Depression in the Elderly. Consensus Statement of the Spanish Psychogeriatric Association

The global, regional, and national late-life depression burden and trends from 1990 to 2021: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021

BACKGROUND

Late-life depression (LLD) represents a growing global public health concern. This study aimed to assess the worldwide burden of LLD using comprehensive data.

METHODS

Leveraging the latest evidence from the Global Burden of Disease Study, we analyzed trends in LLD burden from 1990 to 2021, encompassing incidence, prevalence, and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). We quantified disparities in LLD burden across socioeconomic, gender, regional, and national dimensions. Decomposition analysis was employed to identify key drivers of LLD burden variation. Frontier analysis illustrated the potential for burden reduction in various countries.

RESULTS

Globally, there were 49,137,544 new cases, 46,672,175 prevalent cases, and 7,351,377 DALYs attributed to LLD in 2021. Between 1990 and 2021, the agestandardised incidence rate (ASIR), age-standardised prevalence rate (ASPR), and age-standardised DALYs rate (ASDR) of LLD all rose. In 2021, low SDI regions exhibited the highest all ASRs, while middle SDI regions had the fastest growth rates in these indicators. Regionally, Central and Eastern Sub-Saharan Africa had the highest ASIR, ASPR, and ASDR, respectively. Nationally, Uganda ranked highest in all ASRs in 2021. Women had higher burdens than men. Population growth was a primary driver of DALYs increase in middle SDI regions that had the greatest potential for improvement.

CONCLUSIONS

The global burden of LLD has risen, with marked inequities across SDI, gender, region, and country. The burden is most pronounced in low and middle SDI regions. These findings offer guidance for developing LLD screening guidelines and enhancing prevention and intervention strategies in relevant countries, particularly Uganda.

How Do Psychiatry Residents View Their Training in Spain? A Mixed-Method Survey

BACKGROUND

Efforts to improve psychiatry training must incorporate residents' assessment of their training. This study sought to collect the opinion of residents about the program that has been in force in Spain since 2008, until the current transition to a new plan.

METHODS

The authors conducted an online survey of psychiatry residents in Spain, asking about their formative and working conditions. Based on previous research and the national training programme, it was distributed electronically to resident representatives of the National Board of Psychiatry. This descriptive, cross-sectional study used a mixed-methods (quantitative and qualitative) approach, following standard procedures for data analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 109 residents from 67 training units responded to the survey. The average score for satisfaction with their training was 6.84 (standard deviation (SE) = 2.4; the maximum possible score was 10). Psychotherapy was considered the area with the greatest need for improvement, while the rotations that participants would most like to be extended were child psychiatry and addictions. It was reported that rotation durations established by the national programme were not fulfilled in 38.5% of cases, while the required direct supervision for first-year residents was not fulfilled in 77.1% of cases. Regarding working conditions, 47.7% of the residents reported that they exceeded the maximum working time established by European law.

CONCLUSIONS

Psychiatry residents in Spain perceive certain areas of their training as deficient, especially those related to psychotherapy and clinical supervision, and they consider that their working time is excessive. The approval of the new training programme opens up an interesting opportunity for improvement.

Bioinformatics Screening and Experimental Validation for Deciphering the Immune Signature of Late-Onset Depression

Background

Late-onset depression (LOD) is often associated with more severe cognitive impairment and a higher risk of disability and suicide. Emerging evidence suggests that immune system problems may be involved. This study aims to systematically characterize the genetic signature of LOD based on the immune landscape.

Methods

The expression profile of GSE76826 was obtained from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database to gather gene expression data for 10 LOD patients and 12 healthy controls (HC). Various analyses, such as Single-Sample Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (ssGSEA) and Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA), were used to mine key genes closely related to LOD. ImmuCellAI helped us understand differences in the immune environment between LOD patients and controls, and we used an LOD animal model to validate the relevant immune characteristics.

Results

We found enriched immune pathways linked to LOD and adaptive immune responses. Using advanced bioinformatics techniques, we identified two key genes: apelin (APLN) and leptin (LEP), which have good diagnostic efficacy (AUC=0.925, 95% CI=1.00-0.83) for LOD. Neutrophil infiltration increased significantly in LOD, while CD8+ T lymphocytes (CD8_T) decreased. We finally constructed an animal model of LOD, validated two key genes and microglia marker genes in blood and hippocampus, and detected elevated pro-inflammatory factors such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α).

Conclusion

We identified and validated the presence of aberrant expression of APLN and LEP in LOD and described a possible immune mechanism involving increased release of IL-6 and TNF-α, leading to decreased CD8_T infiltration and increased neutrophil infiltration. Meanwhile, peripheral inflammation across the blood-brain barrier further promotes microglia activation, leading to neuronal damage.

Depression in Alzheimer's Disease: Epidemiology, Mechanisms, and Treatment

Depression and Alzheimer's disease (AD) are substantial public health concerns. In the past decades, a link between the 2 disease entities has received extensive acknowledgment, yet the complex nature of this relationship demands further clarification. Some evidence indicates that midlife depression may be an AD risk factor, while a chronic course of depression in late life may be a precursor to or symptom of dementia. Recently, multiple pathophysiological mechanisms have been proposed to underlie the bidirectional relationship between depression and AD, including genetic predisposition, immune dysregulation, accumulation of AD-related biomarkers (e.g., amyloid-β and tau), and alterations in brain structure. Accordingly, numerous therapeutic approaches, such as pharmacology treatments, psychotherapy, and lifestyle interventions, have been suggested as potential means of interfering with these pathways. However, the current literature on this topic remains fragmented and lacks a comprehensive review characterizing the association between depression and AD. In this review, we aim to address these gaps by providing an overview of the co-occurrence and temporal relationship between depression and AD, as well as exploring their underlying mechanisms. We also examine the current therapeutic regimens for depression and their implications for AD management and outline key challenges facing the field.

Tolerability of vortioxetine compared to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in older adults with major depressive disorder (VESPA): a randomised, assessor-blinded and statistician-blinded, multicentre, superiority trial

Background

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is prevalent and disabling among older adults. Standing on its tolerability profile, vortioxetine might be a promising alternative to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in such a vulnerable population.

Methods

We conducted a randomised, assessor- and statistician-blinded, superiority trial including older adults with MDD. The study was conducted between 02/02/2019 and 02/22/2023 in 11 Italian Psychiatric Services. Participants were randomised to vortioxetine or one of the SSRIs, selected according to common practice. Treatment discontinuation due to adverse events after six months was the primary outcome, for which we aimed to detect a 12% difference in favour of vortioxetine. The study was registered in the online repository clinicaltrials.gov (NCT03779789).

Findings

The intention-to-treat population included 179 individuals randomised to vortioxetine and 178 to SSRIs. Mean age was 73.7 years (standard deviation 6.1), and 264 participants (69%) were female. Of those on vortioxetine, 78 (44%) discontinued the treatment due to adverse events at six months, compared to 59 (33%) of those on SSRIs (odds ratio 1.56; 95% confidence interval 1.01-2.39). Adjusted and per-protocol analyses confirmed point estimates in favour of SSRIs, but without a significant difference. With the exception of the unadjusted survival analysis showing SSRIs to outperform vortioxetine, secondary outcomes provided results consistent with a lack of substantial safety and tolerability differences between the two arms. Overall, no significant differences emerged in terms of response rates, depressive symptoms and quality of life, while SSRIs outperformed vortioxetine in terms of cognitive performance.

Interpretation

As opposed to what was previously hypothesised, vortioxetine did not show a better tolerability profile compared to SSRIs in older adults with MDD in this study. Additionally, hypothetical advantages of vortioxetine on depression-related cognitive symptoms might be questioned. The study's statistical power and highly pragmatic design allow for generalisability to real-world practice.

Funding

The study was funded by the Italian Medicines Agency within the "2016 Call for Independent Drug Research".

Incidence of depression among community-dwelling older adults: A systematic review

We aimed to synthesise information related to the incidence of depression and depressive symptoms (DDS) in a community-dwelling older adult population at a global level. In this systematic review, we included articles with a cohort study design that evaluated the incidence of depression or depressive symptoms in older adults aged 60 years or more in a community-dwelling environment. Six databases were used: Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, LILACS, SciELO, and Cochrane, and the entire selection process was independently performed by peers. We divided the included articles into subgroups according to the DDS assessment instrument: (i) Geriatric Depression Scale; (ii) Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; (iii) miscellaneous scales; and (iv) diagnostic interviews. Each cumulative incidence value obtained per item was adjusted for a 1-year follow-up period, which generated an annual cumulative incidence (AcI). From 46 articles, 42 used scales to evaluate the depressive variable, with an AcI estimate of around 4.5%. The articles that assessed depression categorically observed a variation in AcI between 0.2% and 7.0%. Among all the materials included, the group that used the Geriatric Depression Scale observed the lowest and the highest AcI, 1.3% and 26.6% respectively. Most of the productions were from countries in the Asian continent (52.2%), followed by Europe (30.4%), the Americas (13%), and Oceania (4.4%). Despite the variation of AcI, we found a frequent occurrence of DDS in older adults in the community-dwelling environment, which highlights the need for preventive actions and better-targeted early care, especially in terms of primary health care.

Depression in Older Adults: Do Current DSM Diagnostic Criteria Really Fit?

OBJECTIVES

The great heterogeneity in symptoms and clinical signs of depression in older adults makes the current diagnostic criteria difficult to apply. This scoping review aims to provide an update on the relevance of each of the diagnostic criteria as defined in the DSM-5.

METHODS

In order to limit the risk of bias inherent in the study selection process, a priori inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined. Articles meeting these criteria were identified using a combination of search terms entered into PubMed, PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES and SocINDEX.

RESULTS

Of the 894 articles identified, 33 articles were selected. This review highlights a different presentation of depression in older adults. Beyond the first two DSM core criteria, some symptoms are more common in older adults: appetite change, sleep disturbance, psychomotor slowing, difficulty concentrating, indecisiveness, and fatigue.

CONCLUSIONS

This review provides an updated description of the clinical expression of depressive symptoms in the older population while highlighting current pending issues.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

Somatic symptoms should be systematically considered in order to improve the diagnosis of depression in older adults, even if, in some cases, they may reflect symptoms of age-related illnesses.

A Review of Therapeutics for Treatment-Resistant Depression in the Older Adult

One-third of older adults with depression meet criteria for treatment resistance, typically defined as a lack of response to two or more adequate trials of an antidepressant. Treatment resistance contributes to an unfavorable prognosis, compromised medical outcomes, heightened disability, accelerated cognitive decline, and an elevated risk of developing dementia. Despite this significant morbidity, evidence is sparse for how to proceed with treatment in this population. Non-pharmacologic therapy (e.g., diet, psychotherapy) can be utilized as adjunctive therapy, despite little published evidence of benefit, given that the risks are low. Pharmacotherapy trials in the treatment-resistant late-life depression population lack strong methods and external validity; however, the use of venlafaxine as monotherapy and add-on therapy, as well as lithium, bupropion, or aripiprazole as add-on therapy to standard antidepressant therapy, have enough evidence that a trial with appropriate monitoring is a prudent strategy. Electroconvulsive therapy remains a well-studied safe therapy, especially when used as maintenance treatment once an initial cycle is completed but is traditionally underutilized in the treatment-resistant late-life depression population. Ensuring non-pharmacologic and pharmacologic strategies are optimized and given a sufficient trial in those with treatment-resistant late-life depression is the best we can do for this vulnerable population.

Glycemic variability correlates with medial temporal lobe atrophy and decreased cognitive performance in patients with memory deficits

Background

In the past, researchers have observed a significant link between glycemia and dementia. Medial temporal atrophy (MTA) is regarded as a common marker of dementia. The correlation between glycemic variability and MTA is unclear, and it has not been determined whether glycemic variability can be utilized as a biomarker of MTA and cognitive performance.

Methods

The patients in a memory clinic who underwent brain MRI scans and cognitive assessments within the first week of their hospital visit, were enrolled. All participants underwent three fasting blood glucose and one HBA1c assessments on three self-selected days within 1 week of their first visit. The variability independent of the mean (VIM) was employed. Validated visual scales were used to rate the MTA results. The mini-mental state examination (MMSE) and Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) scales were employed to assess the cognitive functions of the participants. Spearman's correlation and regression models were used to examine the relationship between the MMSE and MoCA scales, and also determine the link between the MRI characteristics and cognitive status, where vascular risk factors, educational status, age, gender, and mean glucose parameters served as covariates.

Results

Four hundred sixty-one subjects completed the MMSE scale, while 447 participants completed the MoCA scale. Data analysis revealed that 47.72% of the participants were men (220/461), and the median age of the patients was 69.87 ± 5.37 years. The findings of Spearman's correlation analysis exhibited a strong negative relationship between the VIM and MMSE score (r = -0.729, P < 0.01), and the MoCA score (r = -0.710, P < 0.01). The VIM was regarded as an independent risk factor for determining cognitive impairment in both the MMSE and MoCA assessments. The results were unaffected by sensitivity analysis. In addition, a non-linear relationship was observed between the VIM and MTA scores.

Conclusion

The variability in the blood glucose levels, which was presented as VIM, was related to the reduced cognitive function, which was reflected by MMSE and MoCA scales. The relationship between the VIM and the MTA score was non-linear. The VIM was positively related to the MTA score when the VIM was less than 2.42.

Late-life depression: Epidemiology, phenotype, pathogenesis and treatment before and during the COVID-19 pandemic

Late-life depression (LLD) is one of the most common mental disorders among the older adults. Population aging, social stress, and the COVID-19 pandemic have significantly affected the emotional health of older adults, resulting in a worldwide prevalence of LLD. The clinical phenotypes between LLD and adult depression differ in terms of symptoms, comorbid physical diseases, and coexisting cognitive impairments. Many pathological factors such as the imbalance of neurotransmitters, a decrease in neurotrophic factors, an increase in β-amyloid production, dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, and changes in the gut microbiota, are allegedly associated with the onset of LLD. However, the exact pathogenic mechanism underlying LLD remains unclear. Traditional selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor therapy results in poor responsiveness and side effects during LLD treatment. Neuromodulation therapies and complementary and integrative therapies have been proven safe and effective for the treatment of LLD. Importantly, during the COVID-19 pandemic, modern digital health intervention technologies, including socially assistive robots and app-based interventions, have proven to be advantageous in providing personal services to patients with LLD.

Towards an understanding of the pathological basis of senile depression and incident dementia: Implications for treatment

Senile depression (SD) is a heterogeneous syndrome. Several clinical profiles are more likely to appear in SD than in early-life depression, but it remains unclear whether the pathophysiology is different. The prevalence of dementia increases with aging, and the underlying pathophysiological processes in the preclinical phase begin even before cognitive deficits or neurological signs appear. SD may be either a risk factor for developing dementia or a prodromal stage of dementia. The inconsistent findings regarding the association between SD and incident dementia may be attributable to the neuropathological heterogeneity underlying SD. Most studies have focused on patients with the clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer disease (AD) as an outcome, but several clinicopathological studies suggest that primary age-related tauopathy and argyrophilic grain disease may account for a proportion of cases clinically misdiagnosed as AD in the elderly population. Furthermore, most AD cases have additional neuropathologic changes such as cerebrovascular disease and Lewy body disease. Here, we review the neuropathological findings linking SD to incident dementia, focusing on common age-related neuropathologies. In particular, the roles of disturbance of neural circuity, imbalance of monoaminergic systems, dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, and elevated neuroinflammatory status are discussed. Finally, we review the current treatment of SD in the context of age-related neuropathological changes.

Advances in Research at Synthesis Process Optimization and Quality Standard Improvement of O-desmethylvenlafaxine Succinate

We herein describe an optimal approach for the efficient synthesis of O-desmethylvenlafaxine succinate monohydrate (DVS) with high yield and high purity through 5-step reactions, including benzyl protection of the phenolic hydroxyl group, cyclohexanone condensation, deprotection, cyano reduction, dimethylation, and succinic acid salt formation from p-hydroxybenzene acetonitrile as a starting material. 4-Benzyloxyphenylacetonitrile (Intermediate I) was prepared by the hydroxyl protection of the bromide benzyl-p-hydroxyphenylacetonitrile catalyzed by potassium carbonate with 99.83% purity and 98.92% yields. The 1, 2-nucleophilic addition of intermediate I to cyclohexanone promoted by sodium hydroxide with the homogeneous catalyst (n-Bu)₄N⁺Br⁻ to the preparation of 1-[Cyano(4-benzyloxyphenyl)methyl]cyclohexanol (Intermediate II) was obtained by 99.13% purity and 99.71% yields. Cyclohexanone residues and benzyl bromide residues were trace, and tetrabutylammonium bromide residues were UNDER 0.7 ppm, which further improves the residual standards for genotoxic impurities (GIs). 1-[2-amino-1-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]cyclohexanol hydrochloride (Intermediate III) was prepared by 10% palladium-carbon under 2.0 MPa up to 98.32% purity and 94.20% yields. O-desmethylvenlafaxine (ODV) was synthesized by dimethylation of intermediate III with 37% formaldehyde solution and 85% formic acid solution. The highest purity was up to 99.20% and the yield was up to 84.77%. O-desmethylvenlafaxine succinate monohydrate (DVS) was formed from succinic acid and O-desmethylvenlafaxine (ODV) and crystallized in a mixed solvent of acetone and water (3:1) to obtain 99.92% purity and 90.27% yields. The 5-step total yields of desvenlafaxine succinate monohydrate is 71.09%, and its crystal form has characteristic peaks at 5, 10, 21, and 26 min by XRD powder diffraction, which is consistent with the crystalline form I. Compared with conventional synthesis strategy, we revealed a novel and green process with a high total yield, high atomic economy, low environmental pollution, high operational safety, and high residual standards for genotoxic impurities (GIs), which improves drug safety.

Guidelines for the management of psychosis in the context of mood disorders

Psychotic episodes occur in a substantial proportion of patients suffering from major mood disorders (both unipolar and bipolar) at some point in their lives. The nature of these episodes is less well understood than the more common, non-psychotic periods of illness and hence their management is also less sophisticated. This is a concern because the risk of suicide is particularly high in this subtype of mood disorder and comorbidity is far more common. In some cases psychotic symptoms may be signs of a comorbid illness but the relationship of psychotic mood to other forms of psychosis and in particular its interactions with schizophrenia is poorly understood. Therefore, our targeted review draws upon extant research and our combined experience to provide clinical context and a framework for the management of these disorders in real-world practice - taking into consideration both biological and psychological interventions.

Application of the Delphi Method in the Study of Depressive Disorder

Depressive disorder is a common mental disorder that has a high prevalence and low visiting rate, which caused patients years lived with disability. Due to the complexity of the depressive disorder, the Delphi method is a better choice compared with other commonly used methods, which provides a new perspective for the prevention and treatment of depression. This article will summarize the clinical studies of depressive disorders using the Delphi method from four perspectives, and summarize the advantages and disadvantages of the Delphi method in depressive disorders research, arguing that the Delphi method can cross the gap between clinical research and clinical practice, and is a highly practical part of the research process.

CYP1A2 polymorphism may contribute to agomelatine-induced acute liver injury: Case report and review of the literature

RATIONALE

Liver function monitoring is recommended when agomelatine is prescribed, although liver enzymes are not considered predictive biomarkers. Most patients present with acute liver injury, with only a few presenting with levels of liver enzymes that are over 30 times the upper limit of normal. The patient-specific risk factors that are associated with liver injury remain unclear. Thus, this report provides new insights into the mechanism of agomelatine-induced acute hepatocellular injury based on cytochrome P450 family 1 subfamily A member 2 (CYP1A2) polymorphism.

PATIENT CONCERNS

We present a case of acute hepatocellular injury in a 75-year-old man who was taking agomelatine at a dose of 50 mg/qn. All hepatitis virus test results were negative. No history of liver disease was observed. As CYP1A2 is the main metabolic enzyme of agomelatine, CYP1A2 AA (rs762551) genetic polymorphism was analyzed.

DIAGNOSIS

The patient's transaminases level exceeded the critical value on day 72 after starting oral agomelatine.

INTERVENTIONS

The patient received intravenous magnesium isoglycyrrhizinate, a liver cell-protecting agent, followed by the withdrawal of agomelatine.

OUTCOMES

There was an improvement in the levels of the liver enzymes and no subsequent organ dysfunction was observed.

LESSONS

Here, we report a case of acute hepatocellular injury characterized by a very high aspartate aminotransferase level. Periodic liver function testing throughout the treatment period can help in the rapid and appropriate diagnosis of acute liver injury, particularly in the absence of typical clinical manifestations. Agomelatine hepatic toxicity might be related to an idiosyncratic metabolic reaction that depends on individual patient differences. As it is the main metabolic enzyme of agomelatine, CYP1A2 genetic polymorphism may contribute to liver injury by affecting its metabolites.

Deficiency in the Essential Amino Acids l-Isoleucine, l-Leucine and l-Histidine and Clinical Measures as Predictors of Moderate Depression in Elderly Women: A Discriminant Analysis Study

Increases in depression are common in some elderly women. Elderly women often show moderate depressive symptoms, while others display minimal depressive symptoms. These discrepancies have produced contradictory and inconclusive outcomes, which have not been explained entirely by deficits in neurotransmitter precursors. Deficiency in some amino acids have been implicated in major depression, but its role in non-clinical elderly women is not well known. An analysis of essential amino acids, depression and the use of discriminant analysis can help to clarify the variation in depressive symptoms exhibited by some elderly women. The aim was to investigate the relationship of essential amino acids with affective, cognitive and comorbidity measures in elderly women without major depression nor severe mood disorders or psychosis, specifically thirty-six with moderate depressive symptoms and seventy-one with minimal depressive symptoms. The plasma concentrations of nineteen amino acids, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scores, Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) scores, global cognitive scores and comorbidities were submitted to stepwise discriminant analysis to identify predictor variables. Seven predictors arose as important for belong to the group based on amino acid concentrations, with the moderate depressive symptoms group characterized by higher BDI, GDS and cognitive scores; fewer comorbidities; and lower levels of l-histidine, l-isoleucine and l-leucine. These findings suggest that elderly women classified as having moderate depressive symptoms displayed a deficiency in essential amino acids involved in metabolism, protein synthesis, inflammation and neurotransmission.

Vortioxetine in management of major depressive disorder - a favorable alternative for elderly patients?

Introduction: Depressive disorders are common in older patients, and their prevalence may reach up to 17.1%. Though for older adults, the initial recommended treatment is either life-review treatment or group cognitive-behavioral therapy, a combination of pharmacotherapy with interpersonal psychotherapy is also an option. There are many classes of antidepressants, and some meta-analyses suggest that the efficacy of different antidepressant groups is similar. Therefore, depression treatment in an elderly patient should consider preference, safety, and tolerability. Most reports suggest that SSRIs, such as citalopram, escitalopram, or sertraline, should be proposed as first-time medications.Areas covered: This article discusses the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of vortioxetine, emphasizing the observed differences, benefits, and risks for older patients. Vortioxetine - a multimodal antidepressant drug - was shown to be effective against major depressive disorders in both double-blinded, placebo-controlled trials and open-label studies.Expert opinion: Compared with commonly used antidepressants, vortioxetine appears to have unique properties that may be beneficial for elderly patients. Not only does it enhance cognitive function, but it also has a favorable safety profile.

The Impact of Depression Symptoms in Patients with Parkinson's Disease: A Novel Case-Control Investigation

Parkinson's disease is a common neurodegenerative disease and it is known to cause motor disturbances associated with musculoskeletal problems of the locomotor apparatus, and non-motor symptoms, that are believed to have a harmful effect on health, social functioning and mobility. The aim of this study was to evaluate depression in patients with Parkinson's Disease (PD) compared to subjects who do not have it. The sample consisted of 124 participants (mean age 69.18 ± 9.12). Patients with PD were recruited from a center of excellence for Parkinson's disease (cases n = 62) and healthy subjects without PD from their relatives and caregivers (control n = 62). The Spanish version of Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI) scores and categories were collected. A clear statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) was evident in the BDI scores between both groups. Parkinson's patients presented worse results on the BDI = 15.48 ± 7.24 points compared to healthy subjects with BDI = 7.03 ± 6.99 points. Regarding BDI categories, there were statistically significant differences (p < 0.001) for the greater BDI categories in the Parkinson's group compared with healthy subjects. The depression represents an important potential risk for increased symptoms and negative impact among patients with PD compared with healthy subjects.

Focus on Depression in Parkinson's Disease: A Delphi Consensus of Experts in Psychiatry, Neurology, and Geriatrics

Major and minor forms of depression are significant contributors to Parkinson's disease morbidity and caregiver burden, affecting up to 50% of these patients. Nonetheless, symptoms of depression are still underrecognized and undertreated in this context due to scarcity of evidence and, consequently, consistent clinical guideline recommendations. Here, we carried out a prospective, multicentre, 2-round modified Delphi survey with 49 questions about the aetiopathological mechanisms of depression in Parkinson's disease (10), clinical features and connections with motor and nonmotor symptoms (10), diagnostic criteria (5), and therapeutic options (24). Items were assessed by a panel of 37 experts (neurologists, psychiatrists, and a geriatrist), and consensus was achieved in 81.6% of them. Depressive symptoms, enhanced by multiple patient circumstances, were considered Parkinson's disease risk factors but not clinical indicators of motor symptom and disease progression. These patients should be systematically screened for depression while ruling out both anhedonia and apathy symptoms as they are not necessarily linked to it. Clinical scales (mainly the Geriatric Depression Scale GDS-15) can help establishing the diagnosis of depression, the symptoms of which will require treatment regardless of severity. Efficacious and well-tolerated pharmacological options for Parkinson's comorbid depression were selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (especially sertraline), dual-action serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (venlafaxine, desvenlafaxine, and duloxetine), multimodal (vortioxetine, bupropion, mirtazapine, and tianeptine), and anti-Parkinsonian dopamine agonists (pramipexole, ropinirole, and rotigotine). Tricyclic antidepressants and combining type B monoamine oxidase inhibitors with serotonergic drugs have serious side effects in these patients and therefore should not be prescribed. Electroconvulsive therapy was indicated for severe and drug-refractory cases. Cognitive behavioural therapy was recommended in cases of mild depression. Results presented here are useful diagnostic and patient management guidance for other physicians and important considerations to improve future drug trial design.

Depression in Alzheimer's Disease: A Delphi Consensus on Etiology, Risk Factors, and Clinical Management

Background: Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other forms of dementia are among the most common causes of disability in the elderly. Dementia is often accompanied by depression, but specific diagnostic criteria and treatment approaches are still lacking. This study aimed to gather expert opinions on dementia and depressed patient management to reduce heterogeneity in everyday practice. Methods: Prospective, multicenter, 2-round Modified Delphi survey with 53 questions regarding risk factors (11), signs and symptoms (7), diagnosis (8), and treatment (27) of depression in dementia, with a particular focus on AD. The questionnaire was completed by a panel of 37 expert physicians in neurodegenerative diseases (19 neurologists, 17 psychiatrists, and 1 geriatrician). Results: Consensus was achieved in 40 (75.5%) of the items: agreement in 33 (62.3%) and disagreement in 7 (13.2%) of them. Among the most relevant findings, depression in the elderly was considered an early sign (prodromal) and/or a dementia risk factor, so routine cognitive check-ups in depressed patients should be adopted, aided by clinical scales and information from relatives. Careful interpretation of neuropsychological assessment must be carried out in patients with depression as it can undermine cognitive outcomes. As agreed, depression in early AD is characterized by somatic symptoms and can be differentiated from apathy by the presence of sadness, depressive thoughts and early-morning awakening. In later-phases, symptoms of depression would include sleep-wake cycle reversal, aggressive behavior, and agitation. Regardless of the stage of dementia, depression would accelerate its course, whereas antidepressants would have the opposite effect. Those that improve cognitive function and/or have a dual or multimodal mode of action were preferred: Duloxetine, venlafaxine/desvenlafaxine, vortioxetine, tianeptine, and mirtazapine. Although antidepressants may be less effective than in cognitively healthy patients, neither dosage nor treatment duration should differ. Anti-dementia cholinesterase inhibitors may have a synergistic effect with antidepressants. Exercise and psychological interventions should not be applied alone before any pharmacological treatment, yet they do play a part in improving depressive symptoms in demented patients. Conclusions: This study sheds light on several unresolved clinical challenges regarding depression in dementia patients. Further studies and specific recommendations for this comorbid patient population are still needed.