Pair-Bonding as Inclusion of Other in the Self: A Literature Review

Closeness Discrepancies and Relationship Quality in German Partnered Women and Men

The construct of inclusion of other in the self has been established as one of the most influential measures for relationship closeness in romantic relationships. It is regularly associated with relational well-being, sexual satisfaction, as well as mental health. However, the degree of closeness one desires in the present relationship is person-specific and can differ from the closeness one actually experiences. Exploring these discrepancies, the present study focused on the association between not enough closeness and too much closeness and relationship characteristics, parenting, and extradyadic sexual activity. Data from a population-based sample of 3,161 men and women from the German Health and Sexuality Survey were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Our results confirm closeness discrepancies as prevalent relationship phenomena, while identifying feelings of not enough closeness as much more problematic for the relationship.

Let's Enjoy an Evening on the Couch? A Daily Life Investigation of Shared Problematic Behaviors in Three Couple Studies

Symptom-system fit theory proposes that problematic behaviors are maintained by the social system (e.g., the couple relationship) in which they occur because they help promote positive relationship functioning in the short-term. Across three daily life studies, we examined whether mixed-gender couples reported more positive relationship functioning on days in which they engaged in more shared problematic behaviors. In two studies (Study 1: 82 couples who smoke; Study 2: 117 couples who are inactive), days of more shared problematic behavior were accompanied by higher daily closeness and relationship satisfaction. A third study with 79 couples post-stroke investigating unhealthy eating failed to provide evidence for symptom-system fit. In exploratory lagged analyses, we found more support for prior-day problematic behavior being associated with next-day daily relationship functioning than vice-versa. Together, findings point to the importance of a systems perspective when studying interpersonal dynamics that might be involved in the maintenance of problematic behaviors.

Do risk, time and prosocial preferences predict risky sexual behaviour of youths in a low-income, high-risk setting?

Young people in sub-Saharan Africa are particularly at high risk of sexually transmitted infections. Little is known about their preferences and even less about their association with risky sexual behaviour. We conducted incentivized economic experiments to measure risk, time and prosocial preferences in Zimbabwe. Preferences measured at baseline predict biomarker and self-reported measures of risky sexual behaviour gathered 12 months later. We find robust evidence that individuals more altruistic at baseline are more likely to be Herpes Simplex Virus Type-2 (HSV-2) positive 12 months later. Analysis by sex shows this association is driven by our sample of women. Having more sexual partners is associated with greater risk tolerance amongst men and greater impatience amongst women. Results highlight heterogeneity in the association between preferences and risky sexual behaviour.

Forgive or complain: Interpersonal distance modulates reactive attitudes and neural responses toward wrongdoers

While the effect of interpersonal distance on forgiveness has been investigated over the past few years, it remains unclear whether this facilitating effect holds even when measured implicitly. Meanwhile, though cognitive control and the corresponding prefrontal cortex play a prominent role in forgiveness processing, the neural mechanism underlying forgiveness toward varied wrongdoers is largely unexplored. Here, forty-two participants initially underwent noise offense either from their friend or stranger, followed by a word identification test to examine their implicit attitude, during which they were presented with word-name combinations and required to categorize forgive- or complain-label words while ignoring the names of their friends or strangers below. A shorter reaction time reflects more congruence with one's implicit attitude. Electroencephalogram was recorded during the word identification test. Behaviorally, while individuals reacted faster to forgive-friend relative to complain-friend pairings, no such reaction bias was found for the stranger-wrongdoer, which suggests that individuals were more inclined to forgive someone close. Regarding the EEG/ERP results, forgive-friend elicited lower alpha oscillation and more negative frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA) value than complain-friend combinations, suggesting increased and dominant activity in the right prefrontal network during forgiveness toward friends. Whereas complain- relative to forgive-stranger combinations elicited larger P3 amplitudes, suggesting a neural encoding bias to information associated with complaints about stranger-wrongdoer. These multimodal findings provide evidence for the benefits of closeness in forgiveness and shed light on the neural mechanisms underlying forgiveness toward different types of wrongdoers.

Nonverbal synchrony in subjects with hearing impairment and their significant others

Introduction

Hearing loss has a great impact on the people affected, their close partner and the interaction between both, as oral communication is restricted. Nonverbal communication, which expresses emotions and includes implicit information on interpersonal relationship, has rarely been studied in people with hearing impairment (PHI). In psychological settings, non-verbal synchrony of body movements in dyads is a reliable method to study interpersonal relationship.

Material and methods

A 10-min social interaction was videorecorded in 39 PHI (29 spouses and 10 parent-child dyads) and their significant others (SOs). Nonverbal synchrony, which means the nonverbal behaviors of two interacting persons (referring to both general synchrony and the role of leading) and verbal interaction (percentage of speech, frequency of repetitions, and queries) were analyzed by computer algorithms and observer ratings. Hearing-related quality of life, coping mechanisms, general psychopathology, quality of relationship, and burden of hearing loss experienced by SOs were assessed using questionnaires.

Results

In the 39 dyads, true nonverbal synchrony differed from pseudosynchrony [t_(43.4) = 2.41; p = 0.02] with a medium effect size (d = 0.42). Gender of PHI had a significant effect on general synchrony (p = 0.025) and on leading by SOs (p = 0.017). Age gap correlated with synchronic movements (p = 0.047). Very short duration of hearing impairment was associated with lower nonverbal synchrony in the role of leading by SOs (p = 0.031). Feeling of closeness by PHI correlated negatively with the role of leading by SOs (p > 0.001) and feeling of closeness by SOs was positively associated with leading by PHI (p = 0.015). No correlation was detected between nonverbal synchrony and other questionnaires. Burden experienced by the SOs was higher in SOs who reported less closeness (p = 0.014).

Discussion

A longer hearing impairment leads to more nonverbal leading by SOs compared to PHI with very short duration of hearing loss, possibly because of the long-lasting imbalance in communication. If PHI felt more closeness, SOs led less and vice versa. Burden experienced by SOs negatively correlated with closeness reported by SOs. Use of nonverbal signals and communication might help to improve benefits of auditory rehabilitation for PHI and decrease burden experienced by SOs.

Closeness with a partner and parental bond with a child during the transition to parenthood

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this longitudinal study was to examine the dyadic interdependence of the relationships between partners' perception of closeness with one another and their pre- and postnatal bonds with a child.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS

A total of 213 first-time expectant couples participated in the study both during pregnancy (1st stage) and after the child's birth (2nd stage).

MEASUREMENTS

The participants completed the following measures: the one-item pictorial Inclusion of Other into the Self (IOS) scale and the brief maternal and paternal versions of the Antenatal Attachment Scales (MAAS/PAAS, respectively) and Postnatal Attachment Scales (MPAS/PPAS, respectively).

FINDINGS

The Actor-Partner Interdependence Models (APIM) for distinguishable dyads were performed and revealed the positive effect of parents' perceptions of closeness with their partners regarding both their own and their partners' bond with their child during pregnancy. However, after the child's birth, for both mothers and fathers, only their own perception of closeness with their partners was associated with their bond with their child. Moreover, only the actor effects of bonding with a child during pregnancy as well as the change in perception of closeness with a partner on the partner's bond with their child after birth were found (no partner effect).

KEY CONCLUSIONS

Couple attributes during the transition to parenthood should be emphasized to promote the development of parental pre- and postnatal bonds.

Uncertainty Management in Sexual Communication: Testing the Moderating Role of Marital Quality, Relational Closeness, and Communal Coping

Romantic partners' communication about sex has been shown to enhance marital satisfaction and well-being, yet is often associated with high levels of uncertainty due to the challenging and potentially face-threatening topics involved in such discussion. While much literature focuses on sexual health information seeking, relational partners' uncertainty management related to sexual satisfaction has not been examined. This study focused on married couples' discussion of sexual satisfaction, tested the theory of motivated information management (TMIM; Afifi & Weiner, 2004) within this context, and examined relational moderators that could influence relational partners' communication about sexual satisfaction. Data from 248 married participants suggested that TMIM effectively predicted five different information management strategies, including direct and indirect information seeking, avoidance, cognitive reappraisal, and disclosure, although the processes through which uncertainty discrepancy influenced information management differed depending on the information management strategy. Furthermore, results indicated relational factors such as marital quality, relational closeness, and communal coping moderated TMIM paths in distinct ways. Theoretical and practical implications for relational partners' uncertainty management about sexual satisfaction are discussed.

Self-partner inclusion predicts performance of romantically involved individuals in a body-scaled action-anticipation task

Previous research has shown that romantic relationships can lead to the cognitive inclusion of a romantic partner into one's own self-representation, resulting in blurred boundaries between self and intimate other. Recent work suggests that this self-other integration process encompasses the two dimensions of the self-the conceptual and the bodily self. In line with this, it has been proposed that romantic love is associated with cognitive states that blur or reduce the saliency of self-boundaries in the bodily domain. The present study tested this hypothesis by investigating the influence of the self-other integration process in romantic love on passability judgments of door-like apertures, an action-anticipation task that rests on the representation of bodily boundaries. Romantically involved and single participants estimated whether they could pass through apertures of different widths. Moreover, inclusion of romantic partner in the self was assessed using the Inclusion of Other in the Self (IOS) scale. The pattern of correlation and the ratio between participants' shoulder width and aperture judgments did not differ between romantically involved participants and singles. However, our results revealed that in romantically involved participants, the relationship between individuals' shoulder width and aperture judgements was moderated by IOS scores. A greater inclusion of romantic partner in the self was associated with a weaker prediction of aperture judgment by participants' shoulder width. A similar moderating effect of the intensity of romantic feelings (as measured by the passionate love scale) on shoulder width-aperture judgment relationship was found. IOS scores, but not romantic feelings, also moderated aperture judgments made for another individual (third person perspective). Together, these findings are consistent with the view that inclusion of romantic partner in the self triggers cognitive states affecting self-boundaries in the bodily domain.

Planning date nights that promote closeness: The roles of relationship goals and self-expansion

Spending time with a romantic partner by going on dates is important for promoting closeness in established relationships; however, not all date nights are created equally, and some people might be more adept at planning dates that promote closeness. Drawing from the self-expansion model and relationship goals literature, we predicted that people higher (vs. lower) in approach relationship goals would be more likely to plan dates that are more exciting and, in turn, experience more self-expansion from the date and increased closeness with the partner. In Study 1, people in intimate relationships planned a date to initiate with their partners and forecasted the expected level of self-expansion and closeness from engaging in the date. In Study 2, a similar design was employed, but we also followed up with participants 1 week later to ask about the experience of engaging in their planned dates (e.g., self-expansion, closeness from the date). Taken together, the results suggest that people with higher (vs. lower) approach relationship goals derive more closeness from their dates, in part, because of their greater aptitude for planning dates that are more exciting and promote self-expansion.

Social inclusion of students with special educational needs assessed by the Inclusion of Other in the Self scale

How does the participation of students with special educational needs (SEN) in mainstream education affect their social inclusion? We introduce a single-item pictorial measure, the Inclusion of Other in the Self (IOS), to compare the social inclusion of SEN students attending mainstream regular schools to social inclusion of SEN students attending special schools. We collected responses from 138 parents of SEN students aged 4–20, to obtain data on the loneliness, friendships and social inclusion of SEN students. The parents of SEN students attending regular schools did not perceive their children to be less included than parents of SEN students attending special schools. School context decreased SEN students’ perceived loneliness independent of the school type. And while most SEN students’ friendships were formed at school, SEN students attending regular schools had more friends, and these were more likely to live in the same neighborhood. Overall, the social inclusion of SEN students across school types was not affected by the school type, only by the school’s inclusive characteristics.

Partner intimate touch is associated with increased interpersonal closeness, especially in non-romantic partners

Relationship closeness promotes desirable health outcomes. Most interventions to increase relationship closeness are verbal, which may not suit all couples. We consider whether Orgasmic Meditation (OM), a structured, partnered, largely non-verbal practice that includes genital touch, also increases relationship closeness. We hypothesized that OM would increase feelings of closeness for both romantic and non-romantic partners. This is important, because intimate touch with non-romantic partners is commonly considered deleterious by clinicians, which may inadvertently increase feelings of shame. Dyads (n = 125) reported their feelings of closeness before and after OM. Approximately half of the participants were romantic partners, while the other half only engaged in OM together (non-romantic). Closeness after OM increased on average across participants. Non-romantic dyads increased self-other overlap more than romantic dyads. These data support that a partnered, largely non-verbal practice is associated with increased feelings of closeness in the moment, including for individuals who are not in a romantic relationship.

Inclusion of Other in the Self and Couple's Sexuality: A Scoping Review

To better understand the effect relationship closeness has on couple's sexuality a scoping review was conducted, that focused on the inclusion of other in the self scale (IOS). Authors reviewed quantitative journal articles published between 2000 and 2020 by searching PsychInfo, Medline, and PubMed, resulting in 24 studies. Results suggest positive associations between IOS and sexual well-being, functioning, desire, frequency and satisfaction, and negatively related to sexual distress. Also, the benefits of positive sexual experiences expand well beyond the sexual domain onto different personal and relational factors of health and well-being. Sampling designs considerably limit the generalizability of results.

Self-Other Representation in the Social Brain Reflects Social Connection

Social connection is critical to well-being, yet how the brain reflects our attachment to other people remains largely unknown. We combined univariate and multivariate brain imaging analyses to assess whether and how the brain organizes representations of others based on how connected they are to our own identity. During an fMRI scan, female and male human participants (N = 43) completed a self- and other-reflection task for 16 targets: the self, five close others, five acquaintances, and five celebrities. In addition, they reported their subjective closeness to each target and their own trait loneliness. We examined neural responses to the self and others in a brain region that has been associated with self-representation (mPFC) and across the whole brain. The structure of self-other representation in the mPFC and across the social brain appeared to cluster targets into three social categories: the self, social network members (including close others and acquaintances), and celebrities. Moreover, both univariate activation in mPFC and multivariate self-other similarity in mPFC and across the social brain increased with subjective self-other closeness ratings. Critically, participants who were less socially connected (i.e., lonelier) showed altered self-other mapping in social brain regions. Most notably, in mPFC, loneliness was associated with reduced representational similarity between the self and others. The social brain apparently maintains information about broad social categories as well as closeness to the self. Moreover, these results point to the possibility that feelings of chronic social disconnection may be mirrored by a "lonelier" neural self-representation.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Social connection is critical to well-being, yet how the brain reflects our attachment to people remains unclear. We found that the social brain stratifies neural representations of people based on our subjective connection to them, separately clustering people who are and are not in our social network. Moreover, the people we feel closest to are represented most closely to ourselves. Finally, lonelier individuals also appeared to have a "lonelier" neural self-representation in the mPFC, as loneliness attenuated the similarity between self and other neural representations in this region. The social brain appears to map our interpersonal ties, and alterations in this map may help explain why lonely individuals endorse statements such as "people are around me but not with me."

Embodied self-other overlap in romantic love: a review and integrative perspective

Romantic love has long intrigued scientists in various disciplines. Social-cognitive research has provided ample evidence for overlapping mental representations of self and romantic partner. This overlap between self and romantic partner would contribute to the experience of love and has been found to be a predictor of relationship quality. Self-partner overlap has been mainly documented at the level of conceptual or narrative self, with studies showing confusion between one's own and partner's identity aspects, perspectives, and outcomes. But the self is not restricted to abstract, conceptual representations but also involves body-related representations, which, research has revealed, are linked to social-cognitive processes. In this article, we review the emerging evidence that romantic love involves not only a blurring of conceptual selves but also a reduction of the distinction between self and romantic partner at a bodily level. We discuss the potential function(s) of self-other overlap in romantic relationship at the level of body-related representations and consider possible mechanisms. We conclude with possible future directions to further investigate how romantic love engages embodied self-other representations involved in social interactions.