Preparation and Characterization of Silymarin-Conjugated Gold Nanoparticles with Enhanced Anti-Fibrotic Therapeutic Effects against Hepatic Fibrosis in Rats: Role of MicroRNAs as Molecular Targets

Impact of gold nanoparticle exposure on the development pancreas and kidney: Dose-dependent;oxidative stress; miRNA expression and Nrf2/ARE Signalling

BACKGROUND

The widespread use of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) in consumer and medical products necessitates investigation into their potential developmental toxicity.

AIM OF THE WORK

This study investigated the systemic effects of in-utero AuNP exposure on developing male rat offspring, focusing on metabolic, organ-specific, and cellular pathways.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Pregnant rats were intravenously administered AuNPs (5, 10, 15, or 20 mg/kg) or saline from gestational day 1 to birth. Male offspring were assessed at postnatal day 60 through biochemical and genetic analyses in the pancreas, kidney tissues, plasma analysis, and pancreatic histology.

RESULTS

No mortality or clinical abnormalities occurred. However, in-utero AuNP high-dose exposure induced pancreatic abnormalities, including reduced endocrine function and morphological damage. Higher doses disrupt body and organ growth, leading to metabolic dysregulation (elevated glucose, amylase, lipase, reduced insulin), impairing glucose homeostasis, and pancreatic dysfunction. Compromised kidney function (elevated urea, creatinine, BUN, electrolyte imbalances), increased oxidative stress, and dysregulated inflammatory responses (altered TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10, Nrf2, NF-κB) were also observed. AuNPs induced apoptosis (increased caspase-3, decreased Bcl-2, and altered COX-2), as well as dysregulation of mRNA and miRNA expression. Affected genes included those related to stress and inflammation (p-p38, NOX4, iNOS, NF-κB, Akt, mTOR, Anxa3) and cellular survival signalling (miR-21, miR-382, miR-34a, miR-223). Pancreatic histopathology revealed dose-dependent tissue damage.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that AuNPs, especially at higher doses, disrupt multiple biological processes, inducing metabolic, renal, and pancreatic dysfunction via oxidative stress, inflammation, and cellular dysregulation. Further mechanistic research is crucial to establish safe applications, highlighting the need for biosafety assessments guided by green toxicology principles.

Evaluating the role of targeted silymarin loaded hyaluronic acid/protein nanoparticles in activating hepatic progenitor stem cells for liver regeneration after CCl4-induced liver damage

BACKGROUND

Silymarin is a natural flavonoid component isolated from the Silybum Marianum (Milk Thistle) plant with multiple pharmacological activities. We investigated its anti-fibrotic effect on the liver and demonstrated its role in activating hepatic progenitor stem cells during liver regeneration.

METHODS

Hybrid polymeric protein nanoparticles were prepared by loading silymarin with an albumin-hyaluronic acid complex to achieve stem cell targeting and increase silymarin's bioavailability.

RESULTS

TEM, Zeta potential, DLS, UV-visible spectrophotometer, Fluorescence analysis, and FTIR verified the successful formation of nanoparticles and efficient encapsulation. In the present study, The liver fibrotic model was induced by the intraperitoneal injection of carbon tetrachloride, followed by the injection of silymarin NPs into mice twice a week for 4 weeks. We evaluated the expression of hepatic fibrosis markers such as (Collagen I, TGF-β1, SMAD3, and MMP-3) and hepatic progenitor stem cell activation markers such as (HNF1β, FOXl1, CD90, Vimentin, and CD105). The results showed that the targeted silymarin NPs caused significant suppression and downregulation of Collagen I, TGF-β, SMAD-3, and MMP-3 and upregulation of the hepatic progenitor stem cells markers HNF1β, FOXl1, CD90, Vimentin, and CD105. They also didn't induce expression of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α, proving that they cause no signs of inflammation.

CONCLUSION

The novel point is that these results demonstrated that the targeted Silymarin NPs not only could efficiently alleviate CCl4-induced liver fibrosis more than using only free silymarin; by inhibiting the TGF-β/Smad-3 signaling pathway, but also could activate hepatic progenitor stem cells causing liver regeneration.

Drug delivery using gold nanoparticles

Modern nanotechnologies provide various possibilities for efficiently delivering drugs to biological targets. This review focuses on using functionalized gold nanoparticles (GNPs) as a drug delivery platform. Owing to their exceptional size and surface characteristics, GNPs are a perfect drug delivery vehicle for targeted and selective distribution. Several in vitro and in vivo tests have shown how simple it is to tailor these particles to administer chemical medications straight to tumors. The GNP surface can also be coated with ligands to modify drug release or improve selectivity. Moreover, the pharmacological activity can be enhanced by using the photothermal characteristics of the particles.

The Role of Phthalocyanine-Gold Nanoconjugates (Pc-Au NCs) in Ameliorating the Hepatic and Renal Toxicity-Induced by Silver Nanoparticles (Ag NPs) in Male Rats

Recently, gold nanoparticles (Au Nps) have gained tremendous attention for its unique properties as a safe nanocarrier for delivering drugs that are used in different disease diagnoses. Although silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) have been generally applied due to their strong antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, and antimicrobial properties, their toxicity is a subject of sustained debate, thus requiring further studies. The present study aims to evaluate the potential protective effect of gold nanoparticles and phthalocyanine-gold nanoconjugates (Pc-Au NCs) against the hepatorenal toxicity of silver nanoparticles in male rats. Herein, 60 adult male Rattus norvegicus rats were divided into six equal groups (n = 10/group); the first group was kept as control, the second received gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) intraperitoneally (10 µg/kg) daily for 3 weeks, the third group is gold-phthalocyanine (Pc-Au) group where rats were injected intraperitoneally with gold-phthalocyanine for 3 weeks (10 µg/kg), the fourth group received silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) (4 mg/kg) daily intraperitoneally for 3 weeks, the fifth group is silver + gold nanoparticles group (Ag + Au), and the sixth is silver + gold-phthalocyanine nanoconjugates (Ag + Pc-Au) group in which rats were intraperitoneally injected firstly with Ag NPs (4 mg/kg) for 3 weeks then with gold or gold-phthalocyanine for another 3 weeks (10 µg/kg). Our results revealed that Ag NPs could increase the serum AST, ALT, ALP, urea, creatinine, and lipid profile and significantly decreased the total protein and albumin. Moreover, histopathological alterations detected in the kidney and the liver of the Ag NPs group included vascular congestion, inflammatory cell infiltration, and tissue distortion. Alongside, exposure to Ag NPs induces hepatic and renal oxidative stress by suppressing the antioxidant-related genes including glutathione peroxidase 1 (gpx1), superoxide dismutase (sod), and catalase (cat). Ag NPs also upregulated the hepatic and renal genes involved in inflammation such as the interleukin-6 (il-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (tnf-α), nuclear factor kappa B (nf-κβ), apoptosis such as the BCL2 associated X (bax), casp3, and other related to metabolism including asparagine synthetase (asns), suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (socs3), MYC proto-oncogene (myc), and C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (ccl2). On the other hand, treatment with Au NPs and Pc-Au NCs could effectively ameliorate the hepatorenal damages induced by Ag NPs and improve liver and kidney architecture and function, especially in the Pc-Au NCs group. Briefly, our study revealed the underlined mechanism of Ag NPs hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic effects and that Pc-Au NCs could alleviate these adverse impacts via their anti-oxidative, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory activities.

Hepatoprotective effect of silymarin-chitosan nanocomposite against aluminum-induced oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis

Aluminum (Al) is abundant in the environment, and its toxicity is attributed to free radical formation and subsequent oxidative stress. While silymarin is a well-known antioxidant, its low water solubility and bioavailability limit its therapeutic effects. This study was designated to formulate silymarin chitosan nanoparticles (SM-CS-NPs) and evaluate its ameliorative effect against hepatotoxicity induced by aluminum chloride (AlCl3). SM-CS-NPs were prepared by ionotropic gelation method and characterized using different techniques. Rats were distributed into six groups (n=7/group), control, silymarin (SM; 15 mg/kg B.W), silymarin-chitosan nanoparticles (SM-CS-NPs; 15 mg/kg), aluminum chloride (AlCl3, 34 mg/kg), SM or SM-CS-NPs administrated orally one hour before the treatment with AlCl3 for 30 days, respectively. Results showed that supplementation of SM-CS-NPs or SM solo improved the antioxidant state and reduced oxidative stress. On the other hand, the pretreatment with SM-CS-NPs or SM followed by AlCl3 significantly restored liver functions (AST, ALT, ALP, LDH, total protein, albumin, globulin, and bilirubin) and modulated oxidative stress biomarkers (TBARS and H2O2), with improved cellular antioxidant defense (SOD, CAT, GPx, GR, GST, and GSH) and maintained normal liver histological structure compared to rats treated with AlCl3 alone. Furthermore, they alleviated the inflammation and apoptosis by downregulating the expression level of COX-2, caspase-3, and TNFα. This ameliorative effect was stronger with silymarin nanoform than in bulk-state silymarin. According to the findings, silymarin preparation in nanoform boosts its ameliorative and protective effects against AlCl3 hepatotoxicity.

Enhanced healing of burn wounds by multifunctional alginate-chitosan hydrogel enclosing silymarin and zinc ‎oxide ‎nanoparticles

Multifunctional wound dressings have been applied for burn injuries to avoid complications and promote tissue regeneration. In the present study, we fabricated a natural alginate-chitosan hydrogel comprising silymarin and green-synthesized zinc ‎oxide ‎nanoparticles (ZnO NPs). Then, the physicochemical attributes of ZnO NPs and loaded hydrogels were analyzed. Afterward, wound healing efficacy was evaluated in a rat model of full-thickness dermal burn wounds. The findings indicated that ZnO NPs were synthesized via reduction with phytochemicals from Elettaria cardamomum seeds extract. The microscopic images exhibited fairly spherical ZnO NPs (35-45 nm), and elemental analysis verified the relevant composition. The hydrogel, containing silymarin and biosynthesized ZnO NPs, displayed a uniform appearance, smooth surfaces, and a porous structure. Moreover, infrared spectroscopy ‎identified functional groups, confirming the successful loading without adverse interactions. The obtained hydrogel exhibited great water absorption, high porosity, sustainable degradation for several days, and enhanced antioxidant capability of the combined loaded component. In vivo studies revealed faster and superior wound healing, achieving nearly complete closure by day 21. Histopathology confirmed improved cell growth, tissue regeneration, collagen deposition, and neovascularization. It is believed that this multifunctional hydrogel-based wound dressing can be applied for effective burn wound treatment.

Advances in the study of the mechanism of action of miR‑22 in liver lesions (Review)

Globally, nearly 2 million deaths annually are attributed to the development of liver diseases, with liver cancer and cirrhosis being particularly prominent, which makes liver disease a significant global health concern. Cirrhosis is closely linked to the evolution of hepatitis, hepatic fibrosis and fatty liver. However, most liver diseases have an insidious onset, are challenging to treat and the prognosis and efficacy of current therapies are unsatisfactory, which can result in irreversible functional damage to the liver. Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore the molecular mechanisms underlying liver disease and identify new biomarkers and therapeutic targets. In previous years, microRNAs (miRs), a class of short non-coding RNAs comprising 17-25 nucleotides, have attracted attention for their roles in various types of liver diseases. Among them, miR-22 serves a unique role in mediating multiple pathway mechanisms and epigenetic modifications and can act both as an inhibitor of liver cancer and a metabolic blocker. Given its close association with the liver, several studies have reported that the differential expression of miR-22 regulates the metabolic process of liver cancer and is involved in the evolution of hepatic fibrosis and steatohepatitis, making it a potential target for early diagnosis and treatment. The present manuscript aimed to comprehensively review the key role of miR-22 in the evolution of liver diseases and offer valuable references and guidance for subsequent studies by identifying its specific mechanism of action and future development prospects.

Potential of CME@ZIF-8 MOF Nanoformulation: Smart Delivery of Silymarin for Enhanced Performance and Mechanism in Albino Rats

Silymarin, an antioxidant, is locally used for kidney and heart ailments. However, its limited water solubility and less oral bioavailability limit its therapeutic efficiency. The present study investigated the enhancement of solubility and bioavailability of silymarin by loading it in Cordia myxa plant extract-coated zeolitic imidazole framework (CME@ZIF-8) against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced nephrotoxicity and cardiac toxicity in albino rats. The synthesized PEG-coated silymarin drug-loaded CME@ZIF-8 MOFs (PEG-Sily@CME@ZIF-8) were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, UV-visible spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and zeta potential. The average crystal size of CME@ZIF-8 and PEG-Sily@CME@ZIF-8 was 12.69 and 16.81 nm, respectively. The silymarin drug loading percentage in PEG-Sily@CME@ZIF-8 was 33.05% (w/w). In the animal model with CCl4 treatment, different parameters like serum profile, enzymatic level, genotoxicity, and histopathology were assessed. Treatment with PEG-Sily@CME@ZIF-8 with different doses of 500, 1000, and 1500 μg/kg body weight efficiently ameliorated the alterations in the antioxidant defenses, biochemical parameters, and histopathological alterations and DNA damage in comparison to silymarin drug in a CCl4-induced toxicity rat model via alleviating the cellular abnormalities and attenuation of normal antioxidant enzymes levels. Moreover, the molecular mechanism of drug-silymarin interaction with the target protein was investigated. It involves the binding pockets of silymarin molecules with VEGFR, TNF-α, NLRP3, AT1R, NOX1, RIPK1, Caspase-3, CHOP, and MMP-9 proteins, elucidating the silymarin-protein interactions by the formation of hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions. This study suggests that the nanodrug PEG-Sily@CME@ZIF-8 MOFs protect the kidneys and heart possibly by mitigating oxidative stress more efficiently than the conventional drug silymarin.

Novel Strategies Enhancing Bioavailability and Therapeutical Potential of Silibinin for Treatment of Liver Disorders

Silibinin, a bioactive component found in milk thistle extract (Silybum marianum), is known to have significant therapeutic potential in the treatment of various liver diseases. It is considered a key element of silymarin, which is traditionally used to support liver function. The main mechanisms of action of silibinin are attributed to its antioxidant properties protecting liver cells from damage caused by free radicals. Experimental studies conducted in vitro and in vivo have confirmed its ability to inhibit inflammatory and fibrotic processes, as well as promote the regeneration of damaged liver tissue. Therefore, silibinin represents a promising tool for the treatment of liver diseases. Since the silibinin molecule is insoluble in water and has poor bioavailability in vivo, new perspectives on solving this problem are being sought. The two most promising approaches are the water-soluble derivative silibinin-C-2',3-dihydrogen succinate, disodium salt, and the silibinin-phosphatidylcholine complex. Both drugs are currently under evaluation in liver disease clinical trials. Nevertheless, the mechanism underlying silibinin biological activity is still elusive and its more detailed understanding would undoubtedly increase its potential in the development of effective therapeutic strategies against liver diseases. This review is focused on the therapeutic potential of silibinin and its derivates, approaches to increase the bioavailability and the benefits in the treatment of liver diseases that have been achieved so far. The review discusses the relevant in vitro and in vivo studies that investigated the protective effects of silibinin in various forms of liver damage.

Targeting chronic liver diseases: Molecular markers, drug delivery strategies and future perspectives

Chronic liver inflammation, a pervasive global health issue, results in millions of annual deaths due to its progression from fibrosis to the more severe forms of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). This insidious condition stems from diverse factors such as obesity, genetic conditions, alcohol abuse, viral infections, autoimmune diseases, and toxic accumulation, manifesting as chronic liver diseases (CLDs) such as metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH), alcoholic liver disease (ALD), viral hepatitis, drug-induced liver injury, and autoimmune hepatitis. Late detection of CLDs necessitates effective treatments to inhibit and potentially reverse disease progression. However, current therapies exhibit limitations in consistency and safety. A potential breakthrough lies in nanoparticle-based drug delivery strategies, offering targeted delivery to specific liver cell types, such as hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, and hepatic stellate cells. This review explores molecular targets for CLD treatment, ongoing clinical trials, recent advances in nanoparticle-based drug delivery, and the future outlook of this research field. Early intervention is crucial for chronic liver disease. Having a comprehensive understanding of current treatments, molecular biomarkers and novel nanoparticle-based drug delivery strategies can have enormous impact in guiding future strategies for the prevention and treatment of CLDs.

In vivo investigation of the anti-liver fibrosis impact of Balanites aegyptiaca/ chitosan nanoparticles

Balanites aegyptiaca (B. aegyptiaca) is an African herb with traditional medical applications. Various pathogenic factors cause hepatic fibrosis and require novel treatment alternatives. Nanoformulation-based natural products can overcome the available drug problems by increasing the efficacy of natural products targeting disease markers. The current study investigated B. aegyptiaca methanolic extract using high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), and B. aegyptiaca/chitosan nanoparticles were prepared. In vivo, evaluation tests were performed to assess the curative effect of the successfully prepared B. aegyptiaca/chitosan nanoparticles. For 30 days, the rats were divided into six groups, typical and fibrosis groups, where the liver fibrosis groups received B. aegyptiaca extract, silymarin, chitosan nanoparticles, and B. aegyptiaca/chitosan nanoparticles daily. In the current investigation, phenolic molecules are the major compounds detected in B. aegyptiaca extract. UV showed that the prepared B. aegyptiaca /chitosan nanoparticles had a single peak at 280 nm, a particle size of 35.0 ± 6.0 nm, and a negative charge at - 8.3 mV. The animal studies showed that the synthetic B. aegyptiaca/chitosan nanoparticles showed substantial anti-fibrotic protective effects against CCl4-induced hepatic fibrosis in rats when compared with other groups through optimization of biochemical and oxidative markers, improved histological changes, and modulated the expression of Col1a1, Acta2 and Cxcl9 genes, which manage liver fibrosis. In conclusion, the current research indicated that the prepared B. aegyptiaca/chitosan nanoparticles improved histological structure and significantly enhanced the biochemical and genetic markers of liver fibrosis in an animal model.

Liver fibrosis: pathological features, clinical treatment and application of therapeutic nanoagents

Liver fibrosis is a reversible damage-repair response, the pathological features of which mainly include damage to hepatocytes, sinusoid capillarization, hepatic stellate cells activation, excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix and inflammatory response. Although some treatments (including drugs and stem cell therapy) for these pathological features have been shown to be effective, more clinical trials are needed to confirm their effectiveness. In recent years, nanomaterials-based therapies have emerged as an innovative and promising alternative to traditional drugs, being explored for the treatment of liver fibrosis diseases. Natural nanomaterials (including extracellular vesicles) and synthetic nanomaterials (including inorganic nanomaterials and organic nanomaterials) are developed to facilitate drug targeting delivery and combination therapy. In this review, the pathological features of liver fibrosis and the current anti-fibrosis drugs in clinical trials are briefly introduced, followed by a detailed introduction of the therapeutic nanoagents for the precise delivery of anti-fibrosis drugs. Finally, the future development trend in this field is discussed.

Designing a Silymarin Nanopercolating System Using CME@ZIF-8: An Approach to Hepatic Injuries

It is commonly known that silymarin, a phytoconstituent obtained from the Silybum marianum plant, has hepatoprotective and antioxidative properties. However, its low oral bioavailability and poor water solubility negatively impact its therapeutic efficacy. The goal of the present study was to determine the efficiency of the Cordia myxa extract-based synthesized zeolitic imidazole metal-organic framework (CME@ZIF-8 MOF) for increasing silymarin's bioavailability. A coprecipitation technique was used to synthesize the CME@ZIF-8 and polyethylene glycol-coated silymarin-loaded MOFs (PEG-Sily@CME@ZIF-8) and a complete factorial design was used to optimize them. The crystalline size of CME@ZIF-8 was 14.7 nm and the size of PEG-Sily@CME@ZIF-8 was 17.39 nm. The loading percentage of the silymarin drug in CME@ZIF-8 was 33.5%. The optimized formulations were then characterized by ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform IR spectroscopy, surface morphology, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and drug release in an in vitro medium. Additionally, a rat model was used to investigate the optimized formulation's in vivo hepatoprotective effectiveness. The synthesized silymarin-loaded CME@ZIF-8 MOFs were distinct particles with a porous, spongelike shape and a diameter of (size) nm. Furthermore, the designed silymarin-loaded PEG-Sily@CME@ZIF-8 MOF formulation exhibited considerable silymarin release from the synthesized formula in dissolution investigations. The in vivo evaluation studies demonstrated that the prepared PEG-Sily@CME@ZIF-8 MOFs effectively exhibited a hepatoprotective effect in comparison with free silymarin in a CCl4-based induced-hepatotoxicity rat model via ameliorating the normal antioxidant enzyme levels and restoring the cellular abnormalities produced by CCl4 toxication. In combination, biologically produced CME@ZIF-8 may promise to be a viable biologically based nanocarrier that can enhance the loading and release of silymarin medication, which has low solubility in water.

Stress mechanism involved in the progression of alcoholic liver disease and the therapeutic efficacy of nanoparticles

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) poses a significant threat to human health, with excessive alcohol intake disrupting the immunotolerant environment of the liver and initiating a cascade of pathological events. This progressive disease unfolds through fat deposition, proinflammatory cytokine upregulation, activation of hepatic stellate cells, and eventual development of end-stage liver disease, known as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). ALD is intricately intertwined with stress mechanisms such as oxidative stress mediated by reactive oxygen species, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and alcohol-induced gut dysbiosis, culminating in increased inflammation. While the initial stages of ALD can be reversible with diligent care and abstinence, further progression necessitates alternative treatment approaches. Herbal medicines have shown promise, albeit limited by their poor water solubility and subsequent lack of extensive exploration. Consequently, researchers have embarked on a quest to overcome these challenges by delving into the potential of nanoparticle-mediated therapy. Nanoparticle-based treatments are being explored for liver diseases that share similar mechanisms with alcoholic liver disease. It underscores the potential of these innovative approaches to counteract the complex pathogenesis of ALD, providing new avenues for therapeutic intervention. Nevertheless, further investigations are imperative to fully unravel the therapeutic potential and unlock the promise of nanoparticle-mediated therapy specifically tailored for ALD treatment.

Stress mechanism involved in the progression of alcoholic liver disease and the therapeutic efficacy of nanoparticles

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) poses a significant threat to human health, with excessive alcohol intake disrupting the immunotolerant environment of the liver and initiating a cascade of pathological events. This progressive disease unfolds through fat deposition, proinflammatory cytokine upregulation, activation of hepatic stellate cells, and eventual development of end-stage liver disease, known as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). ALD is intricately intertwined with stress mechanisms such as oxidative stress mediated by reactive oxygen species, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and alcohol-induced gut dysbiosis, culminating in increased inflammation. While the initial stages of ALD can be reversible with diligent care and abstinence, further progression necessitates alternative treatment approaches. Herbal medicines have shown promise, albeit limited by their poor water solubility and subsequent lack of extensive exploration. Consequently, researchers have embarked on a quest to overcome these challenges by delving into the potential of nanoparticle-mediated therapy. Nanoparticle-based treatments are being explored for liver diseases that share similar mechanisms with alcoholic liver disease. It underscores the potential of these innovative approaches to counteract the complex pathogenesis of ALD, providing new avenues for therapeutic intervention. Nevertheless, further investigations are imperative to fully unravel the therapeutic potential and unlock the promise of nanoparticle-mediated therapy specifically tailored for ALD treatment.

Hybrid Material Based on Vaccinium myrtillus L. Extract and Gold Nanoparticles Reduces Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Hepatic Stellate Cells Exposed to TGF-β

(1) Background: The study aimed to investigate the impact of gold nanoparticles capped with Cornus sanguinea (NPCS) and mixed with a fruit extract (Vaccinum myrtillus L.-VL) on human hepatic stellate cells (LX-2) exposed to TGF-β. (2) Methods: NPCS were characterized by UV-Vis, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), zeta potential measurement, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDX). The cytotoxic effects of VL, NPCS and of the hybrid compounds obtained by mixing the two components in variable proportions (NPCS-VL) were assessed. LDH activity, MDA levels, secretion of inflammation markers, the expression of fibrogenesis markers and collagen I synthesis were estimated after treating the cells with a mixture of 25:25 μg/mL NPCS and VL. (3) Results: TEM analysis showed that NPCS had spherical morphology and homogenous distribution, while their formation and elemental composition were confirmed by XRD and EDX analysis. TGF-β increased cell membrane damage as well as secretion of IL-1β, IL-1α and TLR4. It also amplified the expression of α-SMA and type III collagen and induced collagen I deposition. NPCS administration reduced the inflammation caused by TGF-β and downregulated α-SMA expression. VL diminished LDH activity and the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. The NPCS-VL mixture maintained IL-1β, IL-1α, TLR4 and LDH at low levels after TGF-β exposure, but it enhanced collagen III expression. (4) Conclusions: The mixture of NPCS and VL improved cell membrane damage and inflammation triggered by TGF-β and mitigated collagen I deposition, but it increased the expression of collagen III, suggestive of a fibrogenetic effect of the hybrid material.

Integrating Artificial Intelligence with Quality by Design in the Formulation of Lecithin/Chitosan Nanoparticles of a Poorly Water-Soluble Drug

The aim of the current study is to explore the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) when integrated with Quality by Design (QbD) approach in the formulation of a poorly water-soluble drug, for its potential use in carcinoma. Silymarin is used as a model drug for its potential effectiveness in liver cancer. A detailed QbD approach was applied. The effect of the critical process parameters was studied on each of the particle size, size distribution, and entrapment efficiency. Response surface designs were applied in the screening and optimization of lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles, to obtain an optimized formula. The release rate was tested, where artificial neural network models were used to predict the % release of the drug from the optimized formula at different time intervals. The optimized formula was tested for its cytotoxicity. A design space was established, with an optimized formula having a molar ratio of 18.33:1 lecithin:chitosan and 38.35 mg silymarin. This resulted in nanoparticles with a size of 161 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.2, and an entrapment efficiency of 97%. The optimized formula showed a zeta potential of +38 mV, with well-developed spherical particles. AI successfully showed high prediction ability of the drug's release rate. The optimized formula showed an enhancement in the cytotoxic effect of silymarin with a decreased IC50 compared to standard silymarin. Lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles were successfully formulated, with deep process and product understanding. Several tools were used as AI which could shift pharmaceutical formulations from experience-dependent studies to data-driven methodologies in the future.

PEG-GNPs aggravate MCD-induced steatohepatitic injury and liver fibrosis in mice through excessive lipid accumulation-mediated hepatic inflammatory damage

Rapid development of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) in delivering pharmaceutics and therapeutics approaches still linger the concerns of their toxic effects. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is characterized by excessive lipid accumulation and overt hepatic inflammatory damage, and is the leading cause of chronic liver disease worldwide. This study aimed to assess the potential hepatic effects of GNPs on NASH phenotype and progression in mice. Mice were fed a MCD diet for 8 weeks to elicit NASH and then intravenously injected with PEG-GNPs at a single dose of 1, 5, and 25 mg/kg-bw. After 24 h and 1 week of administration, the levels of plasma ALT and AST, and the number of lipid droplets, the degree of lobular inflammation and the contents of triglycerides and cholesterols in the livers of the NASH mice significantly increased compared with the untreated NASH mice, indicating that the severity of MCD diet-induced NASH-like symptoms in mice increased after PEG-GNP administration. Moreover, the aggravated hepatic steatosis in a manner involving altered expression of the genes related to hepatic de novo lipogenesis, lipolysis, and fatty acid oxidation was observed after PEG-GNP administration. Additionally, the RNA levels of biomarkers of hepatic pro-inflammatory responses, endoplasmic reticulum stress, apoptosis, and autophagy in MCD-fed mice increased compared with the untreated NASH group. Moreover, PEG-GNP-treated NASH mice displayed an increase in MCD diet-induced hepatic fibrosis, revealed by massive deposition of collagen fiber in the liver and increased expression of fibrogenic genes. Collectively, these results suggest that hepatic GNP deposition after PEG-GNP administration increase the severity of MCD-induced NASH phenotype in mice, which is attributable to, in large part, increased steatohepatitic injury and liver fibrosis in mice.

Treatment of liver fibrosis: Past, current, and future

Liver fibrosis accompanies the progression of chronic liver diseases independent of etiologies, such as hepatitis viral infection, alcohol consumption, and metabolic-associated fatty liver disease. It is commonly associated with liver injury, inflammation, and cell death. Liver fibrosis is characterized by abnormal accumulation of extracellular matrix components that are expressed by liver myofibroblasts such as collagens and alpha-smooth actin proteins. Activated hepatic stellate cells contribute to the major population of myofibroblasts. Many treatments for liver fibrosis have been investigated in clinical trials, including dietary supplementation (e.g., vitamin C), biological treatment (e.g., simtuzumab), drug (e.g., pegbelfermin and natural herbs), genetic regulation (e.g., non-coding RNAs), and transplantation of stem cells (e.g., hematopoietic stem cells). However, none of these treatments has been approved by Food and Drug Administration. The treatment efficacy can be evaluated by histological staining methods, imaging methods, and serum biomarkers, as well as fibrosis scoring systems, such as fibrosis-4 index, aspartate aminotransferase to platelet ratio, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease fibrosis score. Furthermore, the reverse of liver fibrosis is slowly and frequently impossible for advanced fibrosis or cirrhosis. To avoid the life-threatening stage of liver fibrosis, anti-fibrotic treatments, especially for combined behavior prevention, biological treatment, drugs or herb medicines, and dietary regulation are needed. This review summarizes the past studies and current and future treatments for liver fibrosis.

The Ethnopharmacological Properties of Green-Engineered Metallic Nanoparticles against Metabolic Disorders

Metabolic syndrome is a multifaceted pathophysiologic condition that is largely caused by an imbalance between caloric intake and energy expenditure. The pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome is determined by an individual's genetic/epigenetics and acquired factors. Natural compounds, notably plant extracts, have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and insulin-sensitizing properties and are considered to be a viable option for metabolic disorder treatment due to their low risk of side effects. However, the limited solubility, low bioavailability, and instability of these botanicals hinder their performance. These specific limitations have prompted the need for an efficient system that reduces drug degradation and loss, eliminates unwanted side effects, and boosts drug bioavailability, as well as the percentage of the drug deposited in the target areas. The quest for an enhanced (effective) drug delivery system has led to the formation of green-engineered nanoparticles, which has increased the bioavailability, biodistribution, solubility, and stability of plant-based products. The unification of plant extracts and metallic nanoparticles has helped in the development of new therapeutics against metabolic disorders such as obesity, diabetes mellitus, neurodegenerative disorders, non-alcoholic fatty liver, and cancer. The present review outlines the pathophysiology of metabolic diseases and their cures with plant-based nanomedicine.

Therapeutic interventions of acute and chronic liver disorders: A comprehensive review

Liver disorders are one of the most common pathological problems worldwide. It affects more than 1.5 billion worldwide. Many types of hepatic cells have been reported to be involved in the initiation and propagation of both acute and chronic liver diseases, including hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, sinusoidal endothelial cells, and hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). In addition, oxidative stress, cytokines, fibrogenic factors, microRNAs, and autophagy are also involved. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of liver diseases leads to discovering new therapeutic interventions that can be used in clinics. Recently, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-HSCs therapy, gene therapy, cell therapy, gut microbiota, and nanoparticles have great potential for preventing and treating liver diseases. Here, we explored the recent possible molecular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of acute and chronic liver diseases. Besides, we overviewed the recent therapeutic interventions that targeted liver diseases and summarized the recent studies concerning liver disorders therapy.

Green Synthesis of Silymarin-Chitosan Nanoparticles as a New Nano Formulation with Enhanced Anti-Fibrotic Effects against Liver Fibrosis

Background: Silymarin (SIL) has long been utilized to treat a variety of liver illnesses, but due to its poor water solubility and low membrane permeability, it has a low oral bioavailability, limiting its therapeutic potential. Aim: Design and evaluate hepatic-targeted delivery of safe biocompatible formulated SIL-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (SCNPs) to enhance SIL’s anti-fibrotic effectiveness in rats with CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis. Methods: The SCNPs and chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) were prepared by ionotropic gelation technique and are characterized by physicochemical parameters such as particle size, morphology, zeta potential, and in vitro release studies. The therapeutic efficacy of successfully formulated SCNPs and CNPs were subjected to in vivo evaluation studies. Rats were daily administered SIL, SCNPs, and CNPs orally for 30 days. Results: The in vivo study revealed that the synthesized SCNPs demonstrated a significant antifibrotic therapeutic action against CCl₄-induced hepatic injury in rats when compared to treated groups of SIL and CNPs. SCNP-treated rats had a healthy body weight, with normal values for liver weight and liver index, as well as significant improvements in liver functions, inflammatory indicators, antioxidant pathway activation, and lipid peroxidation reduction. The antifibrotic activities of SCNPs were mediated by suppressing the expression of the main fibrosis mediators TGFβR1, COL3A1, and TGFβR2 by boosting the hepatic expression of protective miRNAs; miR-22, miR-29c, and miR-219a, respectively. The anti-fibrotic effects of SCNPs were supported by histopathology and immunohistochemistry (IHC) study. Conclusions: According to the above results, SCNPs might be the best suitable carrier to target liver cells in the treatment of liver fibrosis.

Epigenetic Regulation in Exposome-Induced Tumorigenesis: Emerging Roles of ncRNAs

Environmental factors, including pollutants and lifestyle, constitute a significant role in severe, chronic pathologies with an essential societal, economic burden. The measurement of all environmental exposures and assessing their correlation with effects on individual health is defined as the exposome, which interacts with our unique characteristics such as genetics, physiology, and epigenetics. Epigenetics investigates modifications in the expression of genes that do not depend on the underlying DNA sequence. Some studies have confirmed that environmental factors may promote disease in individuals or subsequent progeny through epigenetic alterations. Variations in the epigenetic machinery cause a spectrum of different disorders since these mechanisms are more sensitive to the environment than the genome, due to the inherent reversible nature of the epigenetic landscape. Several epigenetic mechanisms, including modifications in DNA (e.g., methylation), histones, and noncoding RNAs can change genome expression under the exogenous influence. Notably, the role of long noncoding RNAs in epigenetic processes has not been well explored in the context of exposome-induced tumorigenesis. In the present review, our scope is to provide relevant evidence indicating that epigenetic alterations mediate those detrimental effects caused by exposure to environmental toxicants, focusing mainly on a multi-step regulation by diverse noncoding RNAs subtypes.

miR-29b ameliorates atrial fibrosis in rats with atrial fibrillation by targeting TGFβRΙ and inhibiting the activation of Smad-2/3 pathway

OBJECTIVE

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a major cause of stroke with lifetime risks. microRNAs (miRNAs) are associated with AF attenuation, yet the mechanism remains unknown. This study investigated the functional mechanism of miR-29b in atrial fibrosis in AF.

METHODS

The AF rat model was established by a 7-day intravenous injection of Ach-CaCl₂ mixture. AF rats were injected with adeno-associated virus (AAv)-miR-29b and TGFβRΙ overexpression plasmid. AF duration was recorded by electrocardiogram. Atrial fibrosis was observed by Masson staining. Expressions of COL1A1, COL3A1, TGFβRΙ, TGFβΙ, miR-29b and Smad-2/3 pathway-related proteins in atrial tissues were detected by RT-qPCR and Western blot. Binding sites of miR-29b and TGFβRΙ were predicted and their target relationship was verified by dual-luciferase reporter assay.

RESULTS

miR-29b was poorly expressed and expressions of COL1A1, COL3A1, TGFβRΙ, and TGFβ1 were increased in atrial tissues of AF rats. miR-29b overexpression alleviated atrial fibrosis, reduced expressions of COL1A1, COL3A1, and TGFβ1, and shortened AF duration in AF rats. TGFβRΙ was highly expressed in atrial tissues of AF rats. miR-29b targeted TGFβRΙ. TGFβRΙ overexpression overcame the improving effect of miR-29b overexpression on AF. miR-29b overexpression decreased ratios of p-Smad-2/3 and Smad-2/3 and inhibited the Smad-2/3 pathway.

CONCLUSION

miR-29b might mitigate atrial fibrosis in AF rats by targeting TGFβRΙ and inhibiting the Smad-2/3 pathway.

Harnessing reactive oxygen/nitrogen species and inflammation: Nanodrugs for liver injury

Overall, 12% of the global population (800 million) suffers from liver disease, which causes 2 million deaths every year. Liver injury involving characteristic reactive oxygen/nitrogen species (RONS) and inflammation plays a key role in progression of liver disease. As a key metabolic organ of the human body, the liver is susceptible to injury from various sources, including COVID-19 infection. Owing to unique structural features and functions of the liver, most current antioxidants and anti-inflammatory drugs are limited against liver injury. However, the characteristics of the liver could be utilized in the development of nanodrugs to achieve specific enrichment in the liver and consequently targeted treatment. Nanodrugs have shown significant potential in eliminating RONS and regulating inflammation, presenting an attractive therapeutic tool for liver disease through controlling liver injury. Therefore, the main aim of the current review is to provide a comprehensive summary of the latest developments contributing to our understanding of the mechanisms underlying nanodrugs in the treatment of liver injury via harnessing RONS and inflammation. Meanwhile, the prospects of nanodrugs for liver injury therapy are systematically discussed, which provides a sound platform for novel therapeutic insights and inspiration for design of nanodrugs to treat liver disease.