Editorial: Emerging Zoonoses: Eco-Epidemiology, Involved Mechanisms, and Public Health Implications

Holistic One Health Surveillance Framework: Synergizing Environmental, Animal, and Human Determinants for Enhanced Infectious Disease Management

Recent pandemics, including the COVID-19 outbreak, have brought up growing concerns about transmission of zoonotic diseases from animals to humans. This highlights the requirement for a novel approach to discern and address the escalating health threats. The One Health paradigm has been developed as a responsive strategy to confront forthcoming outbreaks through early warning, highlighting the interconnectedness of humans, animals, and their environment. The system employs several innovative methods such as the use of advanced technology, global collaboration, and data-driven decision-making to come up with an extraordinary solution for improving worldwide disease responses. This Review deliberates environmental, animal, and human factors that influence disease risk, analyzes the challenges and advantages inherent in using the One Health surveillance system, and demonstrates how these can be empowered by Big Data and Artificial Intelligence. The Holistic One Health Surveillance Framework presented herein holds the potential to revolutionize our capacity to monitor, understand, and mitigate the impact of infectious diseases on global populations.

New records of Sabethini (Diptera: Culicidae) from Colombia

In the Neotropical Region, the mosquitoes, grouped in the tribe Sabethini (Arthropoda, Insecta, Diptera: Culicidae) are considered of medical importance by the role that some species may have in arbovirus transmission; also, because they are good bioindicators. More than 400 species are currently recognised and are mainly associated with forest areas. The tribe Sabethini is poorly studied and the information about diversity and distribution for species relating to it is scarce. In Colombia, 54 species of the tribe are known; however, several geographical areas have not been included in the studies for this group and data for recent field collections are not available; therefore, the records are outdated.

This study presents the species list of the Sabethini tribe in Colombia, based on a review of previous publications and recent unpublished data. The list includes 68 species of nine genera and 16 subgenera. The genus Wyeomyia has the highest species number (39), followed by Sabethes (14). A total of 29 new records are registered and actualized information related to the local distribution in some Departments is presented, including geographic coordinates. In this paper, the distribution records of Sabethini for Colombia are updated, revealing the high diversity of this group in the country and providing some useful information for species that may need surveillance or control.

Climate Change and Zoonoses: A Review of Concepts, Definitions, and Bibliometrics

Climate change can have a complex impact that also influences human and animal health. For example, climate change alters the conditions for pathogens and vectors of zoonotic diseases. Signs of this are the increasing spread of the West Nile and Usutu viruses and the establishment of new vector species, such as specific mosquito and tick species, in Europe and other parts of the world. With these changes come new challenges for maintaining human and animal health. This paper reports on an analysis of the literature focused on a bibliometric analysis of the Scopus database and VOSviewer software for creating visualization maps which identifies the zoonotic health risks for humans and animals caused by climate change. The sources retained for the analysis totaled 428 and different thresholds (N) were established for each item varying from N 5 to 10. The main findings are as follows: First, published documents increased in 2009–2015 peaking in 2020. Second, the primary sources have changed since 2018, partly attributable to the increase in human health concerns due to human-to-human transmission. Third, the USA, the UK, Canada, Australia, Italy, and Germany perform most zoonosis research. For instance, sixty documents and only 17 countries analyzed for co-authorship analysis met the threshold led by the USA; the top four author keywords were “climate change”, “zoonosis”, “epidemiology”, and “one health;” the USA, the UK, Germany, and Spain led the link strength (inter-collaboration); the author keywords showed that 37 out of the 1023 keywords met the threshold, and the authors’ keyword’s largest node of the bibliometric map contains the following: infectious diseases, emerging diseases, disease ecology, one health, surveillance, transmission, and wildlife. Finally, zoonotic diseases, which were documented in the literature in the past, have evolved, especially during the years 2010–2015, as evidenced by the sharp augmentation of publications addressing ad-hoc events and peaking in 2020 with the COVID-19 outbreak.

Practices and perceptions of British dog owners related to pet-associated zoonoses

OBJECTIVES

To investigate husbandry practices, animal health provision and perceptions of British dog owners related to the risk of exposure to zoonoses.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Using an online survey, we collected data on pet and owner's demographics and husbandry practices, and perceptions of zoonotic risks. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression was performed to investigate if respondents' characteristics were associated with their practices and perceptions.

RESULTS

Overall, 335 dog owners participated in this survey. The odds of engaging in practices associated with a risk of zoonotic exposure and having misconceptions about zoonoses were greater in older than in younger respondents. The same association was observed in respondents without a veterinary background and with a lower level of education compared to those with a veterinary background and with a higher education, respectively. The odds of feeding raw meat-based diets (odds ratio: 4.0, 95% confidence interval: 2.0 to 7.9) were greater in respondents without a veterinary background than in those with a veterinary background. The odds of vaccinating their dogs (OR: 2.7, 1.1 to 6.3) were greater in respondents with an undergraduate qualification than in respondents with lower qualifications. The odds of following recommended dosing when administering both ectoparasitic (OR: 0.09, 0.02 to 0.4) and endoparasitic (OR: 0.08, 0.02 to 0.4) treatments were lower in respondents aged 60 and above than in younger respondents.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

This study highlights opportunities for targeted client communication and education by veterinarians to reduce risks of pet-associated zoonoses moving forward.

What do we know about Angiostrongylus cantonensis in Spain? Current knowledge and future perspectives in a globalized world

Angiostrongylus cantonensis is an important emerging and zoonotic nematode that has been reported worldwide since its first description in Asia 86 years ago. Among places where this parasite has been recently described, insular regions of northwest Africa seem to be particularly relevant. We performed a systematic review in scientific databases to search and extract information about all reports describing cases of A. cantonensis in Spain until July 2021. As a result, seven surveys about the presence of this pathogen in Spanish insular regions were found, especially in the Canary Islands, as well as a non-autochthonous report of A. cantonensis in the mainland Spain. The lack of reliable information about the presence or absence of this nematode in the Iberian Peninsula highlights the need for further studies concerning this emerging pathogen since rodents acting as competent definitive hosts of A. cantonensis are widely distributed in the mainland. Moreover, the high maritime traffic daily registered in Spanish ports could be a main entrance pathway for A. cantonensis or its intermediate hosts in the country due to the frequent and direct connection between these points and regions where this pathogen is endemic. We encourage to focus further efforts on investigating the current epidemiological situation of A. cantonensis in the Iberian Peninsula, just as in other Mediterranean countries with similar epidemiological, ecological and geographical characteristics. In this sense, the relevant implications of this parasite for animal and public health make necessary to act integrating different viewpoints under the One Health perspective.

Smart carnivores think twice: Red fox delays scavenging on conspecific carcasses to reduce parasite risk

The recent SARS-CoV-2 epidemic has highlighted the need to prevent emerging and re-emerging diseases, which means that we must approach the study of diseases from a One Health perspective. The study of pathogen transmission in wildlife is challenging, but it is unquestionably key to understand how epidemiological interactions occur at the wildlife-domestic-human interface. In this context, studying parasite avoidance behaviours may provide essential insights on parasite transmission, host-parasite coevolution, and energy flow through food-webs. However, the strategies of avoiding trophically transmitted parasites in mammalian carnivores have received little scientific attention. Here, we explore the behaviour of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and other mammalian carnivores at conspecific and heterospecific carnivore carcasses using videos recorded by camera traps. We aim to determine 1) the factors influencing the probability of foxes to practice cannibalism, and 2) whether the scavenging behaviour of foxes differ when facing conspecific vs. heterospecific carcasses. We found that red foxes were generally reluctant to consume mesocarnivore carrion, especially of conspecifics. When recorded, consumption by foxes was delayed several days (heterospecific carcasses) or weeks (conspecific carcasses) after carcass detection. Other mammalian scavengers showed a similar pattern. Also, meat-borne parasite transmission from wild carnivore carcasses to domestic dogs and cats was highly unlikely. Our findings challenge the widespread assumption that cannibalistic or intra-specific scavenging is a major transmission route for Trichinella spp. and other meat-borne parasites, especially for the red fox. Overall, our results suggest that the feeding decisions of scavengers are probably shaped by two main contrasting forces, namely the nutritional reward provided by carrion of phylogenetically similar species and the risk of acquiring meat-borne parasites shared with these species. This study illustrates how the detailed monitoring of carnivore behaviour is essential to assess the epidemiological role of these hosts in the maintenance and dispersion of parasites of public and animal health relevance.

A Review on SERS-Based Detection of Human Virus Infections: Influenza and Coronavirus

The diagnosis of respiratory viruses of zoonotic origin (RVsZO) such as influenza and coronaviruses in humans is crucial, because their spread and pandemic threat are the highest. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) is an analytical technique with promising impact for the point-of-care diagnosis of viruses. It has been applied to a variety of influenza A virus subtypes, such as the H1N1 and the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. In this work, a review of the strategies used for the detection of RVsZO by SERS is presented. In addition, relevant information about the SERS technique, anthropozoonosis, and RVsZO is provided for a better understanding of the theme. The direct identification is based on trapping the viruses within the interstices of plasmonic nanoparticles and recording the SERS signal from gene fragments or membrane proteins. Quantitative mono- and multiplexed assays have been achieved following an indirect format through a SERS-based sandwich immunoassay. Based on this review, the development of multiplex assays that incorporate the detection of RVsZO together with their specific biomarkers and/or secondary disease biomarkers resulting from the infection progress would be desirable. These configurations could be used as a double confirmation or to evaluate the health condition of the patient.

Integrated Early Warning Surveillance: Achilles' Heel of One Health?

Emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases and zoonoses indicate the importance of the One Health (OH) approach for early warning. At present, even when surveillance data are available, they are infrequently timeously shared between the health sectors. In the context of the MediLabSecure (MLS) Project, we investigated the collection of a set of surveillance indicators able to provide data for the implementation of integrated early warning systems in the 22 MLS countries of the Mediterranean, Black Sea and Sahel regions. We used an online questionnaire (covering vector, human, and animal sectors), focusing on seven relevant arboviruses, that was submitted to 110 officially appointed experts. Results showed that West Nile virus was perceived as the most relevant zoonotic pathogen, while Dengue virus was the most relevant non-zoonotic pathogen in the study area. Data collection of early warning indicators is in place at a different level for all the investigated pathogens and in almost all the MLS Countries. Further assessments on the reliability of the collection in place and on the feasibility of piloting an integrated early warning system for arbovirus could verify if integrated early warning really represents the Achilles' heel of OH.

The repellency and toxicity effects of essential oils from the Libyan plants Salvadora persica and Rosmarinus officinalis against nymphs of Ixodes ricinus

Essential oils extracted from the leaves of Libyan Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.), and Miswak (Salvadora persica L.) were evaluated for their acaricidal and repellent effects on Ixodes ricinus L. nymphs (Acari: Ixodidae) using a bioassay based on an 'open filter paper method'. Rosmarinus officinalis leaf essential oil diluted to 0.5 and 1 µl/cm² in acetone exhibited, respectively, 20 and 100% tick mortality after about 5 h of exposure. A total of 50 and 95% of I. ricinus nymphs were killed by direct contact with the oil when exposed to lethal concentrations (LC) of 0.7 µl/cm² (LC₅₀) and 0.95 µl/cm² (LC₉₅), respectively. The LC₅₀ (0.5 µl/cm²) was reached before the end of the first 24 h of exposure time (ET), as tick mortality at 24 h was 60%. Salvadora persica leaf essential oil at 1 µl/cm² showed a significant repellency effect against I. ricinus nymphs at 1.5 h ET. A 95% repellency was observed at a repellent concentration (RC₉₅) of 1 µl/cm² of S. persica, but no significant mortality was recorded at this dose of S. persica oil. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses showed that the main monoterpenes in both oils were 1,8-cineol, α-pinene, and β-pinene, although in markedly different proportions. These results suggest that essential oils have substantial potential as alternative approaches for I. ricinus tick control.

Implementation of the One Health approach to fight arbovirus infections in the Mediterranean and Black Sea Region: Assessing integrated surveillance in Serbia, Tunisia and Georgia

Background

In the Mediterranean and Black Sea Region, arbovirus infections are emerging infectious diseases. Their surveillance can benefit from one health inter‐sectoral collaboration; however, no standardized methodology exists to study One Health surveillance.

Methods

We designed a situation analysis study to document how integration of laboratory/clinical human, animal and entomological surveillance of arboviruses was being implemented in the Region. We applied a framework designed to assess three levels of integration: policy/institutional, data collection/data analysis and dissemination. We tested the use of Business Process Modelling Notation (BPMN) to graphically present evidence of inter‐sectoral integration.

Results

Serbia, Tunisia and Georgia participated in the study. West Nile Virus surveillance was analysed in Serbia and Tunisia, Crimea‐Congo Haemorrhagic Fever surveillance in Georgia. Our framework enabled a standardized analysis of One Health surveillance integration, and BPMN was easily understandable and conducive to detailed discussions among different actors/institutions. In all countries, we observed integration across sectors and levels except in data collection and data analysis. Data collection was interoperable only in Georgia without integrated analysis. In all countries, surveillance was mainly oriented towards outbreak response, triggered by an index human case.

Discussion

The three surveillance systems we observed prove that integrated surveillance can be operationalized with a diverse spectrum of options. However, in all countries, the integrated use of data for early warning and inter‐sectoral priority setting is pioneeristic. We also noted that early warning before human case occurrence is recurrently not operationally prioritized.

Strengthening Preparedness for Arbovirus Infections in Mediterranean and Black Sea Countries: A Conceptual Framework to Assess Integrated Surveillance in the Context of the One Health Strategy

In the context of One Health, there is presently an effort to integrate surveillance of human, animal, entomological, and environmental sectors. This aims to strengthen the prevention of, and preparedness against, arbovirus infections, also in the light of environmental and climate changes that could increase the risk of transmission. However, criteria to define integrated surveillance, and to compare different systems, still need to be identified and tested. We conducted a scoping review to identify and examine surveillance systems for West Nile virus (WNV), chikungunya virus (CHKV), dengue virus (DENV), and Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), which involve human, animal, entomological, and environmental sectors. We analyzed findings using a conceptual framework we developed for this purpose. The review highlights that the criteria proposed in the conceptual framework to describe integrated surveillance are consistently reported in the context of studies and programs related to integrated surveillance of the selected arboviral diseases. These criteria can facilitate the identification and description of operationalized One Health surveillance.

Cross-infection and infection control in dentistry: Knowledge, attitude and practice of patients attended dental clinics in King Abdulaziz University Hospital, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

The objective of the study was to determine the level of Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) of patients attended dental clinics at King Abdulaziz University Hospital (KAUH) regarding cross infections and infection control in dentistry. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 225 patients who attended the dental clinics of KAUH, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, 2014. A standardized, confidential, anonymous, interviewing questionnaire was used. Knowledge about dental infections was assessed by 12 MCQs. The attitudes were assessed through answering seven statements on a three- point Likert scale. Patients' self reported practices were also evaluated. Descriptive and inferential statistics were done. Results of the study revealed that 39.5%, 38.7% and 21.8% of the participants obtained poor, fair and satisfactory level of knowledge about infections and infection control in dentistry, respectively. Social media was the commonest source of information about dental infection. Participant's educational level was significantly associated with the level of knowledge about dental infection. Patients had positive attitudes towards infection control in dentistry. Regarding self-reported practice, only few participants would ask dentists about sterilization of dental instruments (9.3%), wearing face mask (13.3%) and gloves (16.4%) if they don't do so. In conclusion, our participants had good attitudes towards infection control in dentistry. However, their knowledge and practice need improvements. Conduction of educational programs is needed through social media, mass media, schools and public places. These programs involve both patients and providers.

Data-driven identification of potential Zika virus vectors

Zika is an emerging virus whose rapid spread is of great public health concern. Knowledge about transmission remains incomplete, especially concerning potential transmission in geographic areas in which it has not yet been introduced. To identify unknown vectors of Zika, we developed a data-driven model linking vector species and the Zika virus via vector-virus trait combinations that confer a propensity toward associations in an ecological network connecting flaviviruses and their mosquito vectors. Our model predicts that thirty-five species may be able to transmit the virus, seven of which are found in the continental United States, including Culex quinquefasciatus and Cx. pipiens. We suggest that empirical studies prioritize these species to confirm predictions of vector competence, enabling the correct identification of populations at risk for transmission within the United States.

Zika virus: Epidemiology, current phobia and preparedness for upcoming mass gatherings, with examples from World Olympics and Pilgrimage

OBJECTIVE

To describe Zika Virus (ZIKV) epidemiology, current phobia, and the required preparedness for its prevention during the upcoming Mass Gathering (MG) events.

METHODS

Electronic databases of PubMed, WHO, CDC, Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), Google, and Cochrane library were extensively searched for ZIKV. Articles were reviewed, scrutinized and critically appraised and the most relevant articles were utilized.

RESULTS

ZIKV is an emerging Flavivirus which was first isolated from Uganda in 1947. It is transmitted mainly through bite of Aedes mosquitoes. Sexual, perinatal and blood-borne transmissions are implicated. ZIKV is incriminated to cause microcephaly and Guillain-Barré syndrome. The spiky spread of ZIKV and its epidemic potential are especially problematic in countries which host big MGs with endogenous ZIKV circulation. This put millions of international travelers and local inhabitants at risk of acquiring ZIKV, especially in absence of vaccine until now. Brazil Olympic and Paralympics Games, and Muslims Hajj in Saudi Arabia are important upcoming MGs. Regarding Brazil, swiftly epidemic of ZIKV causes phobia and provokes claims and counter-claims about possible postponing or cancellation of such events.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Intensifying ZIKV epidemiological surveillance (sentinel, syndromic, environmental, laboratory and electronic), and conduction of educational programs are required. Controlling Aedes vector (chemically & biologically) is essential. Multidisciplinary cooperation is required to win the war against ZIKV.

Microarray-based long oligonucleotides probe designed for Brucella Spp. detection and identification of antibiotic susceptibility pattern

Brucella spp. is a common zoonotic infection referred to as Brucellosis, and it is a serious public health problem around the world. There are currently six classical species (pathogenic species in both animals and humans) within the genus Brucella. The ability and practicality facilitated by a microarray experiment help us to recognize Brucella spp. and its antibiotic resistant gene. Rapid phenotypic determination of antibiotic resistance is not possible by disk diffusion methods. Thus, evaluating antibiotics pattern and Brucella detection appear necessary technique by molecular methods in brucellosis. So, the aim of this study was to design a microarray long oligonucleotides probe and primer for the complete diagnosis of Brucella spp. and obtaining genetic profiles for antibiotic resistance in bacteria at the same time. In this study, we designed 16 antibiotic-resistant gene solid-phase primers with similar melting temperatures of 60 °C and 16 long oligonucleotide probes. These primers and probes can identify tetracycline-, chloramphenicol-, and aminoglycoside-resistant genes, respectively. The design of microarray probes is a versatile process that be done in a wide range of selections. Since the long oligo microarray probes are the best choices for specific diagnosis and definite treatment, this group of probes was designed in the present survey.