The Relationships Between Cognitive Reserve and Creativity. A Study on American Aging Population

The Relationship Between Cognitive Reserve and Attachment Styles in Adult Romantic Relationships. An Exploratory Study

OBJECTIVES

This cross-sectional study aims to investigate the relationship between cognitive reserve (a well-known protective factor in aging) and attachment style in a sample of healthy older individuals.

METHODS

The study assessed the cognitive reserve and attachment styles of 160 older adults (all involved in a romantic relationship at time of data collection).

RESULTS

Findings highlighted high avoidance-based styles in aging individuals. Data also highlighted how individuals with avoidant attachment are more likely to have a higher cognitive reserve.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results, cognitive reserve training might be useful to reduce anxiety in individuals with anxious attachment styles, who appeared to be the least engaged in activities that could benefit their cognitive reserve.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

Therapists should identify and address avoidant attachment styles in older clients, use strategies to increase cognitive reserve for those with avoidant attachment, and incorporate cognitive reserve-building activities into anxiety reduction programs for clients with anxious attachment styles.

The Role of Well-Being, Divergent Thinking, and Cognitive Reserve in Different Socio-Cultural Contexts

BACKGROUND

Many protective factors promote psychological well-being (PWB) in the elderly and contribute to healthy aging, such as engagement, positive emotions, and cognitive reserve (CR), which includes education, leisure, and work activities. CR sustains cognitive functioning and positively correlates with creativity, particularly divergent thinking (DT), helping older adults cope with everyday challenges and enhancing their PWB.

OBJECTIVES

The present study aimed to investigate the relationships between DT, CR, PWB, memory functions, depression, stress, and anxiety indexes even in the Blue Zone (BZ), an area known for extraordinary longevity and high PWB.

METHODS

A total of 165 Italian healthy older adults (Mage = 73.8, SD = 6.7) from Milan (MI), Bergamo (BG), Cagliari (CA), and BZ were enrolled and divided into four groups according to their origin. Generalized linear models (GLMs) with normal and gamma link functions were used.

RESULTS

BZ presented higher DT and PWB indices than the cities but lower CR, particularly in education.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the influence of DT in supporting cognitive functions and PWB, suggesting that PWB and DT are key protective factors in aging.

Age-invariant approaches to cognitive reserve

Cognitive reserve (CR) and its measurement by proxies have gained interest in cognitive aging research. While CR proxies seem valuable for predicting cognitive function, their measures are often conflated with age effects. The current study aims to address this by introducing an age-invariant approach of CR. We included 380 participants (age = 18-79) from the Advanced Brain Imaging on aging and Memory (ABRIM) study who completed the Cognitive Reserve Index questionnaire (CRIq), a measure to estimate verbal IQ, and several neuropsychological tasks in the domains of memory, executive function and attention/speed. With various regression models and structural equation modeling, we assessed age effects on the CRIq subscales and their predictive value on cognitive function. Results showed a significant non-linear age effect on the Education and Occupation subscale of the CRIq and a linear age effect on the Leisure subscale. New age-corrections derived from these effects were more accurate than age-corrections from the original norm scores. Moreover, the three cognitive domains were significantly predicted in the expected direction by the new age-corrected CRIq scores, and not by the raw scores or original age-corrected scores. However, compared to verbal IQ, the predictive value of these CRIq scores was still low. Associations between the CRIq and cognitive function seemed to vary across the lifespan, but were not consistently stronger for older adults. These findings illustrate the importance of age adjustments in CR research. Most importantly, appropriate age-adjustments may be sample specific and non-linear effects to properly correct for age must be considered.

Employing Verbal Divergent Thinking to Mitigate Cognitive Decline: Current State of Research and Reasons to Support Its Use

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Divergent thinking (DT), the ability to generate alternative responses to open-ended problems, has become an increasingly relevant topic in aging research due to its inverse relationship with cognitive decline.

METHODS

In this narrative review, we explore the latest evidence supporting DT training as a potential strategy for dementia prevention.

RESULTS

We identify two pathways through which DT may protect against cognitive decline: (1) by fostering creative cognition and (2) by stimulating DT-related domains. Our findings suggest that verbal DT remains relatively well preserved in older adults, although there is limited empirical evidence to support the idea that DT training enhances creative cognition or DT-related domains in this population.

CONCLUSIONS

Therefore, while tools designed to enhance DT in older individuals seem promising, it is crucial to rigorously test their effects on the target population to maximize their impact on both the cognitive and psychological domains.

A scoping review of the use of creative activities in stroke rehabilitation

OBJECTIVE

Clarifying the distinctions between art-based creative activities in the domains of occupational therapy and art therapy in the context of stroke rehabilitation, while also describing the effects of art-based creative activities on stroke rehabilitation.

DESIGN

Scoping review.

DATA SOURCE

A systematic search was performed in nine databases (Web of Science, PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, CINAHL and four Chinese database) from their inception to December 2023.

REVIEW METHODS

The study included randomized and non-randomized controlled trials involving art-based creative activities, as well as qualitative research providing detailed intervention measures. The study focused on stroke patients, with primary outcomes related to patients' physiological recovery, psychological well-being, ADL, etc. Data extraction included information on intervention strategies and study results.

RESULTS

Seventeen studies were included, extracting six similarities and differences in creative activity between two domains. Creative activities were observed to have positive impacts on daily living activities, limb motor function, fine motor ability, and emotional well-being in stroke patients.

CONCLUSION

Creative activities, whether in occupational therapy or art therapy, involve providing participants with tangible crafting materials for the creation of artistic works. Future stroke rehabilitation practices should tailor activities and intervention focus based on patients' rehabilitation needs, preferences, and cultural background. The current comprehensive analysis provides initial support for the potential positive role of creative activities in stroke rehabilitation, but further in-depth research is needed to confirm their effectiveness.

Creativity and humor in the elderly: Shared mechanisms and common functions to promote well-being

In the paper the possible links between creative thinking and humor are sketched and their role in promoting well-being in the elderly is taken into account. The specific features of creative thinking in older people and its developmental trend in aging are outlined. The changes in humor which occur during aging are considered as well. The connections between creative thinking and humor are analysed, by highlighting the cognitive mechanisms which are shared and the alleged common neural underpinnings. The functions which creativity and humor can play to promote well-being in late adulthood are discussed. These functions refer to the way older people can interpret their own experience, interact and communicate with others, and face daily problems.

Handicraft art leisure activities and cognitive reserve

ObjectiveOlder individuals face a higher likelihood of developing dementia. The rate of cognitive decline resulting from dementia is not equivalent for all, as some patients with dementia are able to function independently longer than others, despite having similar disease burden. The cognitive reserve (CR) theory provides one explanation for the differing rate of decline. CR suggests that there are factors-most notably, educational attainment and occupational attainment-that can protect against the cognitive decline. Although the beneficial effects of these notable CR factors are clear, not all are easily modifiable. Participation in leisure activities may represent a more easily modifiable factor. Some research hints at beneficial effects of leisure activities, although specific leisure activities have not been well examined. The present study examined the relations between handicraft art leisure activities (HALAs) and multiple cognitive domains. MethodArchival WAIS-IV and demographic data for 50 California retirement community residents were examined. ResultsHALA participation accounted for statistically significant variance in working memory performance (R2 = .40, β = .24%) over and above the established CR factors of age, depression, educational attainment, and occupational attainment. In addition, HALA participation was related to a better ability to perform abstract visual information tasks (Block Design subtest, r = .28, p = .05) and non-verbal reasoning tasks (Visual Puzzles subtest, r = .38, p = .008). ConclusionsHALA participation among older adults could contribute to the retention of cognitive function, supporting the role of HALA participation as a CR factor.

Protecting the Brain While Healing Hearts: The Protective Role of Cognitive Reserve in Cardiac Surgery

OBJECTIVE

One of the most significant complications following coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is postoperative cognitive decline (POCD). CABG patients frequently experience considerable postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD), including decline in attention, orientation, memory, judgment, and social functioning.

DESIGN

These negative effects may potentially be resolved by a protective factor, cognitive reserve (CR) that has been considered to function as a buffer against the consequences of neuropathology.

SETTING

We explored the frequency of POCD and CR in coronary artery disease patients undergoing CABG. We hypothesized that high levels of CR would protect against POCD after cardiac surgery.

PARTICIPANTS

We assessed 101 patients before surgery, and 4 months after cardiopulmonary bypass surgery with the use of extracorporeal circulation.

MEASUREMENTS

Measures of cognitive functions, CR, anxiety, and depression were included in the assessment.

RESULTS

Each patient was placed in the high (n = 50) or low CR (n = 51) group, based on median split. Chi-square tests effect showed that patients with low CR were more likely to a great extend to demonstrate postsurgical cognitive decline in attention, memory, visuospatial perception and executive functions than patients with high CR upon postsurgery neuropsychological assessment.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that CR can forecast neuropsychological outcomes of cardiac surgery, recognizing the patients with low CR and help them to participate to interventions programs that could slow cognitive aging or reduce the risk of dementia and enhance their overall postsurgical functional outcome.

Can Creativity and Cognitive Reserve Predict Psychological Well-Being in Older Adults? The Role of Divergent Thinking in Healthy Aging

The maintenance of psychological well-being (PWB) in the older adult population is a pivotal goal for our rapidly aging society. PWB is a multicomponent construct that can be influenced by several factors in the lifespan. The beneficial role of divergent thinking (DT) and cognitive reserve (CR) in sustaining older subjects' PWB has been scarcely investigated so far. The present study aims to investigate the relationships between DT, CR, and PWB in a sample of 121 healthy older adults (61 females; M age: 73.39 ± 6.66 years; M education: 11.33 ± 4.81 years). The results highlight that better DT performance predicts higher CR, which mediates an indirect positive effect of DT on emotional competence, one of the PWB factors. It follows that DT and CR can be considered protective factors in aging, and their effects go beyond cognitive functioning, revealing a positive effect even on some PWB components. The practical implications regarding targeted health interventions for prevention in the older adult population to support well-being and promote healthy aging are discussed.

The Effect of COVID-19 on Middle-Aged Adults' Mental Health: A Mixed-Method Case-Control Study on the Moderating Effect of Cognitive Reserve

The COVID-19 pandemic has increased the vulnerability of adults to mental health effects, and the study of protective factors has become crucial. Cognitive reserve (CR) is a well-known protective factor against cognitive decline and several health factors; however, its protective effect on mental health during the pandemic has been rarely addressed. Thus, this study explored, through a mixed-method design, the effect of CR on perceived distress and PTSD-like symptoms in middle-aged participants who have survived severe COVID-19 and a matched control group. A total of 432 participants filled out self-report measures of CR, PTSD, depression, and anxiety, and were also asked to provide narration about their COVID-19-related experience. COVID-19 significantly affected the chances of reporting different mental health symptoms; levels of CR played a protective role in reducing their severity. Moreover, adults with higher CR seemed to be more realistic, focusing less on positive emotions, and elaborating more on the sense of anxiety when describing their experience: this might be an indication of a lower use of suppression to regulate emotions. Practical implications of these findings and future directions have been also discussed.

The Role of Cognition in Divergent Thinking: Implications for Successful Aging

Promoting active and successful aging has become crucial to improve quality of life in later adulthood and reduce the impact of cognitive decline. Increasing evidence suggested that the ability to think creatively (e.g., via divergent thinking), similar to cognitive reserve, could represent a beneficial factor against the negative effects of aging. However, there is still little evidence investigating the relationships between divergent thinking, cognitive functions, and cognitive reserve in late adulthood. The present study explored these relationships in a sample of 98 individuals ranging from 61 to 88 years old (mean age: 72.44 ± 6.35). Results showed that visual, but not verbal, divergent thinking was affected by aging. Interestingly, visual divergent thinking performance was predicted by both the cognitive component of crystallized intelligence and cognitive reserve. Only the crystallized component of intelligence was found to mediate the aging effect on visual divergent thinking performance. These results suggest that in later adulthood a potential shift strategy to prior knowledge and semantic components over executive and control components of cognition could underlie a preserved ability to think divergently and, plausibly, creatively. Limitations of the study and implications for successful aging are discussed.

The relationship between cognitive reserve and the spontaneous use of emotion regulation strategies in older adults: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Several studies reported cognitive reserve (CR) as an important factor in promoting healthy aging within a non-clinical aging population.

AIMS

The main goal of the present study is to investigate the link between higher levels of CR and more effective emotion regulation. In more detail, we examine the association between a number of CR proxies and the habitual use of two emotion regulation strategies, cognitive reappraisal and emotional suppression.

METHODS

Three hundred and ten older adults aged between 60 and 75 (mean = 64.45, SD = 4.37; 69.4% female) joined this cross-sectional study by filling out self-report measures of CR and emotion regulation.² RESULTS: Reappraisal and suppression use were correlated. Practicing different leisure activities constantly over many years, being more original and having a higher education promoted more frequent use of cognitive reappraisal. These CR proxies were also significantly related to suppression use, even though the percentage of variance explained was lower.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Exploring the role played by the cognitive reserve on different emotion regulation techniques can be useful in understanding which variables predict the use of antecedent-focused (reappraisal) or response-focused (suppression) emotion regulation strategies in aging individuals.

Executive functioning and divergent thinking predict creative problem-solving in young adults and elderlies

The role of executive functioning in creative thinking is under debate. Some authors suggested that increased inhibitory control, a component of executive functioning, is detrimental to creative solutions, whereas others argued that executive functions are central to creative problem-solving, thus questioning Guilford's classical distinction between divergent and convergent thinking. Executive functions decline with age. In this study, we investigated the contributions of executive functioning and its age-related decline and divergent thinking to creative problem-solving. To this aim, we divided our sample of sixty healthy adults into two age groups of young adults (20-26 years) and elderly (60-70 years) and we assessed their creative problem-solving abilities (using the compound remote associate problems) as well as other potential cognitive predictors of creative problem-solving (i.e., impulsivity, divergent thinking, verbal working memory, and decision-making style). A linear regression model revealed that the ability to solve problems creatively is negatively predicted by older age and impulsivity, while positively predicted by divergent thinking and verbal working memory. These findings reveal a combined contribution of executive functions and divergent thinking to creative problem-solving, suggesting that both convergent and divergent processes should be considered in interventions to contrast age-related decline.

Big Five personality factors predict self-rated cognitive reserve: a two-wave online study in a Mexican sample

Introduction: One of the main contributors to cognitive reserve (CR) is the involvement in cognitively stimulating activities (CSAs), including education, work, leisure, social and physical activities. Personality traits are plausible determinants of CR, influencing the tendency to engage in CSAs. The goal of this study was to evaluate the association between personality and CR, operationalised as self-rated involvement in CSAs, in a sample of individuals aged 18-50 or more. Method: We collected two-wave non-probabilistic online data throughout Mexico. The instruments were the Big Five Inventory-2 for the baseline, its extra-short form for the follow-up and the Self-Rating of Cognitive Reserve (SRCR). Confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were performed to test the unifactorial structure of the SRCR, and multiple regressions were conducted with personality factors as predictors of CR. Results: For the baseline, 2025 participants were recruited, and 610 for the follow-up, most of them female and aged 18-40. CFAs showed excellent goodness-of-fit, and the regression analyses proved Negative Emotionality and Extraversion to be the main predictors of CR. Conclusions: Our study highlights the need to identify personality profiles at high risk of underdevelopment of CR in ages where it is still feasible to promote engagement in CSAs.

The block design subtest of the Wechsler adult intelligence scale as a possible non-verbal proxy of cognitive reserve

Objectives

To investigate the potential of the Block design subtest of the Wechsler Adults Intelligence Scale as a non-verbal proxy of cognitive reserve.

Method

A total of 391 cognitively unimpaired participants were included in this study. The association between the Block design subtest and the Information subtest (an established verbal proxy of cognitive reserve) from the WAIS, as well as the association of the two subtests with a Cognitive Reserve Questionnaire (CRQ) were tested. In addition, multiple linear regression models were conducted to investigate the association of the Block design and Information subtests with cognitive performance. The capacity of the Block design subtest to minimize the negative effect of an older age over cognitive performance was also assessed and this effect was compared with that of the Information subtest. The four cognitive domains included were: verbal memory, visual-visuospatial memory, executive-premotor functions and processing speed.

Results

The Block design subtest correlated positively with both the Information subtest and the CRQ. A statistically significant association was observed between the Block design subtest and all four cognitive domains. Higher scores in the Block design subtest minimized the negative effect of aging on the cognitive domains of visual-visuospatial memory and executive-premotor functions, in a similar way to the results obtained for the Information subtest.

Conclusion

The Block design subtest is significantly correlated with two established proxies of cognitive reserve: it correlates with cognitive performance and high scores in Block design have the capacity to minimize the negative effect of an older age on cognitive performance. Therefore, the results suggest that the corrected Block design subtest could be considered as a non-verbal proxy of cognitive reserve.

Cognitive reserve: a multidimensional protective factor in Parkinson's disease related cognitive impairment

We explored the association between cognitive reserve (CR) and Parkinson' s disease (PD) related cognitive deterioration.Forty PD patients and 12 matched healthy controls (HC) were enrolled. The PD group was balanced for the presence/absence of cognitive impairment. All participants underwent MOCA. CR was measured by the Brief Intelligence Test, and a new comprehensive tool, named Cognitive Reserve Test (CoRe-T), including sections on leisure activities and creativity.Participants with higher CR obtained a better MOCA score irrespective of the group they belonged to. At the same time, irrespective of the CR level, the performance of the HC group was always better in comparison to the PD group. Within the PD group, a higher frequency of leisure activities was associated to be cognitively unimpaired, independently by the severity of motor symptoms and age.CR could help to cope with PD-related cognitive decline. Its multidimensional nature could have important applications in prevention and rehabilitation interventions.

A Randomized Controlled Trial Study of a Multimodal Intervention vs. Cognitive Training to Foster Cognitive and Affective Health in Older Adults

Research over the past few decades has shown the positive influence that cognitive, social, and physical activities have on older adults' cognitive and affective health. Especially interventions in health-related behaviors, such as cognitive activation, physical activity, social activity, nutrition, mindfulness, and creativity, have shown to be particularly beneficial. Whereas most intervention studies apply unimodal interventions, such as cognitive training (CT), this study investigates the potential to foster cognitive and affective health factors of older adults by means of an autonomy-supportive multimodal intervention (MMI). The intervention integrates everyday life recommendations for six evidence-based areas combined with psychoeducational information. This randomized controlled trial study compares the effects of a MMI and CT on those of a waiting control group (WCG) on cognitive and affective factors, everyday life memory performance, and activity in everyday life. Three groups, including a total of 119 adults aged 65-86 years, attended a 5- or 10-week intervention. Specifically, one group completed a 10-week MMI, the second group completed 5-week of computer-based CT followed by a 5-week MMI, whereas the third group paused before completing the MMI for the last 5 weeks. All participants completed online surveys and cognitive tests at three test points. The findings showed an increase in the number and variability of activities in the everyday lives of all participants. Post hoc analysis on cognitive performance of MMI to CT indicate similar (classic memory and attention) or better (working memory) effects. Furthermore, results on far transfer variables showed interesting trends in favor of the MMI, such as increased well-being and attitude toward the aging brain. Also, the MMI group showed the biggest perceived improvements out of all groups for all self-reported personal variables (memory in everyday life and stress). The results implicate a positive trend toward MMI on cognitive and affective factors of older adults. These tendencies show the potential of a multimodal approach compared to training a specific cognitive function. Moreover, the findings suggest that information about MMI motivates participants to increase activity variability and frequency in everyday life. Finally, the results could also have implications for the primary prevention of neurocognitive deficits and degenerative diseases.

Creativity, leisure activities, social engagement and cognitive impairment: the AGES-Reykjavík study

BACKGROUND

Participation in leisure activities and extensive social network have been associated with lower risk of cognitive impairment (CI) and dementia.

AIMS

We examined whether leisure activities (cognitive solitary, cognitive group, social, physical, or creative activities) and social involvement are associated with less incidence of CI or dementia.

METHODS

Analyses were performed from data of 2933 cognitively intact individuals at baseline included in the AGES-REYKJAVIK study. Odds ratios (OR) were calculated for incident CI and dementia in relation to cognitive individual, cognitive group, social, physical, and creative leisure activities as well as social networks. Models were adjusted for a number of known risk factors for cognitive decline.

RESULTS

In 5 years, 12% of the cohort were diagnosed with CI or dementia. All leisure activities were associated with reduced likelihood of cognitive decline in the raw model, but in adjusted models, cognitive solitary [OR 0.49 (Confidence Interval (CI) 0.38-0.64)], cognitive group [OR 0.50 (CI 0.30-0.82)], and creative activities [OR 0.53 (CI 0.35-0.83)] were significantly associated with less cognitive decline. Analyses examining creative leisure activities independently, controlling for all other activities, suggested individuals participating in creative activities exhibited less CI [OR 0.64 (CI 0.41-0.98)]. Among social networks variables, frequency of meeting with friends and relatives was associated with reduced likelihood of CI [OR 0.49 (CI 0.31-0.75)].

DISCUSSION

Cognitive and creative leisure activities and frequent gatherings with friends and relatives are associated with reduced incidence of CI in this older cohort.

CONCLUSION

Creative leisure activities might have special benefit for cognitive ability.

A cross-sectional survey of a public, evidence-based multimodal program for cognitive health in older adults

BACKGROUND

In recent decades, the proportion of older adults in the population has continued to rise, and with it, the need for intervention programs to maintain cognitive functions into old age. Multiple lifestyle factors, including physical, cognitive, and social activities, are crucial to forestalling a decline in cognitive functions. However, Covid-19 curtailed most activities, and therefore, strategies are needed to support older adults in remaining cognitively healthy. This study describes a newly developed and publicly available multimodal program, called "brain coach", to support and stimulate cognitive activity in older adults. The autonomy supportive program integrates into daily life recommendations for evidence-based physical, cognitive, social, mindful, and creative activation exercises.

METHODS

The study design corresponds to a correlational, analytical, and cross-sectional study with 660 older adults, who participated in the program for at least 3 months and completed an online survey.

RESULTS

The survey results demonstrate that the average age of the participants was 71 years and 75 % were female. Participants experienced benefits in memory, well-being, attitudes towards the brain, and lifestyle habits. Importantly, time invested in the intervention and participant's positive attitude toward brain health and neuroplasticity, show positive relationships with the experienced benefits.

CONCLUSIONS

The results reveal the potential of a public program with a multimodal approach to increase cognitive health and promote an active lifestyle. Further research will explore the effects of such a multimodal intervention in a longitudinal randomized controlled trial study.

Impact of occupational complexity on cognitive decline in the oldest-old

OBJECTIVES

The theory of "Cognitive Reserve" assumes that premorbid factors such as high educational and occupational attainment may enable a better way of coping with brain damage. It has been suggested that more stimulating lifestyles, including more complex work environments, may provide a buffer against cognitive decline in later life. This study aimed to investigate the association between occupational history and cognitive decline in a large cohort of Italian oldest-old.

METHODS

392 individuals (266 women/126 men, mean age 93 ± 3 years) enrolled in the "Mugello study" provided information about their work history. Jobs were classified in nine categories, according to the level of expertise required to perform them, as suggested by the Italian National Institute for Statistics (ISTAT). In addition, socio-demographic characteristics, comorbidities, level of independence, depression, and cognitive status were assessed. The presence of dementia was established based on cognitive status and independence in performing four selected instrumental activities of daily living (ability to manage telephone, transportation, medications, and budget).

RESULTS

Neither work complexity (p = 0.995) nor work duration (p = 0.701) showed a significant effect on the likelihood of presenting a lower cognitive profile or developing dementia (p = 0.385 and p = 0.096, for work complexity and work duration, respectively).

CONCLUSION

In the observed sample of oldest-old individuals, cognitive decline did not seem to be influenced by cognitive reserve as assessed through the evaluation of cognitive status and level of independence. It is conceivable that in this population, the decline of the brain reserve has a preponderant role in the definition of the cognitive profile.

Mindfully Reframing the Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Outbreak Through a Social Media Community for Students: A Pragmatic Study

The COVID-19 outbreak and the restrictions that have been enforced by the health authorities are having a profound psychological impact on the population. Many people, including the students, faced forced modifications to their daily lives and this prompted the need for scalable strategies to promote resilience. We designed an online community intervention for psychology students and recent alumni aimed to promote functional coping strategies through openness and cognitive flexibility. This psycho-educational intervention was delivered through a private group on social media (Facebook) during the acute phase of the lockdown period and it involved the publication of exercises and quick lectures. Contents were posted regularly and members of the community were invited to share their comments. The posts included stimuli that promote open and flexible reflections on the current situation. The overall aim of this group was a cognitive reframing on the epidemic effects, promoting creative and flexible thinking. We ran a thematic analysis of the interactions and we collected qualitative feedback at the end of the intervention. The participants' comments dealt with changes in their perspectives, sharing discomfort, encouragement and support, and building a sense of community. Post-intervention comments were highly satisfied and confirmed the helpfulness of the intervention to promote flexibility and openness, eventually helping to manage the negative emotions related to the COVID-19 outbreak. This study provides preliminary evidence that an online psycho-educational community stimulating flexibility and openness can help to reframe the negative psychological impact of the outbreak, improving their management.

The relationship between cognitive reserve and personality traits: a pilot study on a healthy aging Italian sample

BACKGROUND

Exploring the role of different individual factors in affecting the cognitive reserve levels is crucial step for aging research. Several studies explored the relationship between personality traits and aging, but a specific focus on the cognitive reserve is missing.

AIMS

This study aimed at collecting more direct evidence about possible relationships between cognitive reserve and personality traits.

METHODS

A sample of 100 healthy aging participants was involved in the study. They completed the Big Five personality inventory and a test to assess the cognitive reserve.

RESULTS

Results returned a positive relationship between the personality traits and participants' cognitive reserve. The only factor that did not return a significant correlation was Emotional stability (which overlaps with Neuroticism).

DISCUSSION

This study provides additional evidence to the existing literature and also adds relevant information and a critical reading regarding the role of personality traits that has been neglected in the aging literature, Friendliness and Conscientiousness.

CONCLUSION

The ability to measure and identify personality traits could be important in future research for developing interventions or activities that could target specific personality characteristics.

The contribution of the frontal lobe to creativity. Insights from epilepsy

PURPOSE

This study was aimed to evaluate the impact of frontal (FLE) and temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) on graphic creativity.

METHODS

A hundred and six patients with FLE (n = 32) or TLE (n = 74) and 38 healthy subjects underwent a design fluency (DF) test constituted by a free and a fixed condition. For each condition, the number of correct designs, as an index of creativity, and unacceptable nonperseveration or perseveration designs were calculated. The participants also underwent a comprehensive neuropsychological battery.

RESULTS

The number of novel correct designs significantly differed between the groups: patients with FLE produced fewer designs than patients with TLE and controls, while epilepsy laterality had no effect. Patients with FLE also produced more unacceptable nonperseveration designs than controls, with no between-group differences in the perseverations. The number of novel designs was predicted by the type of epilepsy, whereas word fluency, comprehension, attention, set shifting, visual matching, and constructive praxis had no influence. This score was a sensitive marker of FLE discriminating FLE cognitive pattern from the pattern of TLE and healthy condition.

CONCLUSIONS

Left or right FLE, but not TLE, can impair graphic creativity. This finding and that DF was unrelated to other cognitive abilities suggest that creativity is a specific domain, sensitive to epilepsy-related frontal lobe dysfunctions. This behavioral approach including test accuracy may have implications in defining FLE cognitive phenotype.

Cognitive reserve and depression predict subjective reports of successful aging

BACKGROUND

With graying of western societies, successful aging is a hotly debated topic. Attaining successful aging brings benefits not only at the individual level, but also to society. To better understand successful aging, we conducted a study of older adults in the Republic of Slovenia.

METHODS

We recruited 213 community-dwelling adults, age 65 years and older, who responded to the Successful Aging Inventory (SAI), Purpose of Life Questionnaire (PIL), Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Cognitive Reserve Index, Functional Activities Questionnaire (FAQ), and Multiple Abilities Self-Report Questionnaire (MASQ).

RESULTS

Responses to all scales were significantly correlated, which was taken into account when identifying covariates of latent successful aging in a structural equation model. Successful aging, as evaluated by the combination questionnaire responses, was most strongly associated with depression and marginally associated with cognitive reserve. Self-rated functional and cognitive capacities did not significantly explain individual differences in successful aging.

DISCUSSION

In our study of community-dwelling, older Slovenes, self-rated depression emerged as a strong correlate of successful aging and, to a lesser degree, cognitive reserve. Future studies of interventions that aim to promote successful aging should consider the role of depression and cognitive reserve in the older adult's experience of aging.

A Comparison of Divergent Thinking Abilities Between Healthy Elderly Subjects and MCI Patients: Preliminary Findings and Implications

Objective

Divergent thinking (DT) has attracted research interest because of its potential role in early diagnosis and rehabilitation programs for patients affected by neurodegenerative diseases. Recently, DT has received even more attention because of its proven relationship with cognitive reserve (CR) and the possibility of a standardized assessment. However, few studies have investigated this ability in dementia patients, and even less is known about patients affected by Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI). Thus, this study aims to investigate DT abilities in MCI patients.

Methods

A total of 25 MCI patients and 25 healthy controls subjects (HC; from a random selection of 50) matched for age, gender, and educational level were enrolled. General cognitive functioning was measured by the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), while the Abbreviated Torrance Test for Adults (ATTA) was selected to measure DT.

Results

MANOVA analysis did not reveal any significant differences in DT abilities between MCI patients and HC except for the figural indicator score. A logistic hierarchical regression analysis revealed that the figural indicator score added an 8% of accuracy in the prediction of the group variable over the general cognition measure (MoCA).

Conclusion

MCI patients seem to perform significantly worse than HC only in the figural DT score and this evidence has significant practical implications. First, that figural DT seemed to decrease even earlier than verbal DT and could therefore be taken into account for early diagnosis of MCI patients. On the contrary, the sparing of all the other DT skills (such as verbal DT skills, fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration) may suggest that, given its relationship with CR, verbal DT could instead be considered a possible target for prevention or early cognitive stimulation interventions.

The relationships between musical expertise and divergent thinking

Musical expertise has positive effects on cognition, especially on verbal and linguistic processing. In this study the relationships between musical expertise, not involving improvisation training, and divergent thinking were explored. Expert and self-taught musicians were tested in musical, verbal and visual divergent thinking, and were compared with a group of non-musicians in verbal and visual divergent thinking. The musical task required to generate many different pieces of music using the incipit of 'Happy Birthday' as a starting point; the verbal task required to list unusual uses for a cardboard box; the visual task asked to complete drawings adding details to basic stimuli. For each task fluency flexibility and originality scores were measured. Based on these scores, musical, verbal and visual creative indices were computed. In general, expert musicians showed higher creative indices in musical and verbal domains than self-taught musicians and in verbal creative index than non-musicians. No group difference was found in terms of visual creative index. These findings confirm that musical expertise enhances not only musical divergent thinking but also verbal divergent thinking, probably supporting the semantic associative modes of processing and improving verbal working memory, which facilitates the online recombination of information in new ways. This effect seems to be specifically supported by formal musical training. The lack of the association between musical expertise and visual divergent thinking, as well as future research directions, are discussed.

The Mediating Role of Cognitive Flexibility in the Influence of Counter-Stereotypes on Creativity

The aim of this study is to explore the relationship between counter-stereotypes and creativity, and further explore the mechanism underlying the impact of priming counter-stereotypic information on individual creativity. More importantly, here we have proposed cognitive and emotional dual processing pathways, which may mediate the influences of counter-stereotypes on creativity. Two experiments examined how counter-stereotypes impacted creativity through the dual processing pathways. A total of 152 university students were recruited to test their creativity performance. In Experiment 1, we replicated results of past studies. Participants were randomly allocated to different priming conditions (stereotype or counter-stereotype), in which descriptions of male governors and female nurses served as priming of stereotypes, whereas descriptions of male nurses and female governors served as priming of counter-stereotypes. Measurements of creativity were based on the poster paradigm. The poster paradigm required participants to design a poster for a college fellowship party. In Experiment 2, we recruited 104 participants to examine the mediating roles of emotions and cognitive flexibility. The procedure of Experiment 2 was similar to that of Experiment 1, except for the measurement of creativity, which was Chinese idiom riddle test. Participants who selected more creative answers were more creative, based on the criteria of our experimental design. Also, we included measurements of emotions (i.e., surprise and delight) and cognitive flexibility (using the Cognitive Flexibility Scale) after priming of stereotypes and counter-stereotypes in Experiment 2. We also verified the credibility of our counter-stereotype measurements. The results of Experiment 1—which replicated previous studies—demonstrated that priming of counter-stereotypes promoted creative performance compared with priming of stereotypes in the poster paradigm. However, our proposed dual processing pathways were not fully verified by Experiment 2. The results of this experiment showed that neither surprising nor delighted emotion mediated the influence of counter-stereotypes on creativity, whereas cognitive flexibility did. In conclusion, our current study reveals a mechanism of creative performance in terms of cognitive flexibility, and further inspires us to focus on the positive influence of counter-stereotypes on creativity.

Boosting Creativity, but Only for Low Creative Connectivity: The Moderating Effect of Priming Stereotypically Inconsistent Information on Creativity

Previous researchers have documented that priming inconsistent stereotypic information boosts creativity. The current study further examined the moderating role of creativity connectivity—which is the degree to which people perceive a social group or professional role to be relevant to creativity—in the priming of information related to the boosting effects of creativity. Study 1 adopted a 2 (stereotypically inconsistent target gender: male vs. female) × 2 [priming types: stereotypically consistent information (SCI) priming vs. stereotypically inconsistent information (SICI) priming] group design in which 89 college students from Wuhan were enrolled to complete a priming paradigm and a poster-advertising-design task. As a result, we found that the activation of inconsistent stereotypic information boosted creativity compared with that of consistent stereotypic information, which replicated previous findings. Study 2 also adopted a 2 (creativity-domain connectivity: high vs. low) × 2 (priming types: SCI priming vs. SICI priming) group design in which 85 college students from Wuhan were enrolled to complete the same tasks as in Study 1. The results of Study 2 indicated that when information with low relevance to creativity such as “a nurse” was primed, creativity was then significantly boosted by inconsistent stereotypic information such as “a male nurse” compared with the stereotypic one such as “a female nurse.” Conversely, when information with high relevance to creativity such as “a poet” was primed, there were no significant creativity-boosting effects between inconsistent stereotypic information such as “a dull poet” and the consistent one such as “an eccentric poet.” In sum, this study (i) replicated the previous findings in Chinese culture and (ii) further explored the moderating role of creativity connectivity of the inconsistent stereotypic information.