In Vitro Study of Cricket Chitosan's Potential as a Prebiotic and a Promoter of Probiotic Microorganisms to Control Pathogenic Bacteria in the Human Gut

Oral chitosan-cyclodextrin "shell-core" nanoparticles co-loaded Rhein and chlorogenic acid for ulcerative colitis treatment

The food-derived ingredients Rhein (RH) and chlorogenic acid (CGA) have DEMONSTRATED a potential synergistic effect in the treatment of ulcerative colitis (UC) through their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. However, the oral co-delivery of RH and CGA faces challenges such as differences in hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity, gastrointestinal instability, and inadequate colonic targeting. To address these issues, shell-core nanoparticles were developed for the co-encapsulation of RH and CGA (CP@CGA-FA/TA@RH NPs). These nanoparticles utilize cyclodextrin-based polymers and folate-amantadine polymers to form a supramolecular core that targets macrophages for anti-inflammatory action with RH, while chitosan cross-link to CGA in the outer shell provides microenvironment-sensitive antioxidant release. The results indicate that CP@CGA-FA/TA@RH NPs could effectively inhibit the classical TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB-mediated anti-inflammatory pathway and activate the Nrf2/HO-1-mediated antioxidant pathway, offering a novel approach to UC treatment. Q-value analysis confirms the substantial co-medication effect between RH and CGA. This study is the first to develop a nano-system combining two food-derived ingredients for the integrated treatment of UC.

Chitosan and its derivatives: A novel approach to gut microbiota modulation and immune system enhancement

Chitosan, a biopolymer derived from the deacetylation of chitin found in crustacean shells and certain fungi, has attracted considerable attention for its promising health benefits, particularly in gut microbiota maintenance and immune system modulation. This review critically examines chitosan's multifaceted role in supporting gut health and enhancing immunity, beginning with a comprehensive overview of its sources, chemical structure, and its dual function as a dietary supplement and biomaterial. Chitosan's prebiotic effects are highlighted, with a focus on its ability to selectively stimulate beneficial gut bacteria, such as Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus, while enhancing gut barrier integrity and inhibiting the growth of pathogenic microorganisms. The review delves deeply into chitosan's immunomodulatory mechanisms, including its impact on antigen-presenting cells, cytokine profiles, and systemic immune responses. A detailed comparative analysis assesses chitosan's efficacy relative to other prebiotics and immunomodulatory agents, examining challenges related to bioavailability and metabolic activity. Beyond its role in gut health, this review explores chitosan's potential as a dual-action agent that not only supports gut microbiota but also fortifies immune resilience. It introduces emerging research on novel chitosan derivatives, such as chitooligosaccharides, and evaluates their enhanced bioactivity for functional food applications. Special attention is given to sustainability, with an exploration of alternative, plant-based sources of chitosan and their implications for both health and environmental stewardship. Also, the review identifies new research avenues, such as the growing interest in chitosan's role in the gut-brain axis and its potential mental health benefits through microbial interactions. By addressing these innovative areas, the review aims to shift the focus from basic health effects to chitosan's broader impact on public health. The findings encourage further exploration, particularly through human trials, and emphasize chitosan's untapped potential in revolutionizing health and disease management.

Advances in bio-polymer coatings for probiotic microencapsulation: chitosan and beyond for enhanced stability and controlled release

This review paper analyzes recent advancements in bio-polymer coatings for probiotic microencapsulation, with a particular emphasis on chitosan and its synergistic combinations with other materials. Probiotic microencapsulation is essential for protecting probiotics from environmental stresses, enhancing their stability, and ensuring effective delivery to the gut. The review begins with an overview of probiotic microencapsulation, highlighting its significance in safeguarding probiotics through processing, storage, and gastrointestinal transit. Advances in chitosan-based encapsulation are explored, including the integration of chitosan with other bio-polymers such as alginate, gelatin, and pectin, as well as the application of nanotechnology and innovative encapsulation techniques like spray drying and layer-by-layer assembly. Detailed mechanistic insights are integrated, illustrating how chitosan influences gut microbiota by promoting beneficial bacteria and suppressing pathogens, thus enhancing its role as a prebiotic or synbiotic. Furthermore, the review delves into chitosan's immunomodulatory effects, particularly in the context of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and autoimmune diseases, describing the immune signaling pathways influenced by chitosan and linking gut microbiota changes to improvements in systemic immunity. Recent clinical trials and human studies assessing the efficacy of chitosan-coated probiotics are presented, alongside a discussion of practical applications and a comparison of in vitro and in vivo findings to highlight real-world relevance. The sustainability of chitosan sources and their environmental impact are addressed, along with the novel concept of chitosan's role in the gut-brain axis. Finally, the review emphasizes future research needs, including the development of personalized probiotic therapies and the exploration of novel bio-polymers and encapsulation techniques.

Impact of Edible Insect Polysaccharides on Mouse Gut Microbiota: A Study on White-Spotted Flower Chafer Larva (Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis) and Silkworm Pupa (Bombyx mori)

The increasing global population and the environmental consequences of meat consumption have led to the exploration of alternative sources of protein. Edible insects have gained attention as a sustainable and nutritionally rich meat alternative. We investigated the effects of two commonly consumed insects, Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larva and Bombyx mori pupa, on beneficial gut microbiota growth, using whole 16s metagenome sequencing to assess diet-associated changes. Seven-week-old female C57BL/6J mice were administered the edible insects, along with fracto-oligosaccharide (FOS) as a positive control and sham (phosphate buffer saline (PBS)) as a negative control, to assess the relative abundance of insect-diet-associated gut microbes. In total, 567 genera and 470 species were observed, and among these, 15 bacterial genera were differentially abundant in all three groups. These results show that among the two insects, Bombyx mori pupa polysaccharides have a greater ability to regulate beneficial probiotics and next-generation probiotics. In particular, Lactococcus garvieae, which has promising effects on the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals, was significantly enriched in both Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis larva and Bombyx mori pupa polysaccharides, similar to fracto-oligosaccharide. The results suggest that the consumption of these insects, particularly polysaccharides, can enhance the growth of beneficial gut microbes, potentially leading to improved overall health in healthy populations.

Effect of Feed on the Growth Performance, Nutrition Content and Cost of Raising the Field Cricket (Gryllus madagascarensis) as a Sustainable Nutrient Source in Madagascar

The field cricket, Gryllus madagascarensis, is a sustainable and nutritious food resource that has the potential to mitigate global malnutrition. Feeds provided to this cricket can influence its growth parameters, nutritional content, and the cost of raising it for food. The current study aimed to evaluate the effects of feeds formulated from weeds, agro-byproducts, and chicken feed (control) on the growth parameters and nutritional content of G. madagascarensis. The formulated feeds included CFB (25.0% protein), CFC (24.5% protein), CFD (24.0% protein), CFE (23.5% protein), CFF (22.5% protein), CFG (21.5% protein), CFH (20.0% protein), CFI (14.5% protein), and CFJ (13.5% protein), and chicken feed (CFA) (28% protein) was used as the control. The formulation of the feeds was based on the acceptability and protein content of the 12 selected weeds and agro-byproducts. Proximate, mineral, and fatty acid analyses were conducted to determine the nutrient content of each feed, as well as the crickets raised on these feeds. The fastest development time was recorded with CFE and CFC. The highest survivorship (98%) was observed in CFG, CFE, and CFC. The highest body mass (1.15 g) and body length (26.80 mm) were observed in crickets fed CFG. By comparison, crickets fed control feed averaged a body mass of 0.81 g and a body length of 23.55 mm. The feed conversion ratio for G. madagascarensis fed CFG, CFE, and CFC was 1.71. Crickets raised on CFH and CFG had the lowest cost of feeding per kg live mass gain. Crickets fed on CFF had the highest quantity of protein (67%), followed by those fed CFG (65% protein); crickets with the lowest protein content (50%) were fed CFJ. Crickets fed on CFG had the highest mineral content. Linoleic acid, oleic acid, and palmitic acid were the major fatty acids. The findings indicate that formulated feeds from weeds and agro-byproducts have great potential to be used as an alternative feed source for crickets for two reasons: their capacity to positively influence the biology and nutrition of the cricket, and they can serve as an inexpensive replacement for chicken feed.

Unlocking the Potential of Insect-Based Proteins: Sustainable Solutions for Global Food Security and Nutrition

The present review highlights the potential of insect-based proteins to address the growing need for sustainable and secure food systems. The key findings suggest that edible insects offer a viable and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional livestock, requiring significantly less land, water, and feed while emitting lower levels of greenhouse gases. Insect farming can also reduce waste and recycle nutrients, supporting circular economy models. Nutritionally, insects provide high-quality protein, essential amino acids, and beneficial fats, making them valuable to human diets. Despite these benefits, this review emphasizes the need for comprehensive regulatory frameworks to ensure food safety, manage potential allergenicity, and mitigate contamination risks from pathogens and environmental toxins. Additionally, developing innovative processing technologies can enhance the palatability and marketability of insect-based products, promoting consumer acceptance. This review concludes that with appropriate regulatory support and technological advancements, insect-based proteins have the potential to significantly contribute to global food security and sustainability efforts.

Nutritional composition of edible wood borer beetle larvae in Kenya

Exploration of edible insects as sustainable alternative nutrient-dense sources such as nutraceuticals have attracted more and more global attention recently. However, research on wood borer beetles have largely been overlooked. This study assessed the entomo-chemical properties of Titoceres jaspideus (Cerambycidae) and Passalus punctiger (Passalidae), which are widely consumed in many African countries, including Kenya. The crude protein content of the beetle larvae ranged between 27.5-39.8 mg BSA/g. In comparison with those of cereals, amino acids such as lysine (7.9-9.9 mg/g), methionine (0.48-0.64 mg/g) and threonine (2.31-2.55 mg/g) were considerably high in the larvae. Methyl-5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoate and methyl-9Z-octadecenoate were the predominant polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, respectively. High total phenols (>4.4 mg GAE/g), flavonoids (>3.6 mg QE/g) and anti-oxidative activities (>67%) were recorded for both larvae. This implies that increasing the consumption of wood-borer beetle larvae would positively impact the state of the natural environment and reduce the problem of malnutrition in the society. Thus, applying these strategies to develop insect food in a more familiar form can help to make insect-enriched foods more appealing to consumers, facilitating their widespread adoption as a sustainable and nutritious food source.

Low molecular weight chitosan from Pleurotus ostreatus waste and its prebiotic potential

The booming mushroom industry envisages economic merits, and massive unutilized waste production (∼ 20 %) creates an opportunity for valorization. Chitosan, a bioactive polysaccharide, has drawn immense attention for its invaluable therapeutic potential. Thus, the present study was conducted to extract chitosan from mushroom waste (MCH) for its prebiotic potential. The structural characterization of MCH was carried out using NMR, FTIR, and XRD. The CP/MAS-13CNMR spectrum of MCH appeared at δ 57.67 (C2), 61.19 (C6), 75.39 (C3/C5), 83.53 (C4), 105.13 (C1), 23.69 (CH3), and 174.19 (C = O) ppm. The FTIR showed characteristic peaks at 3361 cm-1, 1582 cm-1, and 1262 cm-1 attributed to -NH stretching, amide II, and amide III bands of MCH. XRD interpretation of MCH exhibited a single strong reflection at 2θ =20.19, which may correspond to the "form-II" polymorph. The extracted MCH (∼ 47 kDa) exhibited varying degrees of deacetylation from 79 to 84 %. The prebiotic activity score of 0.73 to 0.82 was observed for MCH (1 %) when supplemented with probiotic strains (Lactobacillus casei, L. helveticus, L. plantarum, and L. rhamnosus). MCH enhanced the growth of Lactobacillus strains and SCFA's levels, particularly in L. rhamnosus. The MCH also inhibited the growth of pathogenic strains (MIC of 0.125 and 0.25 mg/mL against E. coli and S. aureus, respectively) and enhanced the adhesion efficiency of probiotics (3 to 8 % at 1 % MCH supplementation). L. rhamnosus efficiency was higher against pathogens in the presence of MCH, as indicated by anti-adhesion assays. These findings suggested that extracted polysaccharides from mushroom waste can be used as a prebiotic for ameliorating intestinal dysbiosis.

Effect of cooking methods on nutritional value and microbial safety of edible rhinoceros beetle grubs (Oryctes sp.)

Although edible rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes sp.) larvae are popularly consumed in many countries worldwide, they are prepared using different methods such as boiling, roasting, toasting, and deep-frying, whose effect on nutritional value and microbial safety is scarcely known. Here we investigated the effect of these methods on the nutritional value and microbial safety of Oryctes sp. larvae. Our hypothesis was that cooking the grubs using the four methods had no effect on their nutritional content and microbial loads and diversity. The grubs were analyzed for proximate composition, and fatty and amino acid profiles using standard chemical procedures; and microbial safety using standard culturing procedures. Deep-frying reduced protein and carbohydrate content, but elevated fat content. Boiling lowered ash content, but increased fibre and carbohydrate composition. Roasting and toasting increased protein and ash contents, respectively. Forty fatty acids were detected in the larvae, of which levels of only five were not significantly affected by cooking method, while the levels of the others were differentially affected by the different cooking methods. Amino acid profiles and levels were largely comparable across treatments, but lysine and arginine were higher in all cooked grubs than raw form. All the cooking methods eliminated Enterobacteriaceae, Shigella sp. and Campylobacter sp. from the grubs. Except boiling, all methods reduced total viable count to safe levels. Salmonella sp. were only eliminated by toasting and roasting; while boiling promoted growth of yeast and moulds. Staphylococcus aureus levels exceeded safety limits in all the cooking methods. These findings offer guidance on the type of method to use in preparing the grubs for desired nutritional and safety outcomes.

Edible Insects: A New Sustainable Nutritional Resource Worth Promoting

Edible insects are a highly nutritious source of protein and are enjoyed by people all over the world. Insects contain various other nutrients and beneficial compounds, such as lipids, vitamins and minerals, chitin, phenolic compounds, and antimicrobial peptides, which contribute to good health. The practice of insect farming is far more resource-efficient compared to traditional agriculture and animal husbandry, requiring less land, energy, and water, and resulting in a significantly lower carbon footprint. In fact, insects are 12 to 25 times more efficient than animals in converting low-protein feed into protein. When it comes to protein production per unit area, insect farming only requires about one-eighth of the land needed for beef production. Moreover, insect farming generates minimal waste, as insects can consume food and biomass that would otherwise go to waste, contributing to a circular economy that promotes resource recycling and reuse. Insects can be fed with agricultural waste, such as unused plant stems and food scraps. Additionally, the excrement produced by insects can be used as fertilizer for crops, completing the circular chain. Despite the undeniable sustainability and nutritional benefits of consuming insects, widespread acceptance of incorporating insects into our daily diets still has a long way to go. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the nutritional value of edible insects, the development of farming and processing technologies, and the problems faced in the marketing of edible insect products and insect foods to improve the reference for how people choose edible insects.

Dietary Inclusion of Yellow Mealworms (T. molitor) and Lesser Mealworms (A. diaperinus) Modifies Intestinal Microbiota Populations of Diet-Induced Obesity Mice

BACKGROUND

Insect-based proteins are high-quality alternatives to support the shift toward more sustainable and healthy diets. Additionally, insects contain chitin and have unique fatty acid profiles. Studies have shown that mealworms may beneficially affect metabolism, but limited information is known regarding their effects on gut microbiota.

OBJECTIVES

We determined the effects of defatted yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) and whole lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus) meals on the intestinal microbiota of diet-induced obesity mice.

METHODS

Male C57BL/6J mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD; 46% kcal) to induce obesity. Obese mice were then randomly assigned to treatments (n = 10/group) and fed for 8 wk: HFD, HFD with casein protein; B50, HFD with 50% protein from whole lesser mealworm; B100, HFD with 100% protein from whole lesser mealworm; Y50, HFD with 50% protein from defatted yellow mealworm; Y100, HFD with 100% protein from defatted yellow mealworm. Lean mice (n = 10) fed a low-fat-diet (10% kcal) were included. Fresh feces were collected at baseline and every 2 wk, with cecal digesta collected at kill. Fecal and cecal DNA was analyzed for microbiota using 16S rRNA MiSeq Illumina sequencing.

RESULTS

In feces and cecal digesta, mice fed mealworms had greater (P < 0.05) bacterial alpha diversity, with changes occurring in a time-dependent manner (P < 0.05). Beta diversity analyses of cecal samples showed a clear separation of treatments, with a time-based separation shown in fecal samples. Widespread microbial differences were observed, with over 45 genera altered (P < 0.05) by diet in cecal digesta. In feces, over 50 genera and 40 genera were altered (P < 0.05) by diet and time, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Mealworm consumption changes the intestinal microbiota of obese mice, increasing alpha diversity measures and shifting bacterial taxa. More investigation is required to determine what mealworm components are responsible and how they may be linked with the metabolic benefits observed in mealworm-fed mice.

Unraveling the physicochemical attributes of three cricket (Gryllus bimaculatus)-enriched biscuit products and implications on consumers' preference and willingness to pay

Disgust and neophobia elicited by whole insect products, has necessitated the need to mask insect-based food products. The physico-chemical parameters, sensory acceptance, and willingness to pay (WTP) for wheat biscuits supplemented with cricket powder was evaluated. The biscuits' color intensity correlated with the cricket inclusion levels. Spread ration of cricket-enriched-biscuits increased (1.0-1.2-folds), while the hardness and fracturability decreased (1.0-1.3-folds and 1.0-1.2 folds, respectively) compared to the control biscuit. Cricket-biscuits exhibited 1.2-1.7, 1.1-3.7, 1.2-3.0 and 1.1-1.2-folds higher (p < 0.05) protein, ash, fiber, and fat, respectively. Ca, Fe, and Zn were 1.1-3.7, 1.1-1.2 and 1.4-4.0-folds higher, respectively, for cricket-based biscuits. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids proportionally increased with increasing cricket flour. On a likert scale, 71.4%, 71.9%, 38.4% and 57.5% of the caregivers and 38.6%, 58.3%, 40.0% and 34.0% for children (3-5 years) strongly preferred the color, texture, taste and aroma, respectively, of the cricket-based biscuits. Forty-seven (47%) of the caretakers were WTP a premium of 37 Kenyan shillings (0.34 USD) for cricket-based biscuits. Our findings demonstrated that integration of cricket flour into existing market-driven consumer familiar food products significantly increased acceptability and WTP, thus promising potential to contribute to improved food and nutritional security.

Could Insect Products Provide a Safe and Sustainable Feed Alternative for the Poultry Industry? A Comprehensive Review

The planet is home to more than 2000 species of edible insects, some of which have been consumed as food for many years. Recently, edible insect products have been gradually increasing in several countries, such as Italy and Egypt, as novel feed resources for humans and animals due to their availability, potential economic benefits, and high nutritive value. The insect industry can provide a new solution for livestock nutrition and offer many additional advantages, but there are obstacles to overcome, such as some nutritional organizations that forbid its usage. Nevertheless, previous research indicates that different insect species could be used safely as nutraceuticals in poultry farming to improve broiler growth performance (>3%) and layer egg production (>5%). Among these species, there are various products and extracts that can be used in poultry nutrition in a sustainable manner. This review provides an outline of insect composition, nutrient values, application in poultry feed, safety, and guidelines, and finally, the future perspectives of insects as an alternative feed source in poultry diets.

Chitin and omega-3 fatty acids in edible insects have underexplored benefits for the gut microbiome and human health

A healthy gut microbiome is critical for nutrient metabolism, pathogen inhibition and immune regulation, and is highly influenced by diet. Edible insects are good sources of protein and micronutrients, but unlike other animal-derived foods, they also contain both dietary fibre and omega-3 fatty acids that can modulate gut microbiota. Here we explore the potential impacts of insect consumption on the microbiome. Laboratory, animal and human studies indicate that insect fibre in the form of chitin and its derivatives can modify gut microbiota with beneficial outcomes. Some insects also contain favourable omega-3/omega-6 ratios. We identify gaps in the literature-especially a dearth of human studies-that must be addressed to better understand health impacts of entomophagy. Insects, already eaten across the globe, can be farmed using fewer resources than conventional livestock. Widening the research scope offers an opportunity to advance use of edible insects to address interconnected environmental and health challenges.

Crickets (Acheta domesticus) as Wheat Bread Ingredient: Influence on Bread Quality and Safety Characteristics

The aim of this study was to assess respondents' opinions on the choice of edible insects as a food, and to evaluate the influence of cricket flour (ECF) (10, 20, 30%) on the quality of wheat bread (WB). Whereas ECF is an additional source of acrylamide precursors, in order to reduce acrylamide formation in WB, fermentation of ECF with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum-No.122 was applied. It was established that 70.7% of the respondents had never eaten insects and more than 30% would not choose them. However, ECF was suitable substrate for fermentation (lactobacilli count 8.24 log₁₀CFU/g, pH-4.26). In addition, fermentation reduced the total biogenic amines content in ECF (by 13.1%). The highest specific volume showed WB, prepared with fermented ECF (10, 20, 30%). All the tested WB showed similar overall acceptability (on average, 7.9 points). However, the highest intensity of emotion "happy" was induced by the WB, prepared with fermented ECF. Most of the WB with non-treated and fermented ECF showed higher acrylamide concentration (except WB with 10% of fermented ECF), in comparison with the control. Finally, fermentation is recommended for ECF inclusion in the main WB formula because fermentation improves not only quality but also reduces acrylamide concentration in WB.

The Effect of Chitosan on Plant Physiology, Wound Response, and Fruit Quality of Tomato

In agriculture, chitosan has become popular as a metabolic enhancer; however, no deep information has been obtained yet regarding its mechanisms on vegetative tissues. This work was conducted to test the impact of chitosan applied at different plant growth stages on plant development, physiology, and response to wounding as well as fruit shape and composition. Five concentrations of chitosan were tested on tomato. The most effective chitosan doses that increased leaf number, leaf area, plant biomass, and stomatal conductance were 0.75 and 1 mg mL^-1. Chitosan (1 mg mL^-1) applied as foliar spray increased the levels of jasmonoyl-isoleucine and abscisic acid in wounded roots. The application of this dose at vegetative and flowering stages increased chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) values, whereas application at the fruit maturation stage reduced the Fv/Fm values. This decline was positively correlated with fruit shape and negatively correlated with the pH and the content of soluble sugars, lycopene, total flavonoids, and nitrogen in fruits. Moreover, the levels of primary metabolites derived from glycolysis, such as inositol phosphate, lactic acid, and ascorbic acid, increased in response to treatment of plants with 1 mg mL^-1- chitosan. Thus, chitosan application affects various plant processes by influencing stomata aperture, cell division and expansion, fruit maturation, mineral assimilation, and defense responses.

Effect of the combination of biological, chemical control and agronomic technique in integrated management pea root rot and its productivity

Root rot of pea caused by Fusarium spp. is one of the important diseases of pea (Pisum sativum L.). The causal fungus of the disease isolated from naturally infected pea plants was identified as Fusarium solani f. sp. pisi (Jones). Evaluation of four bio agents and nine fungicides was done in vitro against Fusarium solani. Trichoderma harzianum was the most effective bio agent in inhibiting the mycelial growth of F. solani by (82.62%). Carbendazim 50 WP was the most effective fungicide in inhibiting the mycelial growth of F. solani by (91.06%). Carbendazim at the rate of 0.1% and T. harzianum at concentration of 109 cfu when used as seed treatment under field conditions were evaluated along with three planting techniques v.i.z, raised beds, ridges and flat beds. It was found that Carbendazim at the rate of 0.1% when given as seed treatment in raised beds exhibited the lowest disease incidence (10.97%), intensity (2.89%) and the maximum pod yield (89.63 q ha-1) as compared to control.

Chitosan and Chitooligosaccharide: The Promising Non-Plant-Derived Prebiotics with Multiple Biological Activities

Biodegradable chitin is the second-most abundant natural polysaccharide, widely existing in the exoskeletons of crabs, shrimps, insects, and the cell walls of fungi. Chitosan and chitooligosaccharide (COS, also named chitosan oligosaccharide) are the two most important deacetylated derivatives of chitin. Compared with chitin, chitosan and COS not only have more satisfactory physicochemical properties but also exhibit additional biological activities, which cause them to be widely applied in the fields of food, medicine, and agriculture. Additionally, due to their significant ability to improve gut microbiota, chitosan and COS are deemed prospective prebiotics. Here, we introduced the production, physicochemical properties, applications, and pharmacokinetic characteristics of chitosan and COS. Furthermore, we summarized the latest research on their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities. Research progress on the prebiotic functions of chitosan and COS is particularly reviewed. We creatively analyzed and discussed the mechanisms and correlations underlying these activities of chitosan and COS and their physicochemical properties. Our work enriched people's understanding of these non-plant-derived prebiotics. Based on this review, the future directions of research on chitosan and COS are explored. Collectively, optimizing the production technology of chitin derivatives and enriching understanding of their biological functions will shed more light on their capability to improve human health.

Comparison of Nutritional Profiles of Super Worm (Zophobas morio) and Yellow Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) as Alternative Feeds Used in Animal Husbandry: Is Super Worm Superior?

Edible insects are acknowledged as a valuable nutritional source and promising alternative to traditional feed ingredients, while the optimization of rearing conditions is required for their wider utilization in the animal feed industry. The main goal of this study was to compare and optimize the rearing conditions of the two species' larvae and identify the most favorable nutritive composition of the full-fat larval meal. For that purpose, Tenebrio molitor (TM) and Zophobas morio (ZM) were reared on three different substrates and harvested after three time periods. An artificial neural network (ANN) with multi-objective optimization (MOO) was used to investigate the influence between the observed parameters as well as to optimize and determine rearing conditions. The optimization of the larval rearing conditions showed that the best nutritive composition of full-fat larval meal was obtained for ZM larvae reared on a mixture of cabbage, carrot and flaxseed and harvested after 104 days. The best nutritive composition contained 39.52% protein, 32% crude fat, 44.01% essential amino acids, 65.21 mg/100 g Ca and 651.15 mg/100 g P with a favorable ratio of 1.5 of n6/n3 fatty acids. Additionally, the incorporation of flaxseed in the larval diet resulted in an increase in C18:3n3 content in all samples.

Biocontrol Potential of Chitin and Chitosan Extracted from Black Soldier Fly Pupal Exuviae against Bacterial Wilt of Tomato

Globally, Ralstonia solanacearum (Smith) is ranked one of the most destructive bacterial pathogens inducing rapid and fatal wilting symptoms on tomatoes. Yield losses on tomatoes vary from 0 to 91% and most control measures are unaffordable to resource-poor farmers. This study investigated the antimicrobial activities of chitin and chitosan extracted from black soldier fly (BSF) pupal exuviae against R. solanacearum. Morphological, biochemical, and molecular techniques were used to isolate and characterize R. solanacearum for in vitro pathogenicity test using disc diffusion technique. Our results revealed that BSF chitosan significantly inhibited the growth of R. solanacearum when compared to treatments without chitosan. However, there was no significant difference in the antibacterial activities between BSF and commercial chitosan against R. solanacearum. Soil amended with BSF-chitin and chitosan demonstrated a reduction in bacterial wilt disease incidence by 30.31% and 34.95%, respectively. Whereas, disease severity was reduced by 22.57% and 23.66%, when inoculated tomato plants were subjected to soil amended with BSF chitin and chitosan, respectively. These findings have demonstrated that BSF pupal shells are an attractive renewable raw material for the recovery of valuable products (chitin and chitosan) with promising ability as a new type of eco-friendly control measure against bacterial wilt caused by R. solanacearum. Further studies should explore integrated pest management options that integrate multiple components including insect-based chitin and chitosan to manage bacterial wilt diseases, contributing significantly to increased tomato production worldwide.

Antimicrobial Activity of Chemically and Biologically Treated Chitosan Prepared from Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Pupal Shell Waste

Globally, the broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity of chitin and chitosan has been widely documented. However, very little research attention has focused on chitin and chitosan extracted from black soldier fly pupal exuviae, which are abundantly present as byproducts from insect-farming enterprises. This study presents the first comparative analysis of chemical and biological extraction of chitin and chitosan from BSF pupal exuviae. The antibacterial activity of chitosan was also evaluated. For chemical extraction, demineralization and deproteinization were carried out using 1 M hydrochloric acid at 100 °C for 2 h and 1 M NaOH for 4 h at 100 °C, respectively. Biological chitin extraction was carried out by protease-producing bacteria and lactic-acid-producing bacteria for protein and mineral removal, respectively. The extracted chitin was converted to chitosan via deacetylation using 40% NaOH for 8 h at 100 °C. Chitin characterization was done using FTIR spectroscopy, while the antimicrobial properties were determined using the disc diffusion method. Chemical and biological extraction gave a chitin yield of 10.18% and 11.85%, respectively. A maximum chitosan yield of 6.58% was achieved via chemical treatment. From the FTIR results, biological and chemical chitin showed characteristic chitin peaks at 1650 and 1550 cm⁻¹—wavenumbers corresponding to amide I stretching and amide II bending, respectively. There was significant growth inhibition for Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis,Pseudomonas aeruginosa,Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida albicans when subjected to 2.5 and 5% concentrations of chitosan. Our findings demonstrate that chitosan from BSF pupal exuviae could be a promising and novel therapeutic agent for drug development against resistant strains of bacteria.