Modeling the Costs of Postpartum Dysgalactia Syndrome and Locomotory Disorders on Sow Productivity and Replacement

Swine industry perspectives on the future of pig farming

Understanding the views of those working along the value chain reliant on livestock is an important step in supporting the transition towards more sustainable farming systems. We recruited 31 delegates attending the Pig Welfare Symposium held in the United States to participate in one of six focus group discussions on the future of pig farming. Each of these six group discussions was subjected to a thematic analysis that identified four themes: (1) technical changes on the farm; (2) farm and industry culture; (3) the farm-public interface; and (4) sustainability. The results of this study illustrate the complexity and diversity of views of those working along the associated value chain within the swine industry. Participants spent the majority of their time discussing current challenges, including technical challenges on the farm and public perception of pig farms. Participants were more hesitant to discuss future issues, but did engage on the broader issue of sustainability, focusing upon economic and environmental aspects.

Effects of a Multi-Component Mycotoxin-Detoxifying Agent on Oxidative Stress, Health and Performance of Sows

This in vivo study aimed to investigate the effects of a multi-component mycotoxin-detoxifying agent, containing clays (bentonite, sepiolite), phytogenic feed additives (curcumin, silymarin) and postbiotics (yeast cell wall, hydrolyzed yeast) on the antioxidant capacity, health and reproductive performance of pregnant and lactating sows challenged by mycotoxins. Eighty (80) primiparous sows (mean age 366 ± 3 days) per each of the two trial farms were divided into two groups in each farm: a) T1 (control group): 40 sows received the contaminated feed and b) T2 group (experimental group): 40 sows received the contaminated feed plus the mycotoxin-detoxifying agent, one month before farrowing until the end of the lactation period. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), protein carbonyls (CARBS) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) were evaluated as biomarkers of oxidative stress. Clinical and reproductive parameters were recorded. Our results indicate that the administration of a multi-component mycotoxin-detoxifying agent's administration in sow feed has beneficial effects on oxidative stress biomarkers and can improve sows' health and performance.

Reproductive health of the sow during puerperium

The modern hyperprolific sow is susceptible to metabolic disease and chronic inflammation. The most sensitive phase is parturition, when the sow experiences systemic inflammation and stress, and major changes in metabolism and endocrinology. Resolution of inflammation and stress needs to happen quickly to ensure good reproductive health during puerperium. If the sow fails to adapt to these changes, puerperal disease may occur. The economically most important puerperal disease complex is the postpartum dysgalactia syndrome (PPDS). Other puerperal diseases include infections of the urogenital tract. Diagnosis of PPDS and urogenital disease on-farm is challenging but several diagnostic methods, including clinical examination, behavioral observations, ultrasonography and biomarkers are available. Ultrasonography is an excellent tool for monitoring the health of the urogenital tract, the mammary gland, and uterine involution and guide further diagnostic interventions. Biomarkers such as Chromogranin A, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-6 represent promising tools to monitor general health and the systemic state of inflammation and oxidative stress of the sow. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, dopamine antagonists, and oxytocin are promising to address the symptoms of PPDS. Reducing of stress, improving nutrition and intestinal health, and supporting animal welfare-friendly husbandry help in the prevention of PPDS.

Plasma 1H-NMR metabolic and amino acid profiles of newborn piglets from two lines divergently selected for residual feed intake

Together with environmental factors, physiological maturity at birth is a major determinant for neonatal survival and postnatal development in mammalian species. Maturity at birth is the outcome of complex mechanisms of intra-uterine development and maturation during the end of gestation. In pig production, piglet preweaning mortality averages 20% of the litter and thus, maturity is a major welfare and economic concern. Here, we used both targeted and untargeted metabolomic approaches to provide a deeper understanding of the maturity in a model of lines of pigs divergently selected on residual feed intake (RFI), previously shown to have contrasted signs of maturity at birth. Analyses were conducted on plasma metabolome of piglets at birth and integrated with other phenotypic characteristics associated to maturity. We confirmed proline and myo-inositol, previously described for their association with delayed growth, as potential markers of maturity. Urea cycle and energy metabolism were found more regulated in piglets from high and low RFI lines, respectively, suggesting a better thermoregulation ability for the low RFI (with higher feed efficiency) piglets.

Ultrasonography and Infrared Thermography as a Comparative Diagnostic Tool to Clinical Examination to Determine Udder Health in Sows

Simple Summary

The udder health of sows is most important to raise healthy piglets. The aim of the study was to investigate a possible advantage of infrared thermography and ultrasonography over the clinical examination of the udder of sows. For this purpose, both clinically healthy sows with inconspicuous udders on palpation before and after birth (n = 35) and sows at the time of weaning (n = 107) were examined. Images of thermography and ultrasound revealed no pathological alterations in the clinically healthy sows. A physiological statistically significant increase in the udder surface temperature and the thickness of the parenchyma during the three weeks ante partum was observed. After weaning, abnormalities in the appearance of roundish nodules of the parenchyma were detected sonographically in 10.3% of the examined sows, while the demonstrated nodules were unrecognised clinically in two out of eleven sows. The changes could also be demonstrated thermographically because of a statistically significant lower surface temperature above the nodules compared to the remaining skin of the mammary gland. However, scratches on the udder skin showed similar temperature changes. Therefore, thermographic images without prior inspection of the udder can lead to misinterpretation.

Abstract

The aim of the study was to examine whether the use of infrared thermography and ultrasonography can complement or replace the clinical examination of the sows’ mammary glands for pathological alterations. Sows of different parities with inconspicuous udders on palpation before and after birth (n = 35) and sows at the time of weaning (n = 107) were examined. Thermal images were taken from both sides of the udder, while ultrasound pictures were taken from four sides of the respective mammary glands. Within three weeks before birth, a statistically significant increase in the average surface temperature of the glands of about 1.54 °C and of the thickness of the parenchyma of about 1.39 cm could be observed. After weaning, in 10.3% of the examined sows, roundish hyperechogenic nodules were detected sonographically in the glands´ parenchyma. The average skin temperature above the nodules was 1.24 °C lower compared to the total skin area of the altered complex. However, scratches on the udder skin showed similar temperature changes. In two sows, the nodules remained undetected during the clinical examination. Therefore, sonography seems to be superior compared to clinical and thermographic investigations, although it proved to be very time-consuming.

Characteristics of thermal images of the mammary gland and of performance in sows differing in health status and parity

Precision livestock farming can combine sensors and complex data to provide a simple score of meaningful productivity, pig welfare, and farm sustainability, which are the main drivers of modern pig production. Examples include using infrared thermography to monitor the temperature of sows to detect the early stages of the disease. To take account of these drivers, we assigned 697 hybrid (BHZP db. Viktoria) sows to four parity groups. In addition, by pooling clinical findings from every sow and their piglets, sows were classified into three groups for the annotation: healthy, clinically suspicious, and diseased. Besides, the udder was thermographed, and performance data were documented. Results showed that the piglets of diseased sows with eighth or higher parity had the lowest daily weight gain [healthy; 192 g ± 31.2, clinically suspicious; 191 g ± 31.3, diseased; 148 g ± 50.3 (p < 0.05)] and the highest number of stillborn piglets (healthy; 2.2 ± 2.39, clinically suspicious; 2.0 ± 1.62, diseased; 3.91 ± 4.93). Moreover, all diseased sows showed higher maximal skin temperatures by infrared thermography of the udder (p < 0.05). Thus, thermography coupled with Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems can help identify and orient the diagnosis of symptomatic animals to prompt adequate reaction at the earliest time.

Economic feasibility of interventions targeted at decreasing piglet perinatal and pre-weaning mortality across European countries

BACKGROUND

Piglet perinatal and pre-weaning mortality is a welfare problem causing economic losses in pig production. In this study, the effects of housing and management interventions on the economic result of sow enterprises representing six European countries (Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, The Netherlands and Spain) were tested. Interventions concerned: (1) installing mechanical ventilation, (2) re-designing of the gestation unit, (3) drying and warming newborn piglets, (4) providing enrichment for gestating sows, including high-fiber dietary supplementation and point-source objects, and (5) music provision and backscratching of sows in the farrowing unit. A bio-economic model was used to determine the effects of interventions on economic outcomes during the nursery phase and to calculate a maximum cost of 1%-point reduction in perinatal and pre-weaning mortality, irrespective of the intervention type. Biological parameters were set according to previous observational and experimental studies. Interventions 1-4 were expected to decrease perinatal mortality, defined as stillbirths and deaths occurring within the first 48 h of postnatal life. Intervention 5 was expected to decrease pre-weaning mortality. Interventions increased fixed (1-3) and variable costs (3-5). We hypothesized that housing and management interventions would have a positive economic effect.

RESULTS

Piglet mortality can be decreased in various ways. Interventions concerning ventilation and re-designing of the gestation unit (1 and 2) were the most beneficial in countries with low housing costs and high perinatal mortality. Drying and warming newborn piglets (3) resulted in varying economic results, with the highest increase in profits obtained in a country with low labor costs and high litter size. Interventions providing sows with enrichment and human-animal interaction (4 and 5) were effective across varying conditions. Regardless of intervention type, policies aiming at 1%-point reduction in perinatal and pre-weaning mortality could cost from €0.2 to €0.5 (average €0.4) and from €0.4 to €0.5 (average €0.5) per piglet, respectively, depending on productions conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

To decrease piglet mortality, farmers should consider low input interventions, such as those targeting appropriate behavior. Our results suggest that providing enrichment or increasing human-animal interaction pays off and brings positive economic result even when piglet mortality is marginally reduced.

Serum Concentrations of Immunoglobulins and Cortisol Around Parturition in Clinically Healthy Sows and Sows with Postpartum Dysgalactia Syndrome (PDS)

Introduction

This study aimed to determine the profile of immunoglobulins and cortisol concentrations in serum around the periparturient period in sows suffering from postpartum dysgalactia syndrome (PDS) and in healthy sows.

Material and Methods

A total of 45 sows with lactation impairment (Group PDS) and 58 clinically healthy sows with a physiological peripartum period (Group H) were subjected to a serological test (ELISA) for measurement of serum immunoglobulins (IgG, IgM, and IgA) and cortisol concentration.

Results

The serum contents of IgG, IgM and IgA had highly similar profiles in PDS-affected sows and healthy ones. A significantly higher concentration of IgG at 28 and 14 days ante partum compared to days 3 and 7 post partum was only observed in Group H. The mean cortisol content remained at a highly similar level throughout the entire experiment in both groups.

Conclusion

The results of the study indicate that lactation impairment such as PDS did not influence the immunoglobulin or cortisol concentration in sow serum.

Metoclopramide induces preparturient, low-level hyperprolactinemia to increase milk production in primiparous sows

Inadequate milk production by sows often limits the growth of piglets. A successful lactation requires prolactin (PRL)-induced differentiation of the alveolar epithelium within the mammary glands of sows between days 90-110 of gestation. We hypothesized that induction of late gestational hyperprolactinemia in primiparous sows by oral administration of the dopamine antagonist metoclopramide (MET) would enhance mammary epithelial differentiation, milk yield, and piglet growth rate and that these effects would carry over into a subsequent lactation. Twenty-six gilts were assigned to receive either MET (n = 13, 0.8 mg/kg) or vehicle (CON, n = 13) twice daily from days 90-110 of gestation. The same sows were followed into their second lactation without additional treatment. On day 90 of gestation, circulating PRL concentrations peaked 45 min after feeding MET (P < 0.001) and then returned to baseline 3 h later. This response occurred daily out to day 104 of gestation (P < 0.05). Compared with CON, MET-treated gilts had enlarged alveoli on gestation day 110 (P < 0.05). Treatment with MET did not affect feed intake, body weight, or body fatness during pregnancy or lactation. Piglets born to MET-treated sows had both increased body weights and average daily gain on lactation days 14 and 21 (P < 0.05). Milk intake by piglets was estimated from deuterium oxide dilution. Although milk intake by piglets nursing MET sows was not statistically different from those nursing CON sows on day 21 of lactation (P = 0.18), there was a greater increase in milk consumption by piglets born to MET-treated sows between days 9 and 21 of lactation than for those in CON litters (P < 0.001). In one group of second parity sows (n = 11) that were treated with MET during their first gestation, milk yield increased by 21% during their second lactation (P < 0.05) in association with a 14% decline in body fatness across lactation compared with a 7% decline in CON sows (P < 0.05). These findings demonstrate that MET-induced hyperprolactinemia in primiparous sows during late pregnancy can increase milk yield and piglet growth rate, setting the stage for further large-scale studies.

Antimicrobial Usage Among Different Age Categories and Herd Sizes in Swiss Farrow-to-Finish Farms

In the Swiss pig sector, the usage of antimicrobials has been recorded, evaluated and systematically reduced on a voluntary basis since 2015. This monitoring has been carried out using various methods thereby enabling continuous national scrutiny as well as international comparisons. To gain a better understanding of the dynamics of the antimicrobial usage on Swiss farms, consumption data of farrow-to-finish farms were analyzed for (i) the within-herd relationships among different age categories and (ii) the influence of the herd size. The data were collected on 71 farms for the year 2017, encompassing the amount of active ingredients and number of defined daily doses Switzerland (nDDDch) in total, and stratified for the different age categories of piglets, weaners, fattening pigs, and sows. The differences in nDDDch per animal among the age categories were determined by a Wilcoxon test and subsequent post-hoc analysis according to Bonferroni. The within-herd relationship among the individual age categories as well as the influence of the herd size on nDDDch per animal measured as kept sows were analyzed by simple linear regression. The evaluation of the treatment days showed that 50% of the nDDDch were used in piglets, 44% for weaners, and 3% each for fattening pigs and sows. Compared to the other age categories, the examination of the number of nDDDch per animal showed a significantly higher number for sows, whereas for fattening pigs the number was significantly lower (P < 0.01). The farm-based analysis using linear regression showed a relationship between antimicrobial usage in sows and piglets (P < 0.001; adj. R² = 0.19). Similarly, a significant relationship between larger herd size and increased antimicrobial usage was observed (P = 0.02; adj. R² = 0.06). The present study provides an insight into the antimicrobial treatment dynamics of farrow-to-finish farms. In particular, the age categories piglets and sows—with their higher number of treatment days in total or per animal—are of interest regarding the potential reduction in antimicrobial usage. Likewise, larger farms with higher management requirements were found to be of particular importance for the reduction of antimicrobial usage. Monitoring programs should therefore evaluate different age categories separately to identify problems for individual farms.

Prophylactic Use of Meloxicam and Paracetamol in Peripartal Sows Suffering From Postpartum Dysgalactia Syndrome

Postpartum dysgalactia syndrome (PPDS) is a major economic problem in modern sow farms. General treatment of PPDS consists of the use of oxytocin to promote milk ejection and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to alleviate inflammatory processes. So far, studies investigated the use of a single administration of NSAIDs after parturition in healthy and non-healthy sows. The current study investigated whether administration of meloxicam or paracetamol in sows prior to parturition improves sow and piglet health as well as performance in a farm with PPDS problems in sows. Sixty sows and 978 piglets from a Belgian farrow-to-finish farm were enrolled. Sows were randomly divided into three groups: a non-treated control group, a meloxicam-treated group and a paracetamol-treated group. Treatment was administered orally for 7 days from gestation day 113 onwards. Performance and health parameters investigated in sows were gestation length, farrowing duration, litter characteristics, colostrum yield and quality (Immunoglobulin G), litter weight gain, weaning-to-estrus interval, pregnancy rate, rectal temperature, acute phase proteins and inflammatory markers serum amyloid A, haptoglobin, interferon γ, interleukin 1β and 6 backfat, constipation and feed refusal. Performance and health parameters in piglets were birthweight, average daily weight gain, colostrum intake and mortality. Paracetamol-treated sows showed a significantly (P = 0.04) lower rectal temperature (mean ± SD: 38.09 ± 0.18°C) than the meloxicam-treated sows (38.24 ± 0.18°C), but not than the control group (38.22 ± 0.18°C). Sows of the paracetamol-treated group had a significantly (P = 0.001) longer gestation length (116.3 ± 0.9 days) than sows of the control group (115.3 ± 0.6 days), but not than meloxicam-treated sows (115.9 ± 0.9 days). No significant differences between the three groups were found for all the other parameters. In conclusion, the prophylactic oral administration of either meloxicam or paracetamol for 7 days starting 2 days prior to farrowing did not show beneficial effects on both health and performance parameters of sows and piglets.

Evaluation of a decision support system for precision feeding of gestating sows

Precision feeding (PF) with the daily mixing of 2 diets with different lysine content (high (H) or low (L)) was previously reported for growing pigs to reduce protein intake and N excretion compared with a conventional feeding (CF) based on a single diet (C). Using a simulation approach based on farm data, the objective of the present paper was to describe and evaluate a decision support system for the PF of gestating sows allowing the daily distribution of a tailored ration to each sow. Two datasets, 1 of 2,511 gestations (farm A) and 1 of 2,528 gestations (farm B), reporting sows’ characteristics at insemination and objectives at farrowing were used as inputs for a Python model. This model, mainly based on InraPorc, calculates the nutrient requirements of each sow over gestation and simulates the impact of PF in comparison to CF. Simulated diets L, H, and C contained 3.0, 6.5, and 4.8 g/kg of standardized ileal digestible lysine (SID Lys) and 2.0, 3.3, and 2.5 g/kg of standardized total tract digestible phosphorus (STTD-P), respectively. The influence of farm, parity, gestation week, and their interactions, on calculated SID Lys and STTD-P requirements was analyzed applying a mixed model. The calculated SID Lys and STTD-P requirements increased markedly in the last third of gestation (P < 0.01) and were higher for primiparous than for multiparous sows, unless after week 14 for STTD-P requirement. The calculated SID AA and mineral requirements were lower for farm B than farm A (respectively, 2.94 vs. 3.08 g/kg for SID Lys and 1.30 vs. 1.35 g/kg for STTD-P, P < 0.01). On average, feed L represented 86% and 92% of the feed projected to be delivered by the PF strategy in farms A and B, respectively. Compared to CF, average calculated dietary SID Lys content was lowered by 27% and 32% with PF, for farms A and B, respectively, while average calculated dietary phosphorus content was lowered by 13% and 16%. The simulated proportions of sows in excess and deficient in SID Lys were reduced with PF. Compared to CF, the PF strategy allowed for a 3.6% reduction in simulated feed cost per sow during gestation, and reduced nitrogen and phosphorus intake (by 11.0% and 13.8%, respectively) and excretion (by 16.7% and 15.4%, respectively). To conclude, these simulations indicate that PF of gestating sow appears to be relevant to meet the amino acid requirement while reducing feed cost, and supplies and excretion of nitrogen and phosphorus.

The Effect of Bacillus licheniformis-Fermented Products and Postpartum Dysgalactia Syndrome on Litter Performance Traits, Milk Composition, and Fecal Microbiota in Sows

This study was designed to evaluate the effects of Bacillus licheniformis-fermented products (BLFP) and postpartum dysgalactia syndrome (PDS) on litter performance traits, milk composition, and fecal microbiota in sows in a commercial farrow to finish pig farm. Fifty multiparous cross-bred pregnant sows were randomly assigned to two groups in a completely randomized design. The dietary treatments comprised a basal diet (pregnancy and nursery diet) as control and basal diet supplemented with 1.5 g/kg of BLFP. Sows with PDS in the two groups were further verified 12 h post-partum. Results show that the piglet body weight at weaning was increased in sows fed the BLFP compared to those fed the control diet. The milk fat content of prepartum sows was reduced in sows fed the BLFP. Postpartum sows with PDS had increased milk solid content compared with healthy sows. Microbial composition and species relative abundance analysis indicated distinct bacterial clusters between the groups. The abundance of the family Prevotellaceae in the feces decreased in sows with PDS. BLFP increased the average abundance of the genus (Eubacterium) coprostanoligenes group in feces of sows. These findings demonstrate that BLFP in the diet of sows can improve the piglet body weight at weaning and modulate the fecal microbiota of sows. PDS also has an impact on milk composition and fecal microbiota in sows.

A value chain analysis of interventions to control production diseases in the intensive pig production sector

Value chain analysis (VCA) calculated the financial effects on food chain actors of interventions to improve animal health and welfare in the intensive pig sector. Two interventions to reduce production diseases were studied. A generic chain diagram of linkages between stakeholders and value-added dimensions was designed. Data on structure and financial performance were collected for the sector. The production parameters and financial effects of the interventions were then described to illustrate impact on the supply chain. The effects of the interventions were also assessed at market level using economic welfare analysis. The sectors in Finland and the UK are small in farm numbers and few companies produced much of the output in a largely vertically-integrated structure. The most beneficial intervention in financial terms to farmers was improved hygiene in pig fattening (around +50% in gross margin). It was calculated to reduce the consumer price for pig meat by up to 5% when applied at large, whereas for improved management measures, it would reduce consumer price by less than 0.5%. However, the latter added value also through food quality attributes. We show that good hygiene and animal care can add value. However, evaluation of the financial and social viability of the interventions is needed to decide what interventions are adopted. The structure of supply chains influences which policy measures could be applied. Of the two interventions, improved pig hygiene had the largest potential to improve efficiency and reduce costs. The studied interventions can also provide new business opportunities to farms, slaughterhouses and food sector companies. More evidence is needed to support public policies and business decision-making in the sector. For this, evidence on consumer attitudes to production diseases is needed. Nevertheless, the study makes an important contribution by showing how improvements in health and welfare benefit the whole chain.

Influence of mastitis metritis agalactia (MMA) on bone and fat metabolism

Mastitis metritis agalactia (MMA) is a common disease in post-partum sows and has a negative effect on sows' longevity as well as on sows' and piglets' health. MMA leads to an inflammatory state. The aim was to investigate the impact of MMA on bone and fat metabolism. The hypothesis was that it is possible to predict MMA by measuring ketone bodies and bone markers. Blood samples from 175 sows were taken within 72 hr after farrowing. Serum was analysed for 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-(OH)-D), serum crosslaps (CTX-I), osteocalcin (OC), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), parathyroid hormone (PTH), triglycerides (TG), beta-hydroxybutyric acid (BHB), tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and haptoglobin. Spontaneous urine was collected, and pH value was measured in addition to Ca and P. A proximate analysis of the sows' diets was performed. Age, litter size, body condition score (BCS) and clinical signs of MMA were recorded for each sow. A multivariable logistic regression was undertaken with disease status (MMA or healthy) as the dependent variable. Significance was accepted at p < .05. MMA sows had a poorer BCS (p < .001) in relation to healthy sows. Age and number of piglets did not differ. MMA sows showed increased serum CTX-I (p = .004) and decreased serum OC (p < .001). Concentrations of P (p = .007), activity of ALP (p = .002) and BHB (p = .019) as well as TNF-α (p < .001) and haptoglobin (p = .048) concentrations were increased in MMA sows. No difference in urinary pH value between MMA and healthy sows was found. Our results are in accordance with the known fact that sows are in an extreme catabolic state peripartum. Bone metabolism in MMA sows is much more negatively affected than in healthy sows post-partum, due to inflammatory processes shown by higher concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Description, evaluation, and validation of the Teagasc Pig Production Model1

The Teagasc Pig Production Model (TPPM), a stochastic simulation model of a farrow-to-finish pig farm, was developed to investigate effects of changes in production systems on farm profitability. The model simulates, on a weekly basis, the annual production of a farm. Biological [e.g., herd size, number of litters/sow/year, and mortality rates (%)], physical (e.g., infrastructure), and technical (e.g., feeding practices) variables and their associated costs are included as components of the model. These inputs are used to calculate physical (e.g., feed usage and number of pigs slaughtered) and financial (e.g., annual cash flow, profit and loss account, and balance sheet) outputs. The model was validated using the Delphi method and by comparing the TPPM outputs to data recorded on 20 Irish pig farms through the Teagasc e-Profit monitor system and with complete receipts for the year 2016. Results showed that the TPPM closely simulates physical and financial performance of pig farms indicating that the TPPM can be used with confidence to study pig production systems under Irish conditions. Model applicability was demonstrated by investigating the impact of 2 changes in technical performance: 1) building of extra accommodation to increase body weight (BW) at sale by 15 kg (EXTRA ROOM) and 2) a change in feeding practices by providing finisher feed from 28 kg of BW (EARLY FINISHER) compared with over 38 kg of BW. In both scenarios, the same biological parameters were used. Mortality rates, feed ingredients costs, and price per kg of meat produced were included as stochastic variables with the input distributions derived based on historical data simulated using Monte Carlo sampling using the Microsoft Excel add-in @Risk. Annual mean net profit was €198,101 (90% confidence interval [CI]: €119,606-€275,539) for the TPPM base farm, €337,078 (90% CI: €246,320-€426,809) for the EXTRA ROOM, and €225,598 (90% CI: €146,685-€303,590) for the EARLY FINISHER. EXTRA ROOM was associated with higher costs and required higher income to cover the additional costs. The 90% CI of the EARLY FINISHER was similar to the TPPM base farm while the EXTRA ROOM scenario resulted in a wider confidence interval, suggesting that a change in feeding practices could be a better option for farmers looking to improve profit with minimum investment. Thus, the TPPM could be used to facilitate decision making in farrow-to-finish pig farms.

DNA methylation analysis of porcine mammary epithelial cells reveals differentially methylated loci associated with immune response against Escherichia coli challenge

Background

Epigenetic changes such as cytosine (CpG) DNA methylations regulate gene expression patterns in response to environmental cues including infections. Microbial infections induce DNA methylations that play a potential role in modulating host-immune response. In the present study, we sought to determine DNA methylation changes induced by the mastitis causing Escherichia coli (E. coli) in porcine mammary epithelial cells (PMEC). Two time points (3 h and 24 h) were selected based on specific transcriptomic changes during the early and late immune responses, respectively.

Results

DNA methylation analysis revealed 561 and 898 significant (P < 0.01) differentially methylated CpG sites at 3 h and 24 h after E. coli challenge in PMEC respectively. These CpG sites mapped to genes that have functional roles in innate and adaptive immune responses. Significantly, hypomethylated CpG sites were found in the promoter regions of immune response genes such as SDF4, SRXN1, CSF1 and CXCL14. The quantitative transcript estimation indicated higher expression associated with the DNA CpG methylation observed in these immune response genes. Further, E. coli challenge significantly reduced the expression levels of DNMT3a, a subtype of de novo DNA methylation enzyme, in PMEC indicating the probable reason for the hypomethylation observed in the immune response genes.

Conclusions

Our study revealed E. coli infection induced DNA methylation loci in the porcine genome. The differentially methylated CpGs were identified in the regulatory regions of genes that play important role in immune response. These results will help to understand epigenetic mechanisms for immune regulation during coliform mastitis in pigs.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-019-5976-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Salmonella Control Programme of Pig Feeds Is Financially Beneficial in Finland

To promote public health, Finland has adopted a stringent Salmonella control policy. However, the rationale of Salmonella control in pig feeds has been debated after a European Union (EU)-wide cost-benefit analysis, which provided mixed, country-specific results on whether control measures are economically beneficial. The aim of this study was to analyze the costs and benefits of current pig feed Salmonella control in Finland compared to a reduced control scenario. In addition, this study contributes to the literature by looking at the costs across stakeholder groups. The costs of preventive and monitoring measures were assessed, and a Monte Carlo model was developed to simulate costs caused by Salmonella contaminations along the pork supply chain (including feed importation, commercial feed manufacturing, feed transportation, mobile feed mixers, pig farms, slaughterhouses) and because of human salmonellosis originating from contaminated feed. The data were collected from official records and feed sector operators by surveys and interviews. The prevalence of Salmonella was obtained from a previously conducted risk assessment study. The total costs of pig feed Salmonella control were estimated on average to be €4.2-5.4 million per year (95% of simulated years between €2.1 and €9.1 million) for the current control scenario, and €33.8-34.8 million per year (95% €2.2 to €26.0 million) for the reduced control scenario. In the reduced control scenario, the monitoring and prevention costs were decreased down to €1.1-2.1 million, and the costs of Salmonella contaminations and human salmonellosis were up by €32.7 million when compared to the current control scenario. The results suggest that the current pig feed Salmonella control policy of Finland is economically profitable. It can reduce the costs caused by feed-related Salmonella contaminations on average by €29.4 million per year and provides public health benefits. Pig feed Salmonella control can support the effectiveness of the Finnish Salmonella Control Programme. The current pig feed Salmonella control policy benefits the consumers, while a substantial part of the costs are covered by feed operators. In order to increase the acceptability of current policy, greater attention to the allocation of financial responsibilities regarding the control measures may be required.

Structural characterization of piglet producing farms and their sow removal patterns in Finland

Background

The main objectives of this observational, cross-sectional study were to characterize piglet producing farms in Finland and to investigate how farm profiles are associated with sow culling and mortality.The study was conducted on 43 farms during 2014. A questionnaire survey was administered in-person and supplemented with observations in the housing facilities. Annual removal figures and average monthly sow inventories were retrieved from a centralized animal data recording system (National Swine Registry) administered by the Finnish Food Authority. Multiple correspondence analysis and hierarchical clustering were used to explore the complex underlying data-driven patterns.

Results

Sow removal varied markedly between farms with an overall average culling percentage of 38.0% (95% CI 34.1-42.0) and a relatively high average mortality percentage 9.7% (95% CI 7.9-11.5). We identified three farm clusters, which differed both in their typologies and removal patterns. Cluster 1 included farms with features indicative of a semi-intensive or intensive kind of farming, such as larger herd and room sizes, higher stocking density and more sows per caretaker. Most of the cluster 1 farms exceeded the investigated cut-off levels for culling and mortality. Cluster 2 farms were estimated to have the best animal welfare among the sample farms based on a combination of environmental indicators (e.g. amount of bedding, rooting and nesting materials, space allowance, pen cleanliness) and the lowest level of sow mortality as an animal-based indicator. Cluster 3 farms followed a strategy of a rather non-intensified system based on the predominance of smaller herd size, lower stocking density and less sows per caretaker, combined breeding and gestation rooms and rare use of farrowing induction. This cluster showed the lowest culling levels within the sample.

Conclusions

This study captures the diversity among Finnish sow farms and provides a baseline assessment of their practices and facilities. Our results support the notion that farm typologies are associated with sow culling and mortality. In summary, the control of suboptimal sow removal cannot be based on single improvements only, because of other limitations within the individual farm resources.

Effects of supplementing organic microminerals and methionine with or without limiting growth during the rearing phase of replacement gilts on lameness, growth, and body composition

Previous research suggested that lameness in growing pigs could be reduced using feeding strategies, such as limiting growth rate and supplementing trace minerals (TM) and (or) methionine (Met). The present study evaluates effects of 1) TM and Met and 2) limiting total lysine (Lys) during the rearing phase (90 d) of gilts (as a means to limit growth rate) on lameness, performance, and sow claw health and productivity (to first parity). Gilts (n = 240; 58.0 ± 11.1 kg body weight [BW]) were blocked, distributed into pens of 10 gilts, and pens were allocated to a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement. Factors were: 1) control or TM plus Met, which provided additional 10, 20, and 50 mg/kg of chelated copper, manganese, and zinc, respectively (0.1%, Aplomotec Plus, Tecnología & Vitaminas, S.L.; Alforja, Spain), and a 1.01 Met:Lys ratio and 2) standard Lys was formulated to meet growth requirements or low Lys to 19% below growth requirements. Feeding was provided through two phases, first between 119 and 163 d of age (phase I) and the second between 163 and 209 d of age (phase II). Diets had 2.43 and 2.31 Mcal net energy/kg for phases I and II, respectively, and were offered ad libitum. Low Lys did not affect feed intake but rather reduced average daily gain (ADG) by 6.35% and the final BW by 3.80% compared with standard Lys (P < 0.001). Low Lys reduced ADG (P < 0.001) and gain:feed (P = 0.012) during phase I but not during phase II. Lameness prevalence was 7.92% during rearing and increased with time (P < 0.001). Final BW (151 kg) and ADG (989 g) were similar (P > 0.05) whether gilts displayed lameness or not. Lameness was low in severity and not affected by dietary factors. However, TM- plus Met-fed gilts were 19.2 kg heavier (P = 0.016) than were control at lameness detection. On the sow farm, there was no evidence for differences in lameness or claw lesions among previous dietary treatments. In conclusion, lameness prevalence during the rearing phase was similar, independent of TM plus Met supplement, low Lys, or the interaction. Insufficient reduction of ADG and low severity in lameness may have limited the potential of dietary treatments. Moreover, a greater deficiency of Lys would be needed to achieve the degree of growth reduction previously reported to lessen lameness through feed restriction.

Sow removal in commercial herds: Patterns and animal level factors in Finland

This observational retrospective cohort study provides benchmarking information on recent sow productivity development in Finnish herds. It focuses on parity cycle specific trends in sow removal patterns, and especially on the role of litter performance (size and piglet survival) in sow removal. In addition, the generated models offer a tool for calculating sow removal risks in any period, which could be used in economic and other simulation models. The data used in the study pool information of sows starting the same parity cycle (1 through 8) over the enrollment period of July 1st, 2013 through June 30th, 2014 and followed until the end of the study period (December 31st, 2014), and their performance histories across their entire previous productive life. Out of 71,512 individual sow parity cycle observations from the first to the eighth, 15,128 ended up in removal. Average litter sizes exceeded 13 piglets born in total in all of the most recent farrowings. Yet, even larger litter sizes were favored by the implemented culling policies, as sows having medium and large early life litters had lower risks of removal compared to those with the smallest litters, particularly in younger animals. With regard to piglets born just prior to removal, the smallest litter sizes were associated with the greatest culling risk for sows of that particular parity. In addition, having more than one stillborn piglet in the first and second litter put the sow at higher risk of being removed in all but the last (sixth through eighth) of the studied parity cycles. Investigation of removal patterns revealed a negative linear relationship between parity count and the mean days from farrowing to removal. More specifically, the median (mean) times to removal varied across the parity cycles from 62 (72) in the first to 34 days in both the seventh and eighth (47 and 42, respectively). Moreover, one in every six sows was removed within the first and second parity cycle. The findings especially in the earliest cycles may be a reflection of removal decisions not made according to any clear and pre-determined policy, or of biological issues that prevent farmers from firmly adhering to their policy. Quantitative performance should be linked to overall system functionality and profitability while taking animal welfare into consideration in identifying opportunities to improve herd parity structure and future farm success.