Role of Human Galectins in Inflammation and Cancers Associated with Endometriosis

Breaking barriers: How modified citrus pectin inhibits galectin-8

Inhibition of galectin-3-mediated interactions by modified citrus pectin (MCP) could affect several rate-limiting steps in cancer metastasis, but the ability of MCP to antagonize galectin-8 function remains unknown. We hypothesized that MCP could bind to galectin-8 in addition to galectin-3. In this study, a combination of gradual ethanol precipitation and DEAE-Sepharose Fast Flow chromatography was used to isolate several fractions from MCP. The ability of these fractions to antagonize galectin-8 function was studied as well as the primary structure and initial structure-function relationship of the major active component MCP-30-3. The results showed that MCP-30-3 (168 kDa) was composed of Gal (13.8%), GalA (63.1%), GlcA (13.0%), and Glc (10.1%). MCP-30-3 could specifically bind to galectin-8, with an MIC value of 0.04 mg mL-1. After MCP-30-3 was hydrolyzed by β-galactosidase or pectinase, its binding activity was significantly reduced. These results provide new insights into the interaction between MCP structure and galectin function, as well as the potential utility in the development of functional foods.

Research progress in endometriosis-associated ovarian cancer

Endometriosis-associated ovarian cancer (EAOC) is a unique subtype of ovarian malignant tumor originating from endometriosis (EMS) malignant transformation, which has gradually become one of the hot topics in clinical and basic research in recent years. According to clinicopathological and epidemiological findings, precancerous lesions of ovarian clear cell carcinoma (OCCC) and ovarian endometrioid carcinoma (OEC) are considered as EMS. Given the large number of patients with endometriosis and its long time window for malignant transformation, sufficient attention should be paid to EAOC. At present, the pathogenesis of EAOC has not been clarified, no reliable biomarkers have been found in the diagnosis, and there is still a lack of basis and targets for stratified management and precise treatment in the treatment. At the same time, due to the long medical history of patients, the fast growth rate of cancer cells, and the possibility of eliminating the earliest endometriosis-associated ovarian cancer, it is difficult to find the corresponding histological evidence. As a result, few patients are finally diagnosed with EAOC, which increases the difficulty of in-depth study of EAOC. This article reviews the epidemiology, pathogenesis, risk factors, clinical diagnosis, new treatment strategies and prognosis of endometriosis-associated ovarian cancer, and prospects the future direction of basic research and clinical transformation, in order to achieve stratified management and personalized treatment of ovarian cancer patients.

Galectin-3 promotes fibrosis in ovarian endometriosis

Objective

This study aimed to investigate the potential role of galectin-3 (Gal-3) in the pathogenesis of fibrotic alterations in ovarian endometriosis (OVE).

Methods

In this study, we collected the ectopic endometrial tissues and eutopic endometrial tissues from 31 OVE patients treated by laparoscopy, and the eutopic endometrial tissues from 23 non-OVE patients with leiomyoma or other benign diseases were used as control. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and Masson's trichrome staining were utilized for histopathological assessment. The primary normal endometrial stromal cells (NESC), ectopic endometrial stromal cells (ECSC), and eutopic endometrial stromal cells (EUSC) were isolated. Gal-3 overexpression plasmids (Gal-OE) and short hairpin RNA targeting Gal-3 (Gal-3-shRNA) were transfected into the immortalized human endometriotic cell line 12Z, respectively. RT-qPCR, Western blot analysis, and immunohistochemistry were used to detect the mRNA and protein expression levels of Gal-3, type I collagen (COL-1), connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), respectively.

Results

H&E and Masson staining showed that ovarian ectopic endometrium exhibited glandular hyperplasia, high columnar glandular epithelium, apical plasma secretion, more subnuclear vacuoles, and obvious fibrosis, compared with normal endometrium. The mRNA and protein levels of Gal-3 , CTGF, α-SMA, and COL-1 were all upregulated in the ectopic endometrial tissues of OVE patients compared to the eutopic endometrial tissues from OVE patients and non-OVE patients. Moreover, ECSC expressed higher levels of Gal-3, CTGF, α-SMA, and COL-1 than EUSC and NESC. Follow-up investigations demonstrated that the Gal-3 overexpression substantially increased fibrosis-related markers including CTGF, α-SMA, and COL-1 within the 12Z cell line. Conversely, Gal-3 knockdown showed the opposite effects.

Conclusion

Gal-3 promotes fibrosis in OVE, positioning it as a prospective therapeutic target for mitigating fibrosis in endometriosis.

Saturation Transfer Difference NMR and Molecular Docking Interaction Study of Aralkyl-Thiodigalactosides as Potential Inhibitors of the Human-Galectin-3 Protein

Human Galectin-3 (hGal-3) is a protein that selectively binds to β-galactosides and holds diverse roles in both normal and pathological circumstances. Therefore, targeting hGal-3 has become a vibrant area of research in the pharmaceutical chemistry. As a step towards the development of novel hGal-3 inhibitors, we synthesized and investigated derivatives of thiodigalactoside (TDG) modified with different aromatic substituents. Specifically, we describe a high-yielding synthetic route of thiodigalactoside (TDG); an optimized procedure for the synthesis of the novel 3,3'-di-O-(quinoline-2-yl)methyl)-TDG and three other known, symmetric 3,3'-di-O-TDG derivatives ((naphthalene-2yl)methyl, benzyl, (7-methoxy-2H-1-benzopyran-2-on-4-yl)methyl). In the present study, using competition Saturation Transfer Difference (STD) NMR spectroscopy, we determined the dissociation constant (Kd) of the former three TDG derivatives produced to characterize the strength of the interaction with the target protein (hGal-3). Based on the Kd values determined, the (naphthalen-2-yl)methyl, the (quinolin-2-yl)methyl and the benzyl derivatives bind to hGal-3 94, 30 and 24 times more strongly than TDG. Then, we studied the binding modes of the derivatives in silico by molecular docking calculations. Docking poses similar to the canonical binding modes of well-known hGal-3 inhibitors have been found. However, additional binding forces, cation-π interactions between the arginine residues in the binding pocket of the protein and the aromatic groups of the ligands, have been established as significant features. Our results offer a molecular-level understanding of the varying affinities observed among the synthesized thiodigalactoside derivatives, which can be a key aspect in the future development of more effective ligands of hGal-3.

The Impact of Endometriosis on Pregnancy

Despite the increased frequency of endometriosis, it remains one of the most enigmatic disorders regarding its effects on pregnancy. Endometriosis adversely affects both natural and assisted conception. Impaired folliculogenesis, which causes follicular dysfunction and low egg quality, as well as luteal phase problems, reduced fertilization, and abnormal embryogenesis, are some of the mechanisms advocated to explain reproductive dysfunction. There is a rising need for a comprehensive study of the potential negative consequences of this condition on pregnancy outcomes, including the postpartum period, as more women with a medical history of endometriosis become pregnant. Obstetrical complications (small for gestational age [SGA], cesarean section [CS], miscarriage, hemorrhage, low placental adhesion, and preterm delivery) are statistically elevated in women with endometriosis. Furthermore, ruptured ovarian endometrioma, appendicitis, intestinal perforation, and hemoperitoneum have been described in pregnancy. Obstetricians are largely unfamiliar with these complications, as they have not been thoroughly investigated. The development and pathogenesis of endometriosis is an important field of study and has not yet been fully elucidated. Finding these mechanisms is crucial for the development of new and more effective strategies to treat this condition. Endometriosis can have an impact on obstetric and neonatal outcomes of pregnancy, in addition to its potential effects on conception. To date, no additional monitoring is recommended for pregnancies with a history of endometriosis. However, more studies are urgently needed to assess the need for the tailored pregnancy monitoring of women with endometriosis.

Pre-treatment with galectin-1 attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced myocarditis by regulating the Nrf2 pathway

Galectin-1 (Gal-1), a member of a highly conserved family of animal lectins, plays a crucial role in controlling inflammation and neovascularization. However, the potential role of Gal-1 in preventing myocarditis remains uncertain. We aimed to explore the functions and mechanisms of Gal-1 in preventing myocarditis. In vivo, C57/BL6 mice were pre-treated with or without Gal-1 and then exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to induce myocarditis. Subsequently, cardiac function, histopathology, inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis of myocardial tissues were detected. Following this, qRT-PCR and Western blotting were applied to measure iNOS, COX2, TXNIP, NLRP3 and Caspase-1 p10 expressions. In vitro, H9c2 cells pre-treated with different doses of Gal-1 were stimulated by LPS to induce myocarditis models. CCK8, flow cytometry and reactive oxygen species (ROS) assay were then employed to estimate cell viability, apoptosis and oxidative stress. Furthermore, Nrf2 and HO-1 protein expressions were evaluated by Western blotting in vivo and in vitro. The results showed that in vivo, Gal-1 pre-treatment not only moderately improved cardiac function and cardiomyocyte apoptosis, but also ameliorated myocardial inflammation and oxidative damage in mice with myocarditis. Furthermore, Gal-1 inhibited TXNIP-NLRP3 inflammasome activation. In vitro, Gal-1 pre-treatment prevented LPS-induced apoptosis, cell viability decrease and ROS generation. Notably, Gal-1 elevated HO-1, total Nrf2 and nuclear Nrf2 protein expressions both in vivo and in vitro. In conclusion, pre-treatment with Gal-1 exhibited cardioprotective effects in myocarditis via anti-inflammatory and antioxidant functions, and the mechanism may relate to the Nrf2 pathway, which offered new solid evidence for the use of Gal-1 in preventing myocarditis.

Lactose-Functionalized Carbosilane Glycodendrimers Are Highly Potent Multivalent Ligands for Galectin-9 Binding: Increased Glycan Affinity to Galectins Correlates with Aggregation Behavior

Galectins, the glycan binding proteins, and their respective carbohydrate ligands represent a unique fundamental regulatory network modulating a plethora of biological processes. The advances in galectin-targeted therapy must be based on a deep understanding of the mechanism of ligand-protein recognition. Carbosilane dendrimers, the well-defined and finely tunable nanoscaffolds with low toxicity, are promising for multivalent carbohydrate ligand presentation to target galectin receptors. The study discloses a synthetic method for two types of lactose-functionalized carbosilane glycodendrimers (Lac-CS-DDMs). Furthermore, we report their outstanding, dendritic effect-driven affinity to tandem-type galectins, especially Gal-9. In the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, the affinity of the third-generation multivalent dendritic ligand bearing 32 lactose units to Gal-9 reached nanomolar values (IC50 = 970 nM), being a 1400-fold more effective inhibitor than monovalent lactose for this protein. This demonstrates a game-changing impact of multivalent presentation on the inhibitory effect of a ligand as simple as lactose. Moreover, using DLS hydrodynamic diameter measurements, we correlated the increased affinity of the glycodendrimer ligands to Gal-3 and Gal-8 but especially to Gal-9 with the formation of relatively uniform and stable galectin/Lac-CS-DDM aggregates.

Galectins are critical regulators of cytokine signalling at feto-maternal interface in infection-associated spontaneous preterm birth

INTRODUCTION

Spontaneous preterm birth (sPTB) is a global health issue. Studies suggest infections are chiefly associated with sPTB and galectins (gals) play a role in regulation of innate and adaptive maternal immune response against pathogens during sPTB. The aim of this study was to describe the gene expression of gal -1, -3, -8, -9, -13 in relation to gene expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and the cytokines IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α, IFN-ϒ in the setting of sPTB and confirmed infection with Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma hominis, and Ureaplasma urealyticum.

METHODS

Placental samples were collected from 120 term control and 120 sPTB pregnancies. PCR was used to detect specific pathogens. Gene expression of galectins, cytokines, and COX-2 was performed using real time qPCR.

RESULTS

Fold-change expression of gal -1, -3, -8, -9, -13 was 5.13, 6.11, 1.14, 5.23 and 7.16 (p<0.001), respectively; while IL-10, IL-8, TNF-α, IFN-ϒ and COX-2 was 6.29, 6.55, 6.35, 6.36 and 2.73-fold upregulated (p<0.05), respectively in infected sPTB. Gal-1 was positively correlated with IL-10 (r=0.49, p=0.003) while gal-3 showed significant correlation with IL-8 (r=0.42, p=0.0113), TNF-α (r=0.65, p=< 0.001) and COX-2 (r=0.72, p=0.001). However, gal-8 was not significantly correlated with any cytokine. Gal-9, -13 were negatively correlated with IFN-ϒ (r=-0.45, p=0.006) and IL-8 (r=-0.39, p=0.018).

DISCUSSION

Gal-1, -9, -13 are anti-inflammatory and might play role in immune-tolerance while gal-3 is pro-inflammatory and possibly responsible for immunogenic response, having potential to anticipate the clinical beginning of preterm labour during infection.

Advanced high-affinity glycoconjugate ligands of galectins

Galectins are proteins of the family of human lectins. By binding terminal galactose units of cell surface glycans, they moderate biological and pathological processes such as cell signaling, cell adhesion, apoptosis, fibrosis, carcinogenesis, and metabolic disorders. The binding of monovalent glycans to galectins is usually relatively weak. Therefore, the presentation of carbohydrate ligands on multivalent scaffolds can efficiently increase and/or discriminate the affinity of the glycoconjugate to different galectins. A library of glycoclusters and glycodendrimers with various structural presentations of the common functionalized N-acetyllactosamine ligand was prepared to evaluate how the mode of presentation affects the affinity and selectivity to the two most abundant galectins, galectin-1 (Gal-1) and galectin-3 (Gal-3). In addition, the effect of a one- to two-unit carbohydrate spacer on the affinity of the glycoconjugates was determined. A new design of the biolayer interferometry (BLI) method with specific AVI-tagged constructs was used to determine the affinity to galectins, and compared with the gold-standard method of isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). This study reveals new routes to low nanomolar glycoconjugate inhibitors of galectins of interest for biomedical research.

Abnormal expression of galectin-1, -3 leading to unexplained infertility by decreasing endometrial receptivity: a retrospective analysis

OBJECTIVE

To explore the relationship between galectin-1, -3 and unexplained infertility and the effect on endometrial receptivity.

METHODS

The clinical data of 100 female patients at childbearing age coming to Xingtai People's Hospital from February 2019 to February 2021 were collected retrospectively. Based on normal pregnancy or not, 50 infertility patients were placed into an infertility group, and 50 patients with normal pregnancy history were placed into a normal group. The mRNA and protein levels of galectin-1, -3, endometrial wave-like activity, endometrial thickness, uterine artery pulsatility index (PI), resistance index (RI), end diastolic velocity (EDV) and peak systolic velocity (PSV) ratio (S/D = PSV/EDV) were compared between the two groups of patients.

RESULTS

The mRNA and protein levels of galectin-1, -3 in the infertile group were lower than those in the normal group (P<0.05). In addition, the endometrial wave-like activity in the infertile group was more than that in the normal group (P<0.05). The endometrial thickness was less, while PI, RI and S/D were higher in the infertile group than those in the normal group (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

The low mRNA and protein expressions of galectin-1, -3 in unexplained infertility can affect endometrial receptivity, which may be closely related to unexplained infertility.

Endometrial galectin-3 causes endometriosis by supporting eutopic endometrial cell survival and engraftment in the peritoneal cavity

PROBLEM

The pathogenesis of endometriosis remains unclear. Endometrial cells in retrograde menstruation are considered the source of endometriosis; therefore, we hypothesized that the eutopic endometrium may provide clues regarding the pathogenesis. We aimed to clarify the role of eutopic endometrial cells in endometriosis development.

METHOD OF STUDY

Eutopic endometrial tissues were obtained from patients with or without endometriosis, and expression of cell surface molecules in eutopic endometrial stromal cells (ESCs) was evaluated via iTRAQ-based proteomic analysis. Based on the results, we focused on galectin-3. Galectin-3 expression in clinical samples was confirmed by immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis. The concentration of secreted galectin-3 was measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Adhesion and migration of ESCs were evaluated by in vitro adhesion and wound healing assays. The cytotoxicity of natural killer cells was measured via calcein release assays. Cell proliferation was measured using the CyQUANT Cell Proliferation Assay Kit.

RESULTS

iTRAQ analysis revealed that galectin-3 expression was specifically elevated in the ESCs from endometriosis patients. Immunohistochemistry confirmed galectin-3 overexpression in the eutopic endometrium of endometriosis, irrespective of the menstrual phase. Galectin-3 was overexpressed and secreted by the eutopic ESCs from patients with endometriosis compared to that from patients without endometriosis. Galectin-3 expression in ESCs increased adhesion and migration, whereas galectin-3 inhibitors impaired these processes. Galectin-3 reduced the cytotoxicity of natural killer cells toward ESCs, while not affecting cell proliferation.

CONCLUSION

Galectin-3 promotes peritoneal engraftment of ESCs due to impaired immune surveillance in the peritoneal cavity and increases ESCs adhesion and migration to the peritoneum.

Evolutionarily conserved transcription factors as regulators of longevity and targets for geroprotection

Aging is the single largest risk factor for many debilitating conditions, including heart diseases, stroke, cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders. While far from understood in its full complexity, it is scientifically well-established that aging is influenced by genetic and environmental factors, and can be modulated by various interventions. One of aging's early hallmarks are aberrations in transcriptional networks, controlling for example metabolic homeostasis or the response to stress. Evidence in different model organisms abounds that a number of evolutionarily conserved transcription factors, which control such networks, can affect lifespan and healthspan across species. These transcription factors thus potentially represent conserved regulators of longevity and are emerging as important targets in the challenging quest to develop treatments to mitigate age-related diseases, and possibly even to slow aging itself. This review provides an overview of evolutionarily conserved transcription factors that impact longevity or age-related diseases in at least one multicellular model organism (nematodes, flies, or mice), and/or are tentatively linked to human aging. Discussed is the general evidence for transcriptional regulation of aging and disease, followed by a more detailed look at selected transcription factor families, the common metabolic pathways involved, and the targeting of transcription factors as a strategy for geroprotective interventions.

Investigation of the Molecular Details of the Interactions of Selenoglycosides and Human Galectin-3

Human galectin-3 (hGal-3) is involved in a variety of biological processes and is implicated in wide range of diseases. As a result, targeting hGal-3 for clinical applications has become an intense area of research. As a step towards the development of novel hGal-3 inhibitors, we describe a study of the binding of two Se-containing hGal-3 inhibitors, specifically that of di(β-D-galactopyranosyl)selenide (SeDG), in which two galactose rings are linked by one Se atom and a di(β-D-galactopyranosyl)diselenide (DSeDG) analogue with a diseleno bond between the two sugar units. The binding affinities of these derivatives to hGal-3 were determined by ¹⁵N-¹H HSQC NMR spectroscopy and fluorescence anisotropy titrations in solution, indicating a slight decrease in the strength of interaction for SeDG compared to thiodigalactoside (TDG), a well-known inhibitor of hGal-3, while DSeDG displayed a much weaker interaction strength. NMR and FA measurements showed that both seleno derivatives bind to the canonical S face site of hGal-3 and stack against the conserved W181 residue also confirmed by X-ray crystallography, revealing canonical properties of the interaction. The interaction with DSeDG revealed two distinct binding modes in the crystal structure which are in fast exchange on the NMR time scale in solution, explaining a weaker interaction with hGal-3 than SeDG. Using molecular dynamics simulations, we have found that energetic contributions to the binding enthalpies mainly differ in the electrostatic interactions and in polar solvation terms and are responsible for weaker binding of DSeDG compared to SeDG. Selenium-containing carbohydrate inhibitors of hGal-3 showing canonical binding modes offer the potential of becoming novel hydrolytically stable scaffolds for a new class of hGal-3 inhibitors.

Glycopolymers Decorated with 3-O-Substituted Thiodigalactosides as Potent Multivalent Inhibitors of Galectin-3

Galectin-3 (Gal-3) participates in many cancer-related metabolic processes. The inhibition of overexpressed Gal-3 by, e.g., β-galactoside-derived inhibitors is hence promising for cancer treatment. The multivalent presentation of such inhibitors on a suitable biocompatible carrier can enhance the overall affinity to Gal-3 and favorably modify the interaction with Gal-3-overexpressing cells. We synthesized a library of C-3 aryl-substituted thiodigalactoside inhibitors and their multivalent N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide (HPMA)-based counterparts with two different glycomimetic contents. Glycopolymers with a higher content of glycomimetic exhibited a higher affinity to Gal-3 as assessed by ELISA and biolayer interferometry. Among them, four candidates (with 4-acetophenyl, 4-cyanophenyl, 4-fluorophenyl, and thiophen-3-yl substitution) were selected for further evaluation in cancer-related experiments in cell cultures. These glycopolymers inhibited Gal-3-induced processes in cancer cells. The cyanophenyl-substituted glycopolymer exhibited the strongest antiproliferative, antimigratory, antiangiogenic, and immunoprotective properties. The prepared glycopolymers appear to be prospective modulators of the tumor microenvironment applicable in the therapy of Gal-3-associated cancers.

Galectin-8, cytokines, and the storm

Galectin-8 (Gal-8) belongs to a family of animal lectins that modulate cell adhesion, cell proliferation, apoptosis, and immune responses. Recent studies have shown that mammalian Gal-8 induces in an autocrine and paracrine manner, the expression and secretion of cytokines and chemokines such as RANKL, IL-6, IL-1β, SDF-1, and MCP-1. This involves Gal-8 binding to receptor complexes that include MRC2/uPAR/LRP1, integrins, and CD44. Receptors ligation triggers FAK, ERK, Akt, and the JNK signaling pathways, leading to induction of NF-κB that promotes cytokine expression. Indeed, immune-competent Gal-8 knockout (KO) mice express systemic lower levels of cytokines and chemokines while the opposite is true for Gal-8 transgenic animals. Cytokine and chemokine secretion, induced by Gal-8, promotes the migration of cancer cells toward cells expressing this lectin. Accordingly, Gal-8 KO mice experience reduced tumor size and smaller and fewer metastatic lesions when injected with cancer cells. These observations suggest the existence of a ‘vicious cycle’ whereby Gal-8 expression and secretion promotes the secretion of cytokines and chemokines that further promote Gal-8 expression. This ‘vicious cycle’ could enhance the development of a ‘cytokine storm’ which is a key contributor to the poor prognosis of COVID-19 patients.

The Diagnostic Accuracy of Galectin-9 for Diagnosis of Endometriosis in Comparison with Laparoscopy

BACKGROUND

Endometriosis is a common devastating gynecological disease with severe complications. Researches on noninvasive diagnostic tests with acceptable accuracy are still ongoing. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the diagnostic value of serum Galectin-9 (Gal-9) level in comparison with laparoscopic results in endometriosis patients.

METHODS

Sixty-one patients, referred to Booali, Rasool-e-Akram, and Pars Hospitals affiliated to Islamic Azad University of Medical Sciences, were recruited. Patients laparoscopically diagnosed with endometriosis were assigned to the case (n=32) and who diagnosed with other diseases were assigned to the control group (n=29). In general, 56 patients (30 in case and 26 in control group) completed the study. The serum level of Galectin-9 was measured using ELISA method before laparoscopy and was compared between the groups. Next, categorical variables were compared using Chi square and quantitative variables using independent samples t- test or Mann-Whitney U test. The Gal-9 cut-off was calculated using the Youden's index and ROC curve; then, sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive value, and positive and negative likelihood ratio of Gal-9 were reported. The p<0.05 were considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

Mean serum level of Galectin-9 was 669.3±416.50 pg/ml in the case group and 265.42±492.30 pg/ml in the control group (p=0.001). Considering a cut-off value of 138 pg/ml, Galectin-9 had a sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 88.46% for diagnosis of endometriosis (p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Galectin-9 measurement is helpful in diagnosis of endometriosis. Future studies are recommended for investigating the generalizability of these results.

Sex Differences in Embryonic Gonad Transcriptomes and Benzo[a]pyrene Metabolite Levels After Transplacental Exposure

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons like benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) are generated during incomplete combustion of organic materials. Prior research has demonstrated that BaP is a prenatal ovarian toxicant and carcinogen. However, the metabolic pathways active in the embryo and its developing gonads and the mechanisms by which prenatal exposure to BaP predisposes to ovarian tumors later in life remain to be fully elucidated. To address these data gaps, we orally dosed pregnant female mice with BaP from embryonic day (E) 6.5 to E11.5 (0, 0.2, or 2 mg/kg/day) for metabolite measurement or E9.5 to E11.5 (0 or 3.33 mg/kg/day) for embryonic gonad RNA sequencing. Embryos were harvested at E13.5 for both experiments. The sum of BaP metabolite concentrations increased significantly with dose in the embryos and placentas, and concentrations were significantly higher in female than male embryos and in embryos than placentas. RNA sequencing revealed that enzymes involved in metabolic activation of BaP are expressed at moderate to high levels in embryonic gonads and that greater transcriptomic changes occurred in the ovaries in response to BaP than in the testes. We identified 490 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with false discovery rate P-values < 0.05 when comparing BaP-exposed to control ovaries but no statistically significant DEGs between BaP-exposed and control testes. Genes related to monocyte/macrophage recruitment and activity, prolactin family genes, and several keratin genes were among the most upregulated genes in the BaP-exposed ovaries. Results show that developing ovaries are more sensitive than testes to prenatal BaP exposure, which may be related to higher concentrations of BaP metabolites in female embryos.

Functions and Inhibition of Galectin-7, an Emerging Target in Cellular Pathophysiology

Galectin-7 is a soluble unglycosylated lectin that is able to bind specifically to β-galactosides. It has been described to be involved in apoptosis, proliferation and differentiation, but also in cell adhesion and migration. Several disorders and diseases are discussed by covering the aforementioned biological processes. Structural features of galectin-7 are discussed as well as targeting the protein intracellularly or extracellularly. The exact molecular mechanisms that lie behind many biological processes involving galectin-7 are not known. It is therefore useful to come up with chemical probes or tools in order to obtain knowledge of the physiological processes. The objective of this review is to summarize the roles and functions of galectin-7 in the human body, providing reasons why it is necessary to design inhibitors for galectin-7, to give the reader structural insights and describe its current inhibitors.

Novel diagnostic options for endometriosis - Based on the glycome and microbiome

Background

Endometriosis is a chronic gynaecological disease whose aetiology is still unknown. Despite its prevalence among women of reproductive age, the pathology of the disease has not yet been elucidated and only symptomatic treatment is available. Endometriosis has high latency and diagnostic methods are both limited and invasive.

Aim of review

The aim of this review is to summarise minimally invasive or non-invasive diagnostic methods for endometriosis and their diagnostic efficiencies. Furthermore, we discuss the identification and diagnostic potential of novel disease biomarkers of microbial or glycan origin.

Key scientific concepts of review

Great efforts have been made to develop minimally invasive or non-invasive diagnostic methods in endometriosis. The problem with most potential biomarker candidates is that they have high accuracy only in cases of severe disease. Therefore, it is necessary to examine other potential biomarkers more closely. Associations between gastrointestinal and genital tract microbial health and endometriosis have been identified. For instance, irritable bowel syndrome is more common in women with endometriosis, and hormonal imbalance has a negative impact on the microbiome of both the genital tract and the gastrointestinal system. Further interrogation of these associations may have potential diagnostic significance and may identify novel therapeutic avenues. Glycomics may also be a potent source of biomarkers of endometriosis, with a number of glyco-biomarkers already approved by the FDA. Endometriosis-associated microbial and glycomic profiles may represent viable targets for development of innovative diagnostics in this debilitating disease.

New Therapeutics in Endometriosis: A Review of Hormonal, Non-Hormonal, and Non-Coding RNA Treatments

Endometriosis is defined as endometrial-like tissue outside the uterine cavity. It is a chronic inflammatory estrogen-dependent disease causing pain and infertility in about 10% of women of reproductive age. Treatment nowadays consists of medical and surgical therapies. Medical treatments are based on painkillers and hormonal treatments. To date, none of the medical treatments have been able to cure the disease and symptoms recur as soon as the medication is stopped. The development of new biomedical targets, aiming at the cellular and molecular mechanisms responsible for endometriosis, is needed. This article summarizes the most recent medications under investigation in endometriosis treatment with an emphasis on non-coding RNAs that are emerging as key players in several human diseases, including cancer and endometriosis.

Protein glycosylation in extracellular vesicles: Structural characterization and biological functions

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer-enclosed particles involved in intercellular communication, delivery of biomolecules from donor to recipient cells, cellular disposal and homeostasis, potential biomarkers and drug carriers. The content of EVs includes DNA, lipids, metabolites, proteins, and microRNA, which have been studied in various diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, pregnancy, neurodegenerative, and cardiovascular disorders. EVs are enriched in glycoconjugates and exhibit specific glycosignatures. Protein glycosylation is a co- and post-translational modification (PTM) that plays an important role in the expression and function of exosomal proteins. N- and O-linked protein glycosylation has been mapped in exosomal proteins. The purpose of this review is to highlight the importance of glycosylation in EVs proteins. Initially, we describe the main PTMs in EVs with a focus on glycosylation. Then, we explore glycan-binding proteins describing the main findings of studies that investigated the glycosylation of EVs in cancer, pregnancy, infectious diseases, diabetes, mental disorders, and animal fluids. We have highlighted studies that have developed innovative methods for studying the content of EVs. In addition, we present works related to lipid glycosylation. We explored the content of studies deposited in public databases, such as Exocarta and Vesiclepedia. Finally, we discuss analytical methods for structural characterization of glycoconjugates and present an overview of the critical points of the study of glycosylation EVs, as well as perspectives in this field.

Long non-coding RNAs in endometrial physiology and pathophysiology

The endometrium is an essential component of the female uterus which provides the environment for pregnancy establishment and maintenance. Abnormalities of the endometrium not only lead to difficulties in establishing and maintaining pregnancy but also play a causative role in diseases of endometrial origin including endometriosis and endometrial cancer. Non-coding RNAs are proposed to play a role in regulating the genome in both normal endometrial physiology and pathophysiology. In this review, we first provide a general overview of non-coding RNAs and reproductive physiology of the endometrium. We then discuss the role on non-coding RNAs in normal endometrial physiology and pathophysiology of endometrial infertility. We then conclude with non-coding RNAs in the pathophysiology of endometriosis and endometrial cancer.

Galectin-3: Roles in Neurodevelopment, Neuroinflammation, and Behavior

There is a plethora of evidence to suggest that Galectin-3 plays an important role in normal functions of mammalian cells, as well as in different pathogenic conditions. This review highlights recent data published by researchers, including our own team, on roles of Galectin-3 in the nervous system. Here, we discuss the roles of Galectin-3 in brain development, its roles in glial cells, as well as the interactions of glial cells with other neural and invading cells in pathological conditions. Galectin-3 plays an important role in the pathogenesis of neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative disorders, such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and Huntington’s disease. On the other hand, there is also evidence of the protective role of Galectin-3 due to its anti-apoptotic effect in target cells. Interestingly, genetic deletion of Galectin-3 affects behavioral patterns in maturing and adult mice. The results reviewed in this paper and recent development of highly specific inhibitors suggests that Galectin-3 may be an important therapeutic target in pathological conditions including the disorders of the central nervous system.