acquisition? Methods We conducted a four-wave longitudinal study in the United States and China across four stages of the pandemic: prepandemic, onset of viral outbreak, ongoing risk, and contained risk. We measured emotions, life satisfaction, preventive behaviors, acquisition of COVID-19 related information, and risk perceptions. We used the Emotional Recall Task (ERT) to investigate people's emotions. By allowing people to describe their emotional experience in their own words, the ERT evaluates each individual based on emotions relevant to their personal experience, making it more suitable for a wider range of contexts and social groups. Results Boredom, anxiety, fear, and worry were common emotional reactions to the pandemic as it emerged. Surprisingly, participants' emotional experience did not mirror infection and death rates: Instead of negative emotions growing as the virus spread, emotions soon reverted back to normality. This pattern held regardless of whether the viral spread was contained. Consequently, people's preventive behaviors were predicted by fear, anxiety, and worry only at the onset of the viral outbreak. In contrast, actively acquiring information and knowledge about COVID-19 had a more enduring effect on the engagement of preventive behaviors in both countries. Conclusion Our research suggests a possible life cycle of emotional reactions towards a pandemic and highlights the importance of people acquiring information and knowledge about the threat in containing its spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Li
- Centre for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Germany
| | - Shenghua Luan
- CAS Key Laboratory for Behavioral Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China; Department of Psychology, University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, China.
| | - Yugang Li
- CAS Key Laboratory for Behavioral Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
| | - Ralph Hertwig
- Centre for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Germany
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24
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Abstract
Previous research shows that individuals who tend to get bored frequently and intensely—the highly boredom prone—are more likely to engage in risky behaviors. However, these studies are based largely on self-reports. Here we address this gap and suggest that noisy decision-making (DM) is a potential driver for this relationship between boredom proneness and risk-taking. In Study 1, eighty-six participants completed the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) while EEG was recorded. We found blunted feedback processing with higher boredom proneness, as indexed by reduced feedback-P3 amplitudes. Risk taking, as indexed by the BART, was not higher in the highly boredom prone. In Study 2a (N = 404) we directly tested the noisy DM hypothesis in an online sample using a binary choice task, and found that with higher boredom proneness, participants were more likely to alternate between choices on a trial-to-trial basis, but were not more likely to choose the risky alternative. These findings were replicated in a new sample (Study 2b), and extended to the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT; Study 3). In the IGT we found increased choice switching and reduced feedback sensitivity with higher boredom proneness. Once again, higher risk taking as indexed by the IGT was not evident in the highly boredom prone. Overall, our findings suggest that boredom proneness is associated with noisy decision-making (i.e., a tendency to alternate more between choice options regardless of risk level), and not risk-seeking per se. That is, the highly boredom prone are not necessarily attracted to risks, but rather, may be insensitive to risks due to reduced feedback sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ofir Yakobi
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada.
| | - James Danckert
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
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25
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Abstract
Self-control does not always work effectively. Whether this reflects the depletion of a global self-control resource is subject to an ongoing debate. We turned to boredom as a potential confounding variable to advance this debate. In a high-powered experiment (N = 719), participants worked on a primary (transcription) task of varying self-control demands (low, high) and length (2, 4, 8 min), followed by a secondary (Stroop) task with low and high self-control demanding trials. In addition to trait boredom, we measured effort, difficulty, tiredness, frustration, and boredom after the primary task and repeatedly during the secondary task. Effort, difficulty, tiredness, and frustration increased with the demand and duration of the primary task; however, without affecting performance in the secondary task. Importantly, participants rated both the primary and the secondary task as boring, and higher boredom at the state and the trait level was associated with lower effort and higher difficulty, tiredness, and frustration. During the secondary task, boredom increased steadily but was generally lower in more self-control demanding trials. Finally, boredom predicted performance in the secondary task. These results show an intricate relationship between self-control and boredom that research on these two constructs should carefully disentangle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maik Bieleke
- Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Leon Barton
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Germany
| | - Wanja Wolff
- Department of Sport Science, University of Konstanz, Germany.,Department of Educational Psychology, University of Bern, Switzerland
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26
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Petranker R, Eastwood JD. Sitting with it: An investigation of the relationship between trait mindfulness and sustained attention. Conscious Cogn 2021; 90:103101. [PMID: 33714707 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2021.103101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sustaining attention for extended periods of time is associated with negative affect and this increase in negative affect is related to poorer task performance. Trait mindfulness has been shown to be associated with better sustained attention performance. This may be because trait mindfulness is associated with better attention ability or better emotion regulation ability. AIMS The present research aims to replicate previous findings and better understand why trait mindfulness is associated with better sustained attention performance. METHOD Participants responded to self-report questionnaires assessing their trait mindfulness, attentional control, and experiential avoidance. Next, participants performed a sustained attention task, during which they also reported their subjective feelings of discomfort and boredom. Finally, participants reported their retrospective discomfort and boredom after the task. RESULTS We replicated and extended previous findings by showing that the relationship between trait mindfulness and sustained attention performance was mediated by negative affect experienced during the task. Moreover, the correlation between trait mindfulness and sustained attention disappeared when controlling for experiential avoidance, but remined when controlling for attention control. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that trait mindfulness is associated with sustained attention because of enhanced emotion regulation and that enhancing affective regulation would be an effective strategy for improving sustained attention performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rotem Petranker
- Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada.
| | - John D Eastwood
- Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
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27
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Empirical data on sexual boredom are scarce and unsystematized, contrasting with the literature on general boredom. AIM The aim of this review of literature is to verify how sexual boredom is defined in previous research and which relationships were found with sexual functioning, relationship dynamics, or gender. METHODS A systematic search was conducted in EBSCO, Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed databases for papers published until August 2020. Search terms used were "sexual boredom" or "sexual tedium" or "sexual indifference" or "sexual monotony" or a combination of "boredom" and "sexual activity" or "intercourse". This systematic review followed PRISMA guidelines. OUTCOMES Articles were grouped in general boredom and sexuality research and in sexual boredom research. RESULTS This review consists of 43 articles, of which 31 are quantitative studies, 8 are qualitative studies, and 4 are mixed-method studies. Studies concerning general boredom and sexuality include research on diverse aspects of sexual behavior, namely solitary sexual behavior, extra-dyadic sex, compulsive sexual behavior, and risky sexual behavior. Sexual boredom research included papers regarding personality, sexual response, and varied aspects of sexual behavior. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS Findings suggest sexual boredom is related with sexual response, sexual satisfaction, and hypersexuality, which renders clinical relevance. Sexual boredom impacts well-being, and further research should focus on exploring potential mechanisms underpinning this sexual problem. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS To the authors' knowledge, this is the only existing systematic review of sexual boredom and allowed identifying key features of sexual boredom and related aspects. However, because most studies are correlational, and several do not use comprehensive measures of sexual boredom, no causal relationships were identified. CONCLUSION This review indicates the construct of sexual boredom includes individual, relationship, and societal aspects. However, no definition of sexual boredom includes these, and current knowledge does not allow formulating a model or a theory of sexual boredom. de Oliveira L, Carvalho J, Nobre P. A Systematic Review on Sexual Boredom. J Sex Med 2021;18:565-581.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonor de Oliveira
- Center for Psychology at University of Porto, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Joana Carvalho
- Center for Psychology at University of Porto, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro Nobre
- Center for Psychology at University of Porto, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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28
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Freund VA, Schulenberg JE, Maslowsky J. Boredom by Sensation-Seeking Interactions During Adolescence: Associations with Substance Use, Externalizing Behavior, and Internalizing Symptoms in a US National Sample. Prev Sci 2021; 22:555-566. [PMID: 33512654 DOI: 10.1007/s11121-020-01198-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
During adolescence, sensation seeking is linked to several adverse outcomes including substance use, risk taking, and psychopathology. Recent empirical interest in the construct of boredom has revealed that some similar associations may exist for boredom during adolescence. Both boredom and sensation seeking peak during adolescence, and yet, research on boredom and its interaction with sensation seeking are limited. In a multi-cohort, US nationally representative sample of 8th and 10th grade students from the monitoring the future study, latent-moderated structural equation modeling was used to estimate the association of boredom, sensation seeking, and their interaction, to substance use, externalizing behavior, and depressive affect. Moderation by gender was also tested. Boredom and sensation seeking were both significantly associated with most dependent variables. Significant interaction effects were found wherein individuals high on both boredom and sensation seeking reported the highest levels of depressive affect and externalizing behavior. There were no significant interaction effects for substance use indices. Gender moderation was found for depressive affect. The results of this study demonstrate the generalizability of boredom associations and the significance of boredom by sensation-seeking interactions across multiple mental health domains during adolescence. Prevention efforts that attend to both boredom and sensation seeking may be particularly effective for promoting mental health and preventing externalizing behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie A Freund
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
| | - John E Schulenberg
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.,Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 426 Thompson Street, Ann Arbor, MI, 48106, USA
| | - Julie Maslowsky
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, Department of Population Health, Population Research Center, University of Texas, 2109 San Jacinto Blvd, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
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Philippe K, Chabanet C, Issanchou S, Monnery-Patris S. Child eating behaviors, parental feeding practices and food shopping motivations during the COVID-19 lockdown in France: (How) did they change? Appetite 2021; 161:105132. [PMID: 33493611 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2021.105132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic caused France to impose a strict lockdown, affecting families' habits in many domains. This study evaluated possible changes in child eating behaviors, parental feeding practices, and parental motivations when buying food during the lockdown, compared to the period before the lockdown. Parents of 498 children aged 3–12 years (238 boys; M = 7.32; SD = 2.27) completed an online survey with items from validated questionnaires (e.g., CEDQ, CEBQ, HomeSTEAD). They reported on their (child's) current situation during the lockdown, and retrospectively on the period before the lockdown. Many parents reported changes in child eating behaviors, feeding practices, and food shopping motivations. When changes occurred, child appetite, food enjoyment, food responsiveness and emotional overeating significantly increased during the lockdown. Increased child boredom significantly predicted increased food responsiveness, emotional overeating and snack frequency in between meals. When parents changed their practices, they generally became more permissive: less rules, more soothing with food, more child autonomy. They bought pleasurable and sustainable foods more frequently, prepared more home-cooked meals and cooked more with the child. Level of education and increased stress level predicted changes in parental practices and motivations. This study provides insights in factors that can induce positive and negative changes in families' eating, feeding and cooking behaviors. This can stimulate future studies and interventions.
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Xue D, Liu T, Chen X, Liu X, Chao M. Data on media use and mental health during the outbreak of COVID-19 in China. Data Brief 2021; 35:106765. [PMID: 33537381 DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2021.106765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) spread rapidly in China in beginning of 2020. Self-quarantine was suggested by Chinese government to block the spread of the COVID-19. During the self-quarantine, the media played an indispensable role in acquisition of information about the disease. And it could also impact on people's mental health. Therefore, it is necessary to study the psychological outcome resulted from media use during the outbreak of COVID-19. The data in this article could help researchers to explore the mechanism between media use and mental health, and to have a deeper comprehension of the impact of media use on mental health during a public health emergency. The dataset provided in this article included 917 participants recruited from different provinces all over China. Among the participants, there were 304 males and 613 females, with an average age of 28.6 and a standard deviation of 9.5. They took Media Use Questionnaire (MUQ), Empathy-Sympathy Questionnaire (ESQ), Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS), Death Anxiety Questionnaire (DAQ), Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ), State boredom Questionnaire (SBQ), and Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) to assess their media use and mental health during the outbreak of COVID-19. All these instruments for data collection were Chinese versions. In addition, a .csv file consists of major variables we used are included as a supplementary material. Descriptive statistics and hierarchical regression had been conducted with these data. For a discussion of the findings based on the dataset please see the article: Media use and acute psychological outcomes during COVID-19 outbreak in China [1] and Psychological distress and state boredom during the COVID-19 outbreak in China: the role of meaning in life and media use [2].
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Brodeur A, Clark AE, Fleche S, Powdthavee N. COVID-19, lockdowns and well-being: Evidence from Google Trends. J Public Econ 2021; 193:104346. [PMID: 33281237 PMCID: PMC7703221 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 70.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic and government intervention such as lockdowns may severely affect people's mental health. While lockdowns can help to contain the spread of the virus, they may result in substantial damage to population well-being. We use Google Trends data to test whether COVID-19 and the associated lockdowns implemented in Europe and America led to changes in well-being related topic search-terms. Using difference-in-differences and a regression discontinuity design, we find a substantial increase in the search intensity for boredom in Europe and the US. We also found a significant increase in searches for loneliness, worry and sadness, while searches for stress, suicide and divorce on the contrary fell. Our results suggest that people's mental health may have been severely affected by the pandemic and lockdown.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sarah Fleche
- Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, EHESS, Centrale Marseille, Aix-Marseille School of Economics, Marseille, France
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Abstract
ABSTRACTWhile models considering the relationship between emotion and risk differ, many agree that emotions should affect risk in accordance with the adaptive function of the emotion. The function of boredom has been proposed to motivate the pursuit of an alternative experience. Based on this, we predicted that a state of boredom would result in an optimistic perception of risk and increased risk-taking. In Study 1 (n = 164) and Study 2 (n = 200) participants who were made bored (relative to neutral, anger, and fear conditions) reported less worry and concern and estimated fewer deaths for causes of death. Study 3 (n = 149) showed that participants who were made bored (compared to neutral and fear conditions) perceived risk more optimistically, reported being more likely to take risks, and perceived more potential benefits from taking risks. In Study 4 (n = 84) participants who were made bored (relative to neutral) took more risks on the Balloon Analogue Risk Task, a behavioural measure of risk. These findings show that state boredom results in an optimistic perception of risk, increased self-reported risk taking, and increased risk taking. Our results support boredom as an emotion that impacts risk in line with its function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane W Bench
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, Price, UT, USA
| | - Jac'lyn Bera
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University Eastern, Price, UT, USA
| | - Jaylee Cox
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University Eastern, Price, UT, USA
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Yeo N, White M, Alcock I, Garside R, Dean S, Smalley A, Gatersleben B. What is the best way of delivering virtual nature for improving mood? An experimental comparison of high definition TV, 360° video, and computer generated virtual reality. J Environ Psychol 2020; 72:101500. [PMID: 33390641 PMCID: PMC7772948 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to 'real' nature can increase positive affect and decrease negative affect, but direct access is not always possible, e.g. for people in health/care settings who often experience chronic boredom. In these settings 'virtual' forms of nature may also have mood-related benefits (e.g. reducing boredom) but it has been difficult to separate effects of nature content from those of delivery mode. The present laboratory-based study explored whether exposure to three different delivery modes of virtual nature could reduce negative affect (including boredom) and/or increase positive affect. Adult volunteer participants (n = 96) took part in a boredom induction task (to simulate the emotional state of many people in health/care settings) before being randomly assigned to view/interact with a virtual underwater coral reef in one of three experimental conditions: (a) 2D video viewed on a high-definition TV screen; (b) 3600 video VR (360-VR) viewed via a head mounted display (HMD); or (c) interactive computer-generated VR (CG-VR), also viewed via a HMD and interacted with using a hand-held controller. Visual and auditory content was closely matched across conditions with help from the BBC's Blue Planet II series team. Supporting predictions, virtual exposure to a coral reef reduced boredom and negative affect and increased positive affect and nature connectedness. Although reductions in boredom and negative affect were similar across all three conditions, CG-VR was associated with significantly greater improvements in positive affect than TV, which were mediated by greater experienced presence and increases in nature connectedness. Results improve our understanding of the importance of virtual nature delivery mode and will inform studies in real care settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- N.L. Yeo
- European Centre for Environment and Human Health, College of Medicine and Health, University of Exeter, Truro, Cornwall, TR1 3HD, UK
- Corresponding author. European Centre for Environment and Human Health, College of Medicine and Health, University of Exeter, Truro, Cornwall, TR1 3HD, E, UK.
| | - M.P. White
- European Centre for Environment and Human Health, College of Medicine and Health, University of Exeter, Truro, Cornwall, TR1 3HD, UK
- Urban and Environmental Psychology Group, Cognitive Science Hub, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - I. Alcock
- European Centre for Environment and Human Health, College of Medicine and Health, University of Exeter, Truro, Cornwall, TR1 3HD, UK
| | - R. Garside
- European Centre for Environment and Human Health, College of Medicine and Health, University of Exeter, Truro, Cornwall, TR1 3HD, UK
| | - S.G. Dean
- NIHR CLAHRC South West Peninsula, College of Medicine and Health, University of Exeter, Exeter, Devon, EX1 2LU, UK
- Clinical Trials Unit, College of Medicine and Health, University of Exeter, Devon, EX1 2LU, UK
| | - A.J. Smalley
- European Centre for Environment and Human Health, College of Medicine and Health, University of Exeter, Truro, Cornwall, TR1 3HD, UK
| | - B. Gatersleben
- Environmental Psychology Research Group, School of Psychology, University of Surrey, GU2 7XH, UK
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Anderson T, Petranker R, Lin H, Farb NAS. The metronome response task for measuring mind wandering: Replication attempt and extension of three studies by Seli et al. Atten Percept Psychophys 2021; 83:315-30. [PMID: 33000436 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-020-02131-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Science requires replicable tools to measure its intended constructs. Attention research has developed tools that have been used in mind-wandering research, but mind-wandering measures often rely on response-inhibition, which introduces speed-accuracy trade-offs that may conflate errors for mind-wandering. We sought to replicate three studies that used an improved mind-wandering measure: the Metronome Response Task (MRT). In a large (N=300) multisite sample, the primary MRT finding was replicated, showing that continuous rhythmic response time variability reliably predicted self-reported mind-wandering. Our findings also show previously undetected differences between intentional and unintentional mind-wandering. While previously reported mediators (motivation) and moderators (confidence) did not replicate, additional covariates add predictive value and additional constructs (e.g., boredom, effort) demonstrate convergent validity. The MRT is useful for inducing and measuring mind-wandering and provides an especially replicable tool. The MRT's measurement of attention could support future models of the complete cycle of sustained attention.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Epidemics are associated with increased burden of psychological distress. However, the role of boredom on mental health during epidemic periods has seldom been explored. OBJECTIVE This study attempted to examine the effect of state boredom on psychological outcomes, and the role of media use and meaning in life among the indirectly exposed Chinese adults in the initial phase of the COVID-19 outbreak. METHOD An online survey was administered to 917 Chinese adults on 28 January 2020 (1 week after the official declaration of person-to-person transmission of the coronavirus). Self-report questionnaires were used to assess state boredom, anxiety, depression, stress, media use and meaning in life. Moderated mediation analysis was conducted. RESULTS Our results indicated that the effect of state boredom on anxiety and stress, but not depression, were mediated by media use and that sense of meaning in life modified this association. Meaning in life served as a risk factor, rather than a protective factor for the negative psychological outcomes when people experienced boredom. The association between boredom and media use was significant for high but not low meaning in life individuals. CONCLUSION These findings demonstrated that boredom and media use were associated with an increased burden or psychological distress in the sample. It is important to pay attention to the possible negative impact of boredom and media use during COVID-19, and find more ways to cope with boredom, especially those with high presence of meaning in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao Chao
- Key Research Base of Humanities and Social Sciences of the Ministry of Education, Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China.,Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China.,Center of Collaborative Innovation for Assessment and Promotion of Mental Health, Tianjin, China
| | - Xueming Chen
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Tour Liu
- Key Research Base of Humanities and Social Sciences of the Ministry of Education, Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China.,Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China.,Center of Collaborative Innovation for Assessment and Promotion of Mental Health, Tianjin, China
| | - Haibo Yang
- Key Research Base of Humanities and Social Sciences of the Ministry of Education, Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China.,Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China.,Center of Collaborative Innovation for Assessment and Promotion of Mental Health, Tianjin, China
| | - Brian J Hall
- Global and Community Mental Health Research Group, Department of Psychology, University of Macau, Macao (SAR), China
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Struk AA, Scholer AA, Danckert J, Seli P. Rich environments, dull experiences: how environment can exacerbate the effect of constraint on the experience of boredom. Cogn Emot 2020; 34:1517-1523. [PMID: 32401144 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2020.1763919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
We examined the hypothesis that boredom is likely to occur when opportunity costs are high; that is, when there is a high potential value of engaging in activities other than the researcher-assigned activity. To this end, participants were either placed in a room with many possible affordances (e.g. a laptop, puzzle, etc.; affordances condition; n = 121), or they were ushered into an empty room (control condition; n = 107). In both conditions participants were instructed to entertain themselves with only their thoughts (hence, participants in the affordances condition were to refrain from engaging with the available options). As predicted, participants in the affordances condition reported higher levels of boredom compared with those in the control condition. Results suggest that under some conditions, environments that afford alternative activities may be more boring than those that are void of such activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andriy A Struk
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Abigail A Scholer
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - James Danckert
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Paul Seli
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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Witowska J, Schmidt S, Wittmann M. What happens while waiting? How self-regulation affects boredom and subjective time during a real waiting situation. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2020; 205:103061. [PMID: 32203734 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Boredom is an everyday experience during uneventful situations and while waiting. Such situations are typically described as unpleasant since oneself becomes the focus of awareness, and the subjective duration expands. Self-control is an individual trait that helps to cope with unpleasant situations. Hardly any systematic studies exist on real waiting situations where people's boredom and subjective time experience are assessed in relation to self-control. Therefore, we assessed 99 participants who first filled out self-report questionnaires on emotional and metacognitive control, the Scale for Experiencing Emotions (SEE) and the Temporal Metacognition Scale (TMCS). After giving a fake reason for why they had to wait, participants were shut in an empty room alone for 7.5 minutes and afterwards asked to report their impressions regarding the experienced time and reactions to the situation. Boredom was associated with the feeling of time passing more slowly and more frequent thoughts about time. The propensity to self-regulate was related to less awareness of time and to lower levels of boredom. Mediation analyses revealed that the level of boredom mediates the relationships between self-regulation processes and time perception. The results provide new insights into the association between time perception and boredom as states in a real situation and self-regulation as a trait.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Witowska
- Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw, Stawki 5/7, 00-183 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Stefan Schmidt
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, Medical Faculty, Medical Center, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Marc Wittmann
- Institute for Frontier Areas in Psychology and Mental Health, Freiburg, Germany.
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de Oliveira L, Carvalho J. The Link Between Boredom and Hypersexuality: A Systematic Review. J Sex Med 2020; 17:994-1004. [PMID: 32165100 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsxm.2020.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Some conceptualizations of hypersexuality posit boredom as a possible trigger of hypersexual behavior. AIM This work aims to review published articles addressing the link between boredom and hypersexuality to investigate if this relationship can yet be established based on current empirical data. METHODS This systematic review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Studies, published until September 2019, were retrieved from EBSCO, Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed. A systematic search was conducted using an exhaustive list of key terms combining "boredom" with "hypersexuality," "sexual impulsivity," "sexual compulsivity," and "sexual addiction." Only articles presenting empirical results concerning the relationship between boredom and hypersexuality were considered. RESULTS From the initial poll of 76 articles, only 19 articles were included in our final selection. Of the total studies, 16 were quantitative studies and 3 were qualitative studies. 4 studies were validation studies of hypersexuality-related measures, 11 studies concerned online sexual activity, and 3 reported sexual boredom. 7 studies with men used non-heterosexual samples. 5 studies used samples with both women and men, and 1 study used a sample of women only. Most studies indicate a positive association between boredom and hypersexuality, although 4 did not. IMPLICATIONS Further studies with diversified samples are still indispensable, as female samples are not portrayed and research is much focused on online sexual activity. Future research should explore the relationship between boredom and hypersexuality within specific behavioral specifiers including masturbation, pornography use, sexual behavior with consenting adults, cybersex, telephone sex, and strip clubs. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS To the authors' knowledge, this is the first review looking at the possible link between boredom and hypersexuality. Investigation on the topic is scarce, and several of the studies included in this review correspond to anecdotal evidences of the phenomenon, as only few studies used appropriate measures of boredom. CONCLUSION Although current literature identifies a link between boredom and hypersexuality, further substantive research is still much needed to clarify the associations between the 2 constructs. de Oliveira L, Carvalho J. The Link Between Boredom and Hypersexuality: A Systematic Review. J Sex Med 2020;17:994-1004.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonor de Oliveira
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Center for Psychology at University of Porto, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Joana Carvalho
- School of Psychology and Life Sciences, Lusófona University of Humanities and Technologies, Lisbon, Portugal; HEI-Lab: Digital Human-Environment and Interactions Labs, Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias, Lisbon, Portugal
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39
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Weybright EH, Schulenberg J, Caldwell LL. More Bored Today Than Yesterday? National Trends in Adolescent Boredom From 2008 to 2017. J Adolesc Health 2020; 66:360-365. [PMID: 31711838 PMCID: PMC7007872 DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Boredom is an accepted part of adolescence. Developmental and contextual factors are likely to conspire to increase boredom during adolescence, which, in turn, relates to health risk behaviors. However, literature is lacking in the developmental course of boredom across adolescence as well as historical variation in boredom. The present study used multicohort nationally representative samples of U.S. secondary school students to identify historical trends and grade level differences in boredom overall and by sex. METHODS The present study includes 8th, 10th, and 12th graders from 2008 to 2017 who completed the Monitoring the Future self-report survey (n = 106,784). Joinpoint was used to identify historical trends in boredom and linear regression to identify grade level differences. RESULTS Boredom increased historically both across and within grades with girls generally demonstrating greater increases than boys. Across grade, boredom appears to peak in 10th grade for boys and decrease across grade for girls. CONCLUSIONS Study findings indicate boredom has been increasing among adolescents over the past several years, with greater increases among girls. Increases may be concomitant with recent increases in mental health difficulties, suggesting that the overarching psychosocial profile of U.S. adolescents is becoming less optimal. Findings also suggest boredom peaks in 10th grade overall although when analyzing separately by sex, girls' boredom declines from 8th to 12th grade. It is clear that boredom is a worthy target for intervention both in clinical and prevention contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth H. Weybright
- Human Development, Washington State University, 509 Johnson Tower, Pullman, WA, 99164-4852, U.S.A
| | - John Schulenberg
- Institute for Social Research and Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 2318 Institute for Social Research, Ann Arbor, MI, 48106-1248, U.S.A
| | - Linda L. Caldwell
- Recreation, Park, and Tourism Management, Pennsylvania State University, 801 Ford Building, University Park, PA, 16802, U.S.A
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Abstract
Much environmental enrichment for laboratory animals is intended to enhance animal welfare and normalcy by providing stimulation to reduce 'boredom'. Behavioural manifestations of boredom include restless sensation-seeking behaviours combined with indicators of sub-optimal arousal. Here we explored whether these signs could be reduced by extra daily play opportunity in laboratory ferrets. Specifically, we hypothesised that playtime would reduce restlessness, aggression, sensation-seeking and awake drowsiness, even 24h later in the homecage. Female ferrets (n = 14) were group housed in enriched multi-level cages. Playtime involved exploring a room containing a ball pool, paper bags, balls containing bells, and a familiar interactive human for 1h. This was repeated on three consecutive mornings, and on the fourth morning, homecage behaviour was compared between ferrets who had experienced the playtime treatment versus control cagemates who had not. Their investigation of stimuli (positive = mouse odour or ball; ambiguous = empty bottle or tea-strainer; and negative = peppermint or bitter apple odour) was also recorded. We then swapped treatments, creating a paired experimental design. Ferrets under control conditions lay awake with their eyes open and screeched significantly more, but slept and sat/stood less, than following playtime. They also contacted negative and ambiguous stimuli significantly more under control conditions than they did following playtime; contact with positive stimuli showed no effects. Attempts to blind the observer to treatments were unsuccessful, so replication is required, but the findings suggest that playtime may have reduced both sub-optimal arousal and restless sensation seeking behaviour, consistent with reducing boredom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte C Burn
- Animal Welfare Science and Ethics, The Royal Veterinary College, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Jade Raffle
- Animal Welfare Science and Ethics, The Royal Veterinary College, Hertfordshire, UK
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Masland SR, Shah TV, Choi-Kain LW. Boredom in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Lost Criterion Reconsidered. Psychopathology 2020; 53:239-253. [PMID: 33166987 DOI: 10.1159/000511312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Difficulty with boredom was eliminated from the formal diagnostic criteria for borderline personality disorder (BPD) in 1994 based on significantly limited, unpublished data. However, it is apparent in clinical practice that boredom remains relevant to BPD. This review synthesizes empirical research, with consideration of theoretical accounts, to critically examine the relevance of boredom to BPD. We first briefly review issues in defining and measuring boredom and offer an expanded conceptualization for BPD, which includes the notion of boredom reactivity, before turning to boredom's differentiation from and overlap with feelings of emptiness, with which it was paired prior to its removal from the DSM. We then discuss perspectives on boredom's significance in BPD, briefly touching on its relevance in other personality disorders. We propose a Boredom Cascade Model that articulates how boredom and boredom reactivity interact with identity disturbance and chronic emptiness to create escalating patterns of behavioral dysregulation and make recommendations for research and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara R Masland
- Psychological Science, Pomona College, Claremont, California, USA,
| | - Tanya V Shah
- Psychological Science, Pomona College, Claremont, California, USA
| | - Lois W Choi-Kain
- McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA
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Oken B, Memmott T, Eddy B, Wiedrick J, Fried-Oken M. Vigilance state fluctuations and performance using brain-computer interface for communication. Brain Comput Interfaces (Abingdon) 2019; 5:146-156. [PMID: 31236425 DOI: 10.1080/2326263x.2019.1571356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The effect of fatigue and drowsiness on brain-computer interface (BCI) performance was evaluated. 20 healthy participants performed a standardized 11-minute calibration of a Rapid Serial Visual Presentation BCI system five times over two hours. For each calibration, BCI performance was evaluated using area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC). Self-rated measures were obtained following each calibration including the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale and a standardized boredom scale. Physiological measures were obtained during each calibration including P300 amplitude, theta power, alpha power, median power frequency and eye-blink rate. There was a significant decrease in AUC over the five sessions. This was paralleled by increases in self-rated sleepiness and boredom and decreases in P300 amplitude. Alpha power, median power frequency, and eye-blink rate also increased but more modestly. AUC changes were only partly explained by changes in P300 amplitude. There was a decrease in BCI performance over time that related to increases in sleepiness and boredom. This worsened performance was only partly explained by decreases in P300 amplitude. Thus, drowsiness and boredom have a negative impact on BCI performance. Increased BCI performance may be possible by developing physiological measures to provide feedback to the user or to adapt the classifier to state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry Oken
- Department of Neurology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR, 97239 USA
| | - Tab Memmott
- Department of Neurology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR, 97239 USA
| | - Brandon Eddy
- Institute on Development and Disability, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR, 97239 USA
| | - Jack Wiedrick
- Biostatistics and Design Program, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR, 97239 USA
| | - Melanie Fried-Oken
- Institute on Development and Disability, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR, 97239 USA
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Abstract
Boredom is a prevalent emotion with potential negative consequences. Previous research has associated boredom with outcomes indicating both high and low levels of arousal and activation. In the present study we propose that the situational context is an important factor that may determine whether boredom relates to high versus low arousal/activation reactions. In a correlational (N = 443) and an experimental study (N = 120) we focused on the situational factor (perceived) task autonomy, and examined whether it explains when boredom is associated with high versus low arousal affective reactions (i.e., frustration versus depressed affect). Results of both studies indicate that when task autonomy is low, state boredom relates to more frustration than when task autonomy is high. In contrast, some support (i.e., Study 1 only) was found suggesting that when task autonomy is high, state boredom relates to more depressed affect than when task autonomy is low. These findings imply that careful attention is needed for tasks that are relatively boring. In order to reduce frustration caused by such tasks, substantial autonomy should be provided, while monitoring that this does not result in increased depressed affect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin A. J. van Hooft
- Work and Organizational Psychology, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 15919, 1001 NK Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Miyauchi E, Kawasaki M. Electroencephalogram oscillations support the involvement of task-unrelated thoughts in the mechanism of boredom: A pilot study. Neurosci Lett 2018; 677:72-77. [PMID: 29689342 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2018.04.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Boredom is a universal experience; however, the neural mechanisms underlying the phenomenon remain unclear. Previous research suggests that boredom is related to attentional failure and derives a possible explanation for the cognitive processes of boredom as a product of appraisals made about task-unrelated thoughts. There are little published data regarding proposed processes from neuroscientific perspectives. Therefore, the authors aimed to examine whether cognitive processes of boredom with task-unrelated thoughts followed by appraisals of them can be explained by examining oscillatory correlates. Electroencephalography was used to measure changes in neural oscillatory activity during subjective experiences of boredom or dislike in healthy subjects. Using this approach, temporal information of brain activity particular to the boredom experience was acquired. Additionally, the Adult Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Self-Report Scale was used to evaluate the effects of attentional deficits in the neural processing of boredom. Tonic increase in theta and transient increases in alpha activity were exhibited before the key press response for experiencing boredom; however, only tonic increases in theta amplitudes were boredom specific. The results of this pilot study suggest that the boredom experience is possibly associated with cognitive processes involved in task-unrelated thoughts, followed by their appraisals to be bored, mediated by alpha and theta activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eri Miyauchi
- Department of Intelligent Interaction Technology, Graduate School of Systems and Information Engineering, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1, Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan.
| | - Masahiro Kawasaki
- Department of Intelligent Interaction Technology, Graduate School of Systems and Information Engineering, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1, Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
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Danckert J, Hammerschmidt T, Marty-Dugas J, Smilek D. Boredom: Under-aroused and restless. Conscious Cogn 2018; 61:24-37. [PMID: 29631194 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2018.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Revised: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Boredom is a common experience associated with a range of negative outcomes. Debate remains as to whether boredom should be considered a high or low arousal state. We employed passages of text to induce either boredom or interest and probed self-reported levels of boredom, arousal, and restlessness. Results replicated known associations between mind-wandering and state boredom (i.e., mind-wandering was highest for the boredom mood induction). Reports of sleepiness (a proxy for arousal level) were highest for the boring induction. While restlessness was not different for the boring and interesting inductions when they were performed first, restlessness was significantly higher for the boredom induction when it was experienced last. We discuss these results within the context of the debate regarding boredom and arousal.
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Nowosielski RJ, Trick LM, Toxopeus R. Good distractions: Testing the effects of listening to an audiobook on driving performance in simple and complex road environments. Accid Anal Prev 2018; 111:202-209. [PMID: 29223795 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2017.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Revised: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/24/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Distracted driving (driving while performing a secondary task) causes many collisions. Most research on distracted driving has focused on operating a cell-phone, but distracted driving can include eating while driving, conversing with passengers or listening to music or audiobooks. Although the research has focused on the deleterious effects of distraction, there may be situations where distraction improves driving performance. Fatigue and boredom are also associated with collision risk and it is possible that secondary tasks can help alleviate the effects of fatigue and boredom. Furthermore, it has been found that individuals with high levels of executive functioning as measured by the OSPAN (Operation Span) task show better driving while multitasking. In this study, licensed drivers were tested in a driving simulator (a car body surrounded by screens) that simulated simple or complex roads. Road complexity was manipulated by increasing traffic, scenery, and the number of curves in the drive. Participants either drove, or drove while listening to an audiobook. Driving performance was measured in terms of braking response time to hazards (HRT): the time required to brake in response to pedestrians or vehicles that suddenly emerged from the periphery into the path of the vehicle, speed, standard deviation of speed, standard deviation of lateral position (SDLP). Overall, braking times to hazards were higher on the complex drive than the simple one, though the effects of secondary tasks such as audiobooks were especially deleterious on the complex drive. In contrast, on the simple drive, driving while listening to an audiobook lead to faster HRT. We found evidence that individuals with high OSPAN scores had faster HRTs when listening to an audiobook. These results suggest that there are environmental and individual factors behind difference in the allocation of attention while listening to audiobooks while driving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Nowosielski
- Department of Psychology University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Lana M Trick
- Department of Psychology University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Ryan Toxopeus
- Department of Psychology University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
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Abstract
Background Remote area medics (RAMs) may be at increased risk of mental health difficulties. Aims To explore the occupational experiences of RAMs to identify stressors and the mental health impact. Methods Semi-structured interviews were conducted with six RAMs working in Iraq to gather data, which was explored using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Results Three key themes emerged from the data (i) the experience of being remote, (ii) cultural shock and (iii) social support. A number of key stressors were identified, including loneliness and boredom, associated with being remote, and the loss of professional identity due to the occupational role. Three out of the six participants reported substantial depressive symptoms. A number of positive coping strategies were identified, particularly relationships with other RAMs, via instant messaging forums. Conclusions RAMs experience a number of particular stressors that could put them at risk of depression. Adaptive coping strategies were identified; in particular, virtual social support. These findings should be of interest to companies which employ RAMs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - G Brown
- Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham Hill, Egham
| | - V Williamson
- King's Centre for Military Health Research, King's College, London, Weston Education Centre, London
| | - N Greenberg
- King's Centre for Military Health Research, King's College, London, Weston Education Centre, London
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Gomez-Ramirez J, Costa T. Boredom begets creativity: A solution to the exploitation-exploration trade-off in predictive coding. Biosystems 2017; 162:168-176. [PMID: 28479110 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2017.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Revised: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Here we investigate whether systems that minimize prediction error e.g. predictive coding, can also show creativity, or on the contrary, prediction error minimization unqualifies for the design of systems that respond in creative ways to non-recurrent problems. We argue that there is a key ingredient that has been overlooked by researchers that needs to be incorporated to understand intelligent behavior in biological and technical systems. This ingredient is boredom. We propose a mathematical model based on the Black-Scholes-Merton equation which provides mechanistic insights into the interplay between boredom and prediction pleasure as the key drivers of behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaime Gomez-Ramirez
- The Hospital for Sick Children, Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Toronto, Bay St. 686, Toronto, Canada.
| | - Tommaso Costa
- Koelliker Hospital, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi, 10, 10124 Turin, Italy
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Abstract
Despite the ubiquitous nature of boredom, the definition, function, and correlates of boredom are still poorly understood. In this review, we summarize the "known" (consistent evidence) and "unknown" (inconsistent evidence) correlates of boredom. We show that boredom is consistently related to negative affect, task-unrelated thought, over-estimation of elapsed time, reduced agency, as well as to over- and under-stimulation. Activation of the default mode network was consistent across the few available fMRI studies, while the recruitment of other brain areas such as the hippocampus and anterior insular cortex, was a notable but less consistent correlate of boredom. Other less consistent correlates of boredom are also reviewed, such as the level of arousal and the mental attributions given to fluctuations of attention. Finally, we identify two critical factors that may contribute to current inconsistencies in the literature and may hamper further progress in the field. First, there is relatively little consistency in the way in which boredom has been operationalized across studies to date, with operationalizations of boredom ranging from negative affect paired with under-stimulation, over-stimulation, to negative affect paired with a lack of goal-directed actions. Second, preliminary evidence suggests the existence of distinct types of boredom (e.g., searching vs. apathetic) that may have different and sometimes even opposing correlates. Adopting a more precise and consistent way of operationalizing boredom, and arriving at an empirically validated taxonomy of different types of boredom, could serve to overcome the current roadblocks to facilitate further progress in our scientific understanding of boredom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Raffaelli
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Caitlin Mills
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Kalina Christoff
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
- Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2211 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 2B5, Canada.
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Fast D, Shoveller J, Kerr T. The material, moral, and affective worlds of dealing and crime among young men entrenched in an inner city drug scene. Int J Drug Policy 2017; 44:1-11. [PMID: 28343062 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Revised: 01/03/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
A large body of previous research has elucidated how involvement in drug dealing and crime among marginalized urban youth who use drugs is shaped by the imperatives of addiction and survival in the context of poverty. However, a growing body of research has examined how youth's involvement in these activities is shaped by more expansive desires and moralities. In this paper, we examine the material, moral, and affective worlds of loosely gang affiliated, street level dealing and crime among one group of young men in Vancouver, Canada. Drawing on longitudinal interviews with 44 young men from 2008 to 2016, and ethnographic fieldwork with a group of approximately 15 of those young men over the same time period, we argue that for these youth, dealing and crime were not solely about economic survival, or even the accrual of highly meaningful forms of "street capital" in the margins. Rather, as "regimes of living," dealing and crime also opened up new value systems, moral logics, and affects in relation to the tremendous risks, potential rewards, and crushing boredom of life in the margins. These activities were also understood as a way into deeply desired forms of social spatial belonging in the city, which had previously only been imagined. However, across time dealing and crime "embedded" young men in cycles of incarceration, destitution, addictions, and mental health crises that ultimately reinforced their exclusion-from legal employment, but also within the world of crime. The findings of this study underscore the importance of adopting a life course perspective in order to meaningfully address the harms associated with involvement in dealing and crime among youth in our setting.
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