Differential Modulation of Dorsal Horn Neurons by Various Spinal Cord Stimulation Strategies

Response of dorsal horn neurons in mice to high-frequency (kHz) biphasic stimulation is not sensitive to local temperature rise

Clinically accepted for treatment of chronic pain 10 kHz-frequency electric spinal cord stimulation (10 kHz-SCS) releases more power in tissue compared to conventional low-frequency (<100 Hz) stimulation due to increased duty cycle. This is equivalent to the release of more heat in a surrounding tissue, which may change the functional state of affected neural elements. In the case of SCS, plausible candidates to be affected by thermal a component of kHz-frequency electric field stimulation (kHz-FS) are dorsal column axons and neurons of the superficial layers of the dorsal horn. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that joule heat produced by kHz-FS modulates neuronal excitability. In slices of the mouse spinal cord, we monitored membrane potential and membrane input resistance in neurons of lamina II during exposure to kHz-FS. Surprisingly, we found no correlation between temperature rise and changes of membrane parameters. Furthermore, the depolarizing effect of kHz-FS was always immediate and remained persistent throughout stimulation, whereas rise of temperature was delayed for 1-2 s and reached its saturation level within the following few seconds. Thus, we concluded that the thermal component has an insignificant role in the mechanism of kHz-FS action.

Kilohertz electrical stimulation evokes robust cellular responses like conventional frequencies but distinct population dynamics

Intracranial electrical kilohertz stimulation has recently been shown to achieve similar therapeutic benefit as conventional frequencies around 140 Hz. However, it is unknown how kilohertz stimulation influences neural activity in the mammalian brain. Using cellular calcium imaging in awake mice, we demonstrate that intracranial stimulation at 1 kHz evokes robust responses in many individual neurons, comparable to those induced by conventional 40 and 140 Hz stimulation in both the hippocampus and sensorimotor cortex. The evoked responses at the single-cell level are shaped by prominent network inhibition and critically depend on brain region. At the network level, all frequencies lead to pronounced population suppression except 1 kHz in the cortex, which evokes balanced excitatory and inhibitory population effects. Thus, kilohertz stimulation robustly modulates neural activity at both the single-neuron and population network levels through mechanisms distinct from conventional frequency stimulation, highlighting the clinical potential of intracranial kilohertz neuromodulation.

Radiofrequency stimulation of the dorsal root ganglion as a diagnostic tool for radicular pain syndromes: six representative cases

BACKGROUND

We discuss the diagnostic benefit of pulsed radiofrequency (PRF) of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) in a case series of patients with different pathologies. We expand the diagnostic potential of DRG stimulation beyond paresthesia mapping by using DRG stimulation to help determine the role of the DRG in the patient's pain and narrow down the etiology. In some cases, DRG stimulation was also part of the treatment plan.

METHODS

Six patients underwent DRG radiofrequency as a diagnostic/therapeutic step before considering implantation of a DRG neurostimulator. First, patients underwent a basic bedside neurological evaluation. Next, an electrode was placed in the epidural space through the sacral hiatus or between vertebral laminae. Then, sensory stimulation was applied at 50 Hz and gradually increased from 0.1 V until the patient reported paresthesia or until a maximum intensity of 2 V was reached. Patients were asked to describe where the stimulation was felt and outline the anatomical area the paresthesia covered. Then a motor stimulation was applied at 2 Hz until muscle twitching was reported by the patient or observed by the physician.

RESULTS

The information obtained helped diagnose the type of lesion as principally preganglionic, ganglionic, or postganglionic. This information guided patient management.

CONCLUSION

PRF of the DRG can provide valuable diagnostic information and is a useful step before ganglionic electrode implantation. In all cases, PRF of the DRG provided valuable diagnostic information and guided management options.

Frequency-Dependent Neural Modulation of Dorsal Horn Neurons by Kilohertz Spinal Cord Stimulation in Rats

Kilohertz high-frequency spinal cord stimulation (kHF-SCS) is a rapidly advancing neuromodulatory technique in the clinical management of chronic pain. However, the precise cellular mechanisms underlying kHF-SCS-induced paresthesia-free pain relief, as well as the neural responses within spinal pain circuits, remain largely unexplored. In this study, using a novel preparation, we investigated the impact of varying kilohertz frequency SCS on dorsal horn neuron activation. Employing calcium imaging on isolated spinal cord slices, we found that extracellular electric fields at kilohertz frequencies (1, 3, 5, 8, and 10 kHz) induce distinct patterns of activation in dorsal horn neurons. Notably, as the frequency of extracellular electric fields increased, there was a clear and significant monotonic escalation in neuronal activity. This phenomenon was observed not only in superficial dorsal horn neurons, but also in those located deeper within the dorsal horn. Our study demonstrates the unique patterns of dorsal horn neuron activation in response to varying kilohertz frequencies of extracellular electric fields, and we contribute to a deeper understanding of how kHF-SCS induces paresthesia-free pain relief. Furthermore, our study highlights the potential for kHF-SCS to modulate sensory information processing within spinal pain circuits. These insights pave the way for future research aimed at optimizing kHF-SCS parameters and refining its therapeutic applications in the clinical management of chronic pain.

Absence of paresthesia during high-rate spinal cord stimulation reveals importance of synchrony for sensations evoked by electrical stimulation

Electrically activating mechanoreceptive afferents inhibits pain. However, paresthesia evoked by spinal cord stimulation (SCS) at 40-60 Hz becomes uncomfortable at high pulse amplitudes, limiting SCS "dosage." Kilohertz-frequency SCS produces analgesia without paresthesia and is thought, therefore, not to activate afferent axons. We show that paresthesia is absent not because axons do not spike but because they spike asynchronously. In a pain patient, selectively increasing SCS frequency abolished paresthesia and epidurally recorded evoked compound action potentials (ECAPs). Dependence of ECAP amplitude on SCS frequency was reproduced in pigs, rats, and computer simulations and is explained by overdrive desynchronization: spikes desychronize when axons are stimulated faster than their refractory period. Unlike synchronous spikes, asynchronous spikes fail to produce paresthesia because their transmission to somatosensory cortex is blocked by feedforward inhibition. Our results demonstrate how stimulation frequency impacts synchrony based on axon properties and how synchrony impacts sensation based on circuit properties.

Current Waveforms in Spinal Cord Stimulation and Their Impact on the Future of Neuromodulation: A Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Neuromodulation is a standard and well-accepted treatment for chronic refractory neuropathic pain. There has been progressive innovation in the field over the last decade, particularly in areas of spinal cord stimulation (SCS) and dorsal root ganglion stimulation. Improved outcomes using proprietary waveforms have become customary in the field, leading to an unprecedented expansion of these products and a plethora of options for the management of pain. Although advances in waveform technology have improved our fundamental understanding of neuromodulation, a scoping review describing new energy platforms and their associated clinical effects and outcomes is needed. The authors submit that understanding electrophysiological neuromodulation may be important for clinical decision-making and programming selection for personalized patient care.

OBJECTIVE

This review aims to characterize ways differences in mechanism of action and clinical outcomes of current spinal neuromodulation products may affect contemporary clinical decision-making while outlining a possible path for the future SCS.

STUDY DESIGN

The study is a scoping review of the literature about newer generation SCS waveforms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A literature report was performed on PubMed and chapters to include articles on spine neuromodulation mechanism of action and efficacy.

RESULTS

A total of 8469 studies were identified, 75 of which were included for the scoping review after keywords defining recent waveform technology were added.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical data suggest that neuromodulation remains a promising tool in the treatment of chronic pain. The evidence for SCS for treating chronic pain seems compelling; however, more long-term and comparative data are needed for a comparison of waveforms when it comes to the etiology of pain. In addition, an exploration into combination waveform therapy and waveform cycling may be paramount for future clinical studies and the development of new technologies.

Spinal Cord Stimulation for Painful Diabetic Neuropathy

Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) technology has been recently approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for painful diabetic neuropathy (PDN). The treatment involves surgical implantation of electrodes and a power source that delivers electrical current to the spinal cord. This treatment decreases the perception of pain in many chronic pain conditions, such as PDN. The number of patients with PDN treated with SCS and the amount of data describing their outcomes is expected to increase given four factors: (1) the large number of patients with this diagnosis, (2) the poor results that have been obtained for pain relief with pharmacotherapy and noninvasive non-pharmacotherapy, (3) the results to date with investigational SCS technology, and (4) the recent FDA approval of systems that deliver this treatment. Whereas traditional SCS replaces pain with paresthesias, a new form of SCS, called high-frequency 10-kHz SCS, first used for pain in 2015, can relieve PDN pain without causing paresthesias, although not all patients experience pain relief by SCS. This article describes (1) an overview of SCS technology, (2) the use of SCS for diseases other than diabetes, (3) the use of SCS for PDN, (4) a comparison of high-frequency 10-kHz and traditional SCS for PDN, (5) other SCS technology for PDN, (6) deployment of SCS systems, (7) barriers to the use of SCS for PDN, (8) risks of SCS technology, (9) current recommendations for using SCS for PDN, and (10) future developments in SCS.

Model-based analysis of subthreshold mechanisms of spinal cord stimulation for pain

Objective.Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is a common treatment for chronic pain. For decades, SCS maximized overlap between stimulation-induced paresthesias and the patient's painful areas. Recently developed SCS paradigms relieve pain at sub-perceptible amplitudes, yet little is known about the neural response to these new waveforms or their analgesic mechanisms of action. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the neural response to multiple forms of paresthesia-free SCS.Approach.We used computational modeling to investigate the neurophysiological effects and the plausibility of commonly proposed mechanisms of three paresthesia-free SCS paradigms: burst, 1 kHz, and 10 kHz SCS. Specifically, in C- and Aβ-fibers, we investigated the effects of different SCS waveforms on spike timing and activation thresholds, as well as how stochastic ion channel gating affects the response of dorsal column axons. Finally, we characterized membrane polarization of superficial dorsal horn neurons.Main results.We found that none of the SCS waveforms activate nor modulate spike timing in C-fibers. Spike timing was modulated in Aβ-fibers only at suprathreshold amplitudes. Ion channel stochasticity had little effect on Aβ-fiber activation thresholds but produced heterogeneous spike timings at suprathreshold amplitudes. Finally, local cells were preferentially polarized in their axon terminals, and the magnitude of this polarization was dependent on cellular morphology and position relative to the stimulation electrodes.Significance.Overall, the mechanisms of action of subparesthetic SCS remain unclear. Our results suggest that no SCS waveforms directly activate C-fibers, and modulation of spike timing is unlikely at subthreshold amplitudes. We conclude that potential subthreshold neuromodulatory effects of SCS on local cells are likely to be presynaptic in nature, as axons are preferentially depolarized during SCS.

An optimization framework for targeted spinal cord stimulation

Objective. Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is a common neurostimulation therapy to manage chronic pain. Technological advances have produced new neurostimulation systems with expanded capabilities in an attempt to improve the clinical outcomes associated with SCS. However, these expanded capabilities have dramatically increased the number of possible stimulation parameters and made it intractable to efficiently explore this large parameter space within the context of standard clinical programming procedures. Therefore, in this study, we developed an optimization approach to define the optimal current amplitudes or fractions across individual contacts in an SCS electrode array(s).Approach. We developed an analytic method using the Lagrange multiplier method along with smoothing approximations. To test our optimization framework, we used a hybrid computational modeling approach that consisted of a finite element method model and multi-compartment models of axons and cells within the spinal cord. Moreover, we extended our approach to multi-objective optimization to explore the trade-off between activating regions of interest (ROIs) and regions of avoidance (ROAs).Main results. For simple ROIs, our framework suggested optimized configurations that resembled simple bipolar configurations. However, when we considered multi-objective optimization, our framework suggested nontrivial stimulation configurations that could be selected from Pareto fronts to target multiple ROIs or avoid ROAs.Significance. We developed an optimization framework for targeted SCS. Our method is analytic, which allows for the fast calculation of optimal solutions. For the first time, we provided a multi-objective approach for selective SCS. Through this approach, we were able to show that novel configurations can provide neural recruitment profiles that are not possible with conventional stimulation configurations (e.g. bipolar stimulation). Most importantly, once integrated with computational models that account for sources of interpatient variability (e.g. anatomy, electrode placement), our optimization framework can be utilized to provide stimulation settings tailored to the needs of individual patients.

Stimulating Results Signal a New Treatment Option for People Living With Painful Diabetic Neuropathy

BACKGROUND

Painful diabetic neuropathy (PDN) is a progressive condition that deprives many patients of quality of life. With limited treatment options available, successful pain management can be difficult to achieve.

METHODS

We reviewed results of recent data evaluating high frequency spinal cord stimulation (SCS).

RESULTS

from the SENZA-PDN randomized clinical trial (NCT03228420), the largest such trial to date, demonstrated 10-kHz spinal cord stimulation substantially reduced PDN refractory to conventional medical management along with improvements in health-related quality-of-life measures that were sustained over 12 months. These data supported the recent U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA) approval for 10-kHz SCS in PDN patients and contributed to the body of evidence on SCS available to health care professionals managing the effects of PDN.

CONCLUSION

High frequency spinal cord simulation appears to hold promise in treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy. We look forward to future works in the literature that will further elucidate these promising findings.

Advances in Spinal Cord Stimulation

Neuromodulation, specifically spinal cord stimulation (SCS), has become a staple of chronic pain management for various conditions including failed back syndrome, chronic regional pain syndrome, refractory radiculopathy, and chronic post operative pain. Since its conceptualization, it has undergone several advances to increase safety and convenience for patients and implanting physicians. Current research and efforts are aimed towards novel programming modalities and modifications of existing hardware. Here we review the recent advances and future directions in spinal cord stimulation including a brief review of the history of SCS, SCS waveforms, new materials for SCS electrodes (including artificial skins, new materials, and injectable electrodes), closed loop systems, and neurorestorative devices.

Indirect Comparison of 10 kHz Spinal Cord Stimulation (SCS) versus Traditional Low-Frequency SCS for the Treatment of Painful Diabetic Neuropathy: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials

Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is increasingly used to treat painful diabetic neuropathy (PDN). At the time of a recent meta-analysis in this field, data were only available from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of traditional low-frequency SCS (LF-SCS). However, outcomes from high-frequency 10 kHz SCS treatment are now available. Our study aimed to systematically review the contemporary evidence for SCS in patients with lower limb pain due to PDN and include an indirect comparison of the high- and low-frequency modalities. We searched the PubMed/CENTRAL databases up to 18 August 2022, for peer-reviewed RCTs of SCS that enrolled PDN patients with lower limb pain symptoms. The quality of the evidence was assessed with the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool. Using SCS treatment arm data from the RCTs, we indirectly compared the absolute treatment effect of 10 kHz SCS and LF-SCS. Results are presented in tables and forest plots. This systematic review was reported according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines. Three RCTs met our eligibility criteria, including the recent 10 kHz SCS RCT (N = 216, 90 implanted) and 2 others that examined LF-SCS (N = 36, 17 implanted; N = 60, 37 implanted). Our analysis of 6-month data found clinically meaningful pain relief with each SCS modality. However, significantly greater pain reduction was identified for 10 kHz SCS over LF-SCS: average pain reduction in the 10 kHz SCS cohort was 73.7% compared with 47.5% in the pooled LF-SCS group (p < 0.0001). In the permanent implant subset, the 50% pain reduction responder rate was 83.3% in the 10 kHz SCS cohort versus 63.0% in the pooled LF-SCS group (p = 0.0072). The overall risk of bias of each included RCT was deemed high, mainly due to the absence of patient blinding. Our analysis indicates that paresthesia-free 10 kHz SCS can provide superior pain relief and responder rate over LF-SCS for managing PDN patients refractory to conventional medical management.

A Real-World Analysis of High-Frequency 10 kHz Spinal Cord Stimulation for the Treatment of Painful Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy

BACKGROUND

Diabetes is one of the most prevalent chronic health conditions and diabetic neuropathy one of its most prevalent and debilitating complications. While there are treatments available for painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy (pDPN), their effectiveness is limited.

METHOD

This retrospective, multi-center, real-world review assessed pain relief and functional improvements for consecutive patients with diabetic neuropathy aged ≥18 years of age who were permanently implanted with a high-frequency (10 kHz) spinal cord stimulation (SCS) device. Available data were extracted from a commercial database.

RESULTS

In total 89 patients consented to being included in the analysis. Sixty-one percent (54/89) of participants were male and the average age was 64.4 years (SD = 9.1). Most patients (78.7%, 70/89) identified pain primarily in their feet or legs bilaterally. At the last assessment, 79.5% (58/73) of patients were treatment responders, defined as having at least 50% patient-reported pain relief from baseline. The average time of follow-up was 21.8 months (range: 4.3 to 46.3 months). A majority of patients reported improvements in sleep and overall function relative to their baseline.

CONCLUSIONS

This real-world study in typical clinical practices found 10 kHz SCS provided meaningful pain relief for a substantial proportion of patients refractory to current pDPN management, similar to published literature. This patient population has tremendous unmet needs and this study helps demonstrate the potential for 10 kHz SCS to provide an alternative pain management approach.

Concept of the Number Needed to Treat for the Analysis of Pain Relief Outcomes in Patients Treated with Spinal Cord Stimulation

In the rapidly evolving field of spinal cord stimulation (SCS), measures of treatment effects are needed to help understand the benefits of new therapies. The present article elaborates the number needed to treat (NNT) concept and applies it to the SCS field. We reviewed the basic theory of the NNT, its calculation method, and its application to historical controlled trials of SCS. We searched the literature for controlled studies with ≥20 implanted SCS patients with chronic axial back and/or leg pain followed for ≥3 months and a reported responder rate defined as ≥50% pain relief. Relevant data necessary to estimate the NNT were extracted from the included articles. In total, 12 of 1616 records were eligible for inclusion. The records reported 10 clinical studies, including 7 randomized controlled trials, 2 randomized crossover trials, and 1 controlled cohort study. The studies investigated traditional SCS and more recently developed SCS modalities, including 10 kHz SCS. In conclusion, the NNT estimate may help SCS stakeholders better understand the effect size difference between compared treatments; however, interpretation of any NNT should take into account its full context. In addition, comparisons across trials of different therapies should be avoided since they are prone to interpretation biases.

Efficacy and Safety of 10 kHz Spinal Cord Stimulation Using Cervical and Thoracic Leads: A Single-Center Retrospective Experience

INTRODUCTION

Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) with lower thoracic leads has been studied extensively. However, the evidence base for cervical SCS is less well developed, and reports of multiarea SCS lead placement are uncommon. Therefore, this single-center retrospective study evaluated outcomes from 10-kHz SCS with cervical or combined cervical and thoracic lead placement.

METHOD

All patients that underwent a 10-kHz SCS trial with either cervical or combined cervical and thoracic lead placement between 2015 and 2020 were included in our study. We reviewed patient's charts for demographic information, lead placement, and pain scores up to 48 months after implantation.

RESULTS

Of the 105 patients that underwent a 10-kHz SCS trial during the review period, 92 (88%) had back/neck or extremity pain that responded to therapy (≥ 50% pain relief from baseline) and received a permanent system. Sixty-two of these patients (67%) were implanted with combined cervical and thoracic leads, while 30 (33%) received cervical-only leads. Pain relief in both regions exceeded 60% at most visits throughout the 48-month study period. Throughout follow-up, the responder rate in both pain areas was consistently ≥ 70%. No unexpected adverse events occurred.

CONCLUSION

The 10-kHz SCS provided effective and durable pain relief with either cervical or combined cervical and thoracic leads. The efficacy and safety profile of both applications appears to be comparable to lower thoracic SCS. Our results suggest that 10-kHz SCS is a useful paresthesia-free therapeutic option for chronic neuropathic pain originating in the cervical area, as well as more complex multiarea pain presentations.

High-frequency (10 kHz) spinal cord stimulation for the treatment of focal, chronic postsurgical neuropathic pain: results from a prospective study in Belgium

Aim: Chronic postsurgical pain (CPSP) is a common complication of surgery. This study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of paresthesia-free, 10-kHz spinal cord stimulation (SCS) as a treatment for CPSP. Patients & methods: Subjects in this prospective, single-arm study had an average pain intensity of ≥5 cm on a 10-cm visual analog scale. The subjects who had pain relief of ≥50% (response) with temporary trial stimulation were permanently implanted with 10-kHz SCS and assessed for 1 year. Results: At 12 months, 94% of subjects were responders to 10-kHz SCS, and 88% had pain remission (visual analog scale ≤2.5 cm). Conclusion: The pain relief was durable in CPSP subjects and the safety profile of 10-kHz SCS was as expected. Clinical trial registration: VT005076953 (Privacy Commission of Belgium).