Development and Initial Validation of the Italian Mood Scale (ITAMS) for Use in Sport and Exercise Contexts

Psychometric Characteristics of the Brazil Mood Scale among Youth and Elite Athletes Using Two Response Time Frames

Regular assessment of the mood construct as an indicator of psychological wellbeing is used in Brazil to screen athletes for risk of mental health issues. The present study tested the psychometric characteristics of the Brazil Mood Scale (BRAMS) using both "right now" and "past week" response time frames and investigated between-group differences in mood based on athletes' sex, age, and social vulnerability. Participants were 898 athletes (511 male, 387 female, age range: 12-44 years) from eight sports. The factorial validity of the BRAMS was supported using both response time frames independently and in a multi-sample analysis. Subscale reliability was supported for both time frames. Fatigue, depression, and tension scores were higher using the "past week" time frame than the "right now" time frame. Males reported higher vigor scores than females, and younger participants (<18 years) reported lower scores for anger and depression than older participants (18+ years). No significant differences in mood (p > 0.05) were found between participants identified as socially vulnerable and those who were not socially vulnerable. Findings supported the psychometric integrity of the BRAMS and its use as a screening measure for psychological wellbeing among youth and elite athletes in Brazil.

Effects of cognitive load and different exercise intensities on perceived effort in sedentary university students: a follow up of the Cubo Fitness Test validation

Work and intellectually fatiguing environments can significantly influence the health of individuals, which is strictly bound to motor efficiency. In particular, desk workers and university students may have a sedentary lifestyle and a condition of mental fatigue caused by daily routine, which could impair motor efficiency. The assessment is a starting point for enhancing awareness of the individual's psychophysical condition through the perception of one's body motor efficiency, motivating to move towards improvement. This way, a submaximal test based on perceived exertion was developed (Cubo Fitness Test, CFT) and validated in previous studies. Hence, two further studies were employed to enhance the consistency and accuracy of this instrument in different conditions. The first study investigated the internal responsiveness of CFT, evaluating if mental fatigue could affect motor efficiency. The second study investigated which perceived intensity (weak, moderate, strong, or absolute maximum) could be more reliable for applying the CFT (as previous research focused the investigation only on moderate intensity). In the first investigation, participants assessed two stimuli (mental fatigue induced with a Stroop color-word task and a neutral condition based on the vision of a documentary) lasting 60 min each. The quality of psychophysical recovery (total quality recovery) and the mood state (Italian Mood State questionnaire) were evaluated before the stimuli. After the fatiguing or the neutral task, the mood state was newly assessed, together with the evaluation of the workload's characteristics (Nasa TLX) and the CFT motor efficiency. In the second investigation, participants had to perform CFT twice for each at different intensities of Borg's Scale of perceived exertion. Researchers successfully requested to fill out the NASA TLX questionnaire regarding the perceived workload characteristics of CFT, and the reliability of each intensity was assessed. Results seem to enhance the consistency and the accuracy of the instrument. Indeed, findings evidenced that CFT is not influenced by mental fatigue conditions typical of the intellectual work of desk workers and university students for which this test was specifically conceived. Moreover, moderate and strong perceived intensity are the most adequate conditions to assess motor efficiency in these populations.

Testing the Psychometric Properties of an Arabic Version of the Brunel Mood Scale among Physical Education Students

In our study, we translated and tested the psychometric properties of an Arabic version of the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS), referred to as the Arabic Mood Scale (ARAMS), among physical education university students. A total of 681 participants completed the ARAMS in exploratory and confirmatory phases. Exploratory analyses were conducted on data from 253 students between the ages of 19 and 25 years (M = 21.14 ± 1.65 years) of whom 132 were women (52.2%) and 121 were men (47.8%). Confirmatory analyses were conducted on data from 428 students between the ages of 19 and 25 years (M = 20.93 ± 1.55 years) of whom 203 were women (52.6%) and 225 were men (47.4%). The measurement model of the ARAMS was initially evaluated using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and was subsequently tested via confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). EFA identified a 24-item, 6-factor structure that aligned with the original BRUMS measurement model, and CFA demonstrated congruence between the two models. Internal consistency of the six subscales exceeded adequacy levels with good Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's Omega values respectively for anger (0.811; 0.812), confusion (0.830; 0.830), depression (0.858; 0.859), fatigue (0.823; 0.825), and tension (0.824; 0.825), and an acceptable value for vigor (0.749; 0.748). Findings support the factorial validity and internal consistency of the ARAMS, which appears to be a suitable measure for use in Arabic physical education contexts. Further validation studies are required before the ARAMS is used in other Arabic-language contexts.

Does Smartphone Use Affect a Subsequent Swimming Training Session? Preliminary Results in Amateur Triathletes

To date, the literature has failed to individuate a clear motivation for the performance decrement after a mental fatigue-inducing task. This study aimed to evaluate biomechanical and perceptual variables during a swimming training session in different mental fatigue states. Seven amateur triathletes watched a documentary, utilized a smartphone, or performed an AX-CPT for 45 min randomly on three different days. After, they performed a 15-min warm-up followed by 6 × 200 m at constant pre-set speed plus one 200 m at maximal effort. The mental fatigue status was assessed by the visual analog scale (VAS) and short-Stroop task results before, post-mental task, and post-swimming session. The biomechanical and motor coordination variables during swimming were assessed using five IMU sensors and video analysis. The heart rate and rate of perceived exertion were monitored during the task. No differences in biomechanical and perceptual variables were found between and within conditions. Higher mental fatigue was found only in the AX-CPT condition at post task by VAS. In this preliminary study, no changes in swimming biomechanics were highlighted by mental fatigue, but the warm-up performed may have counteracted its negative effects. Further studies are recommended.

Cross-Cultural Validation of the Malaysian Mood Scale and Tests of Between-Group Mood Differences

Mood measures have been shown to have utility for monitoring risks to mental health and to predict performance among athletes. To facilitate use in a Malaysian context, we tested a Malay-language version of the 24-item Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS), referred to as the Malaysian Mood Scale (MASMS). Following a thorough translation-back-translation process, the 24-item MASMS was administered to 4923 Malay-speaking respondents (2706 males, 2217 females; 2559 athletes, 2364 non-athletes), ranging in age from 17 to 75 years (M = 28.2 years, SD = 9.4 years). Confirmatory factor analysis supported the six-factor MASMS measurement model (CFI = 0.950, TLI = 0.940, RMSEA = 0.056 [CI 0.055, 0.058]). Convergent and divergent validity of the MASMS were supported via relationships with depression, anxiety, and stress measures. Significant differences in mood scores were found between athletes and non-athletes, males and females, and younger and older participants. Tables of normative data and profile sheets for specific groups were generated. We propose that the MASMS is a valid measure that can be used to monitor mental health status among athletes and non-athletes and that facilitates future mood-related research in Malaysia.

Tremor, finger and hand dexterity and force steadiness, do not change after mental fatigue in healthy humans

The effects of mental fatigue have been studied in relation to specific percentages of maximal aerobic or anaerobic efforts, maximal voluntary contractions or the performance of sport specific skills. However, its effects on tremor, dexterity and force steadiness have been only marginally explored. The present work aimed at filling this gap. In twenty-nine young individuals, measurement of postural, kinetic and isometric tremor, pinch force steadiness and finger and hand dexterity were performed before and after either 100 min of mental fatigue or control tasks. During the interventions blood pressure, oxygen saturation and heart rate and perceived effort in continuing the task were recorded every 10 minutes. Tremor was analysed in both time (standard deviation) and frequency domain (position, amplitude and area of the dominant peak) of the acceleration signal. Finger dexterity was assessed by Purdue pegboard test and hand dexterity in terms of contact time in a buzz wire exercise. Force steadiness was quantified as coefficient of variation of the force signal. Postural, kinetic and isometric tremors, force steadiness and dexterity were not affected. Higher oxygen saturation values and higher variability of heart rate and blood pressure were found in the intervention group during the mental fatigue protocol (p < .001). The results provide no evidence that mental fatigue affects the neuromuscular parameters that influence postural, kinetic or isometric tremor, force steadiness and dexterity when measured in single-task conditions. Increased variability in heart rate may suggest that the volunteers in the intervention group altered their alert/stress state. Therefore, it is possible that the alterations that are commonly observed during mental fatigue, and that could have affected tremor, steadiness and dexterity only last for the duration of the cognitive task and are not detectable anymore soon after the mental task is terminated.

Neurovegetative and Emotional Modulation Induced by Mozart's Music

INTRODUCTION

Since decades, the "Mozart effect" has been studied. However, the diverse effects of Mozart's music components have not been yet defined. Authors aimed to identify a differential response to short-term exposure to Mozart's music, or to its rhythmic signature only, on subjective and objective measures.

METHODS

The Mozart Sonata in A major K 331 (Mozart), the same piece consisting only of beat (Destructured), and duration-matched silence were administered to 25 healthy young adults, stood supine in a relaxing setting. The Italian Mood Scale questionnaire was administered before and after each listening. Heart rate variability (HRV) metrics were calculated from ECG recording, and breath flow was registered during experiments.

RESULTS

After Destructured, there was no change of fatigue and tension. After Mozart, fatigue was significantly reduced (and a tendency appeared for tension), whereas vigor was not. Breathing rate tended to be higher during Mozart. The nonlinear parameter HFD of HRV analysis, even though not significantly, was slightly lower during Destructured; Poincaré plots SD1 and SD2 tended to be lower during Mozart.

DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION

Mozart's music may allow to maintain arousal during relaxing condition. Psychological response of music and physiological dynamics were not necessarily entangled. Musical pieces based on individual physiological signature may lead musical psychological interventions.

Executive Functions and Mood States in Athletes Performing Exercise Under Hypoxia

Hypoxia can impair cognitive performance, whereas exercise can enhance it. The effects of hypoxia on cognitive performance during exercise appear to be moderated by exercise duration and intensity and by severity and duration of hypoxia and cognitive task. In normal individuals, exercise under hypoxia can evoke adverse post-exercise mood states, such as tension and fatigue. However, little is known about the effects of hypoxia during exercise in trained athletes. The purpose of this study was to investigate how hypoxia affected executive functions and mood states, assessed, respectively, during and post-exercise and to explore the role of motivation moderators, such as inhibition and activation systems (BIS-BAS). Two different sessions of exercise in normoxia and hypoxia (FiO2 13%), each lasting 18 min, were randomly assigned in a counterbalanced order and administered to seventeen male athletes. During exercise bouts, participants performed a mental task (BST) aimed to produce cognitive interference and suppression. Reaction times and accuracy of responses were recorded. After 5 min, all participants completed two questionnaires assessing mood states (ITAMS) and incidence of symptoms potentially related to hypoxia (AMS-C). The results show that hypoxia impairs cognitive performance in terms of slower reaction times, but a high BAS attenuates this effect. Participants with high BAS show an equivalent cognitive performance under hypoxia and normoxia conditions. No effects were found on mood states. Further research is required to investigate the role of BAS, cognitive abilities, and mood states in prolonged hypoxic conditions.

Bangla version of the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS): validity, measurement invariance and normative data in non-clinical sample

Mood assessment is an effective way to monitor mental health states and detect potential psychiatric symptoms. The Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) is one of the most widely used self-report measures for assessing mood responses. The current study examined the psychometric properties of the Bangla version of BRUMS and validated it with the Positive Mental Health scale (PMH-scale). The participants were 1015 Bangladeshi university students (62% men) aged from 18 to 27 (M = 21.95, SD = 1.95). The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) approach was used to test the factor structure of the BRUMS and measurement invariance for sex. The CFA revealed that the originally proposed 6-factor model of BRUMS had an acceptable fit which confirms factorial validity. Moreover, each subscale (anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, tension, and vigor) of the BRUMS showed high internal consistency (α ranged from .77 to .87) and retest reliability (ICC ranged from .71 to .91). Concurrent validity of the BRUMS was supported through the hypothesized relationships with mental health (PMH-scale). Full measurement invariance by sex was confirmed for the 6-factor model indicating that the BRUMS is equally applicable to men and women. Finally, normative data were established which allows group comparison of mood scores. This study indicates that the Bangla version of BRUMS can be reliably used to assess mood response which facilitates mood-related research and intervention to improve mental health and reduce psychiatric disorders in Bangladesh.

Validation of a Lithuanian-Language Version of the Brunel Mood Scale: The BRUMS-LTU

Mood can be considered as a diffuse and global emotional state, with both valence and arousal characteristics, that is not directed towards a specific object. Investigation of moods in specific language and cultural contexts relies on the availability of appropriately validated measures. The current study involved the translation and validation of the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) from English into Lithuanian. The 24-item, 6-factor scale, referred to as the BRUMS-LTU, was administered to 746 participants who were fluent in Lithuanian (nmen = 199 (26.7%), nwomen = 547 (73.3%); age range = 17-78 years, M = 41.8 years, SD = 11.4 years). Confirmatory factor analysis showed an adequate fit of the hypothesized measurement model to the data (CFI  =  0.954, TLI  = 0 .944, RMSEA  = 0 .060 [CI 0.056, 0.064], SRMR = 0.070) and multi-sample analysis supported configural, metric, scalar, and residual invariance across genders. Concurrent measures (i.e., Perceived Stress Scale, Big Five Personality Test) correlated with subscale scores in line with theoretical predictions, supporting both convergent and divergent validity. Internal consistency coefficients of the six subscales were satisfactory. Mood scores varied significantly by gender, with men generally reporting more positive moods than women. Findings support the adequacy of the psychometric properties of the BRUMS-LTU. Thus, the scale can be recommended for use in further psychological studies of mood in Lithuania and may also be useful for applied practitioners.

Mood Profiling for Sustainable Mental Health among Athletes

Mood responses are a well-established mental health indicator. Gauging mental health status over time often involves periodic mood assessment using a standardized measure, a process referred to as mood profiling. Comparison of observed mood scores against relevant normative data is central to effective mood profiling. The primary purpose of our study was to improve existing norms for the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) using a large internet sample. The secondary purpose was to discuss how mood profiling can be used to promote sustainable mental health primarily among athletes but also with relevance to non-athletes. The BRUMS was completed via the In The Mood website by 15,692 participants. Significant differences between observed mean scores and existing normative data were evident for all six mood dimensions, prompting norm refinement. Specific group norms were generated to address sex differences in mood responses and differences by athlete/nonathlete status. The revised tables of normative data for the BRUMS should be used by researchers in future investigations of mood responses and by applied practitioners seeking to monitor mood responses as an indicator of mental health status. Applications of mood profiling with elite athletes are exemplified, along with recommendations for using mood profiling in the pursuit of sustainable mental health.

How Does a Sport Psychological Intervention Help Professional Cyclists to Cope With Their Mental Health During the COVID-19 Lockdown?

All around the world in March, due to COVID-19, competitive sport calendars were suddenly canceled, jeopardizing the training programs of athletes. Moreover, in Italy, the government banned all non-essential travel across the entire country from the beginning of March. Consequently, Italian cyclists were banned from leaving their homes and therefore unable to perform their ordinary training activities. The Italian Association of Professional Cyclists (ACCPI) early on during that period noticed that several cyclists were experiencing a worrying decrease in their mental well-being and asked the authors to set up an online Sport Psychology Intervention (SPI) during lockdown to enhance the athletes' mental health. Through a number of unprecedented events and considerations, the aim of the current investigation was to assess the Italian cyclists' mental health during the lockdown and its changes after the SPI. We validated the Italian version of the Sport Mental Health Continuum Short Form (Sport MHC-SF)-presented in Study 1-and then applied it to a sample of Italian professional cyclists-presented in Study 2-prior to and after the SPI. To achieve these objectives, the reliability and construct validity of the Italian version of the Sport MHC-SF were tested in Study 1. RM-MANOVA tests were run to evaluate the effect of SPI on cyclists in Study 2. A total of 185 Italian athletes were involved in the validation of the MHC in Study 1 and 38 professional cyclists in Study 2. Results from Study 1 suggested a three-factor higher order model of Sport MHC-SF [Model fit: χ²(df) = 471.252 (252), p < 0.000; CFI = 0.951; RMSEA = 0.049; RMR= 0.048]. MCFA showed that the default model kept invariance among groups of athletes (i.e., female, male, individual, and team sports). Results from Study 2 highlighted that professional cyclists who followed the SPI were able to cope better with psychological stressors, showing improved well-being compared to the athletes that did not. No significant differences were found for emotional and social well-being. The present multi-study paper contributes to the theoretical field with a validated measure of Sport MHC-SF translated in the Italian language and culture. It also provides practical implications related to cases of reduced mental health due to injury, illness, or similar situations of home confinement in the future.

Influence of sex, age, and education on mood profile clusters

In the area of mood profiling, six distinct profiles are reported in the literature, termed the iceberg, inverse iceberg, inverse Everest, shark fin, surface, and submerged profiles. We investigated if the prevalence of the six mood profiles varied by sex, age, and education among a large heterogeneous sample. The Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) was completed via the In The Mood website by 15,692 participants. A seeded k-means cluster analysis was used to confirm the six profiles, and discriminant function analysis was used to validate cluster classifications. Significant variations in the prevalence of mood profiles by sex, age, and education status were confirmed. For example, females more frequently reported negative mood profiles than males, and older and more highly educated participants had a higher prevalence of the iceberg profile than their younger and lesser educated counterparts. Findings suggest that refinement of the existing tables of normative data for the BRUMS should be considered.

The Rebooting in Sports and Physical Activities After COVID-19 Italian Lockdown: An Exploratory Study

The lockdown imposed in Italy to reduce the spread of COVID-19 posited unusual challenges to people practicing sports and physical activities. The rebooting of activities highlighted the need to cope with new behaviors and routines, such as wearing a face mask while exercising. We conducted a web-based survey in Italy at the start of physical activities' rebooting, to investigate how people reacted to the new norms. Participants completed the questionnaires assessing insomnia, regulatory self-efficacy, optimism, mood states, and mental toughness. Age, gender, and environment were assumed as design variables. Results showed that in outdoor activities, the younger females as compared to the older manifest less regulatory self-efficacy, while the younger males manifest more regulatory self-efficacy than the older. In indoor activities, a reversed pattern of regulatory-self-efficacy was observed. Regarding life orientation, younger participants showed less optimism and positive expectation for the future and seem to be more exposed to the unexpected effects of the restrictions: they showed more sleep disturbances, confusion, depression, anger, and fatigue and less vigor and mental toughness than older participants. An understanding of the psychological implications of the rebooting phase can support the enactment of more appropriate behaviors to practice sports and physical activities when living at the time of the coronavirus.

The Injury-Psychological Readiness to return to sport (I-PRRS) scale and the Sport Confidence Inventory (SCI): A cross-cultural validation

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to cross-culturally validate in the Italian language the I-PRRS and the SCI.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Injured Italian athletes.

PARTICIPANTS

We recruited male (n = 73) and female (n = 27) athletes who returned to practice after having completed the rehabilitation.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The measures comprised the I-PRRS, the SCI, and the Italian Mood Scale (ITAMS). Athletes completed the questionnaires within 1 day before their first official competition following injury. We investigated the construct validity, the internal consistency, and the concurrent validity of the I-PRRS and SCI with the ITAMS.

RESULTS

Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported the two-factor structure of the I-PRRS (Confidence in performance capability and Confidence in recovery) and the three-factor structure of the SCI (SC-Physical Skills and Training, SC-Cognitive Efficiency, and SC-Resilience). The reliability scores of both I-PRRS and SCI subscales indicated good internal consistency. Correlation between the I-PRRS and the SCI ranged in magnitude from weak to moderately high. A similar trend of correlations was found between the subscales of the I-PRRS and the ITAMS, as well as between the subscales of the SCI and the ITAMS.

CONCLUSIONS

Study findings showed satisfactory psychometric properties of the Italian version of the I-PRRS and SCI.

Cross-Cultural Validation of Mood Profile Clusters in a Sport and Exercise Context

Mood profiling has a long history in the field of sport and exercise. Several novel mood profile clusters were identified and described in the literature recently (Parsons-Smith et al., 2017). In the present study, we investigated whether the same clusters were evident in an Italian-language, sport and exercise context. The Italian Mood Scale (ITAMS; Quartiroli et al., 2017) was administered to 950 Italian-speaking sport participants (659 females, 284 males, 7 unspecified; age range = 16-63 year, M = 25.03, SD = 7.62) and seeded k-means clustering methodology applied to the responses. Six distinct mood profiles were identified, termed the iceberg, inverse iceberg, inverse Everest, shark fin, surface, and submerged profiles, which closely resembled those reported among English-speaking participants (Parsons-Smith et al., 2017). Significant differences were found in the distribution of specific mood profiles across gender and age groups. Findings supported the cross-cultural generalizability of the six mood profiles and offer new research avenues into their antecedents, correlates and behavioral consequences in Italian-language contexts.