Surveillance of Patulin in Apple, Grapes, Juices and Value-Added Products for Sale in Pakistan

A systematic review/meta-analysis of xenobiotics in apple products highlights lack of compliance with European Food Safety Authority Regulation

Apples and their derivatives are among the most widely consumed fruit products in the world and iconic examples of food-safety issues. By using a systematic search in the PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase databases, we extracted 1374 publications on pesticides, mycotoxins, and heavy metal contents in apple products, which represented 44%, 48%, and 26% of publications on fruit, respectively. We selected 90 articles in which we were able to assess compliance with the European Food Safety Authority's (EFSA) regulations and found a 42.8% overall rate of checks exceeding the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL), a 51.6% rate for pesticides, a 42.55% rate for heavy metals, and a 40.2% rate for mycotoxins. Over 60% of the 92 pesticides considered were banned by the European Union. The rate of noncompliance was much higher in the Middle East (65.2%), Africa (50%), Asia (43.9%), Europe (37.5%), and South America (33.3%) than in North America (12.5%). We observed an influence of the climate Köppen classification and the 2024 Human Development Index (HDI) on the rate of exceeding MRLs. Our data raise questions about the compliance with production regulation requirements and the efficacy of controls. According to the criteria that define MRLs, we also question non-negligible public health issues generated by the high rate of noncompliance.

Patulin-degrading enzymes sources, structures, and mechanisms: A review

Patulin (PAT), a fungal secondary metabolite with multiple toxicities, is an unavoidable contaminant in fruit and vegetable processing, posing potential health risks to consumers and causing significant economic losses to the global food industry. Traditional control strategies, such as physical and chemical methods, face several challenges, including low efficiency, high costs, and unverified safety. In contrast, microbial degradation of patulin is considered a more efficient and environmentally friendly approach, which has become a popular research focus. However, there is still insufficient research on the key degradation enzymes involved in microorganisms. Therefore, this review comprehensively summarizes recent research progress on the biological degradation of patulin, with a focus on microbial species capable of degrading patulin, the degradation enzymes they express, potential degradation mechanisms, and the toxicity of degradation products, while providing prospects for future research. It offers valuable insights for controlling patulin in food and stimulates further investigation. Ultimately, this review aims to promote the development of efficient and eco-friendly methods to mitigate patulin contamination in fruits and vegetables.

Occurrence and bioaccessible fractions of mycotoxins in infant formulas, fruit puree and cereal baby foods: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Mycotoxins, toxic fungal secondary metabolites, pose significant health risks due to their widespread presence in foodstuffs, particularly impacting children through contaminated infant foods. Regulatory assessments often overlook the unique physiological vulnerabilities of children. This study systematically reviews and meta-analyzes mycotoxin bioaccessibility in infant food products. A total of 92 articles met the inclusion and exclusion criteria, with 36 % describing mycotoxin occurrence levels in infant food matrices and 42 % reporting values exceeding regulatory limits. Of the 14 studies assessing the bioaccessible fraction of mycotoxins, 50 % indicated a high risk of exposure, and only 16 % examined mycotoxin co-occurrence in infant foods like formulas, cereals, and purees. The I2 index for bioaccessibility values was 99.47 %, indicating significant variability among methods. This highlights the necessity for future studies focused on developing specific gastrointestinal in vitro protocols for children to establish a baseline for risk analysis of infant foods.

10-Eicosanol Alleviates Patulin-Induced Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis by Activating AKT (Protein Kinase B) in Porcine Intestinal Epithelial Cells

Patulin (PAT) is a fungal toxin prevalent in apples and apple products and associated with several toxic effects, potentially harming multiple organs, including the kidneys, liver, and colon. However, the precise molecular mechanism through which PAT affects the intestines remains comprehensively unclear. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the molecular effects of PAT on the intestinal epithelium. Gene expression profiling was conducted, hypothesizing that PAT induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis through the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. Cell cycle analysis, along with Annexin-V and propidium iodide staining, confirmed that PAT induced G2/M phase arrest and apoptosis in IPEC-J2 cells. Additionally, PAT activated the expression of cell cycle-related genes (CDK1, CCNB1) and apoptosis-related genes (BCL6, CASP9). Treatment with SC79, an AKT activator, mitigated cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. To identify natural products that could mitigate the harmful effects of PAT in small intestinal epithelial cells in pigs, the high-throughput screening of a natural product library was conducted, revealing 10-Eicosanol as a promising candidate. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that 10-Eicosanol alleviates PAT-induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in IPEC-J2 cells by activating AKT.

Involvement of multiple forms of cell death in patulin-induced toxicities

Patulin (PAT) is the most common mycotoxin found in moldy fruits and their derived products, and is reported to cause diverse toxic effects, including hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, cardiotoxicity, neurotoxicity, immunotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity and dermal toxicity. The cell death induction by PAT is suggested to be a key cellular mechanism involved in PAT-induced toxicities. Accumulating evidence indicates that the multiple forms of cell death are induced in response to PAT exposure, including apoptosis, autophagic cell death, pyroptosis and ferroptosis. Mechanistically, the cell death induction by PAT is associated the oxidative stress induction via reducing the antioxidant capacity or inducing pro-oxidant NADPH oxidase, the activation of mitochondrial pathway via regulating BCL-2 family proteins, the disruption of iron metabolism through ferritinophagy-mediated ferritin degradation, and the induction of the NOD-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome/caspase-1/gasdermin D (GSDMD) pathway. In this review article, we summarize the present understanding of the cell death induction by PAT, discuss the potential signaling pathways underlying PAT-induced cell death, and propose the issues that need to be addressed to promote the development of cell death-based approach to counteract PAT-induced toxicities.

Determination and analysis of patulin in apples, hawthorns, and their products by high-performance liquid chromatography

This study aimed to establish a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method to investigate the residues of patulin in apples, hawthorns, and their products. A total of 400 samples were collected from online shopping plats and supermarkets in China, including apples (n = 50), hawthorns (n = 50), and their products (apple juice, apple puree, apple jam, hawthorn juice, hawthorn chips, and hawthorn rolls, n = 300). In this experiment, this method had good linearity and a recovery of 82.3-94.4% for patulin. The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.2 µg/kg for liquid samples, while it was 0.3 µg/kg for solid and semi-fluid samples. The frequencies of patulin were 79.8% in 400 samples, and the patulin concentration is from 0.6 to 126.0 µg/kg. Two samples (0.5%) for patulin exceeded the regulatory limit (50 µg/kg) in 400 samples. The frequencies of patulin in kinds of samples were 32.0-98.0% (p < 0.05), and the percentage of samples exceeding the limit was not more than 2.0%. The frequencies of patulin in domestic samples were 83.0%, while they were 57.7% in imported samples. Two domestic samples (0.6%) contained patulin above the regulatory limit, while none of the imported samples exceeded the limit. Among the online and offline samples, the frequencies of patulin were 76.4 and 82.1%. Two online samples (1.0%) for patulin exceeded the regulatory limit, whereas none of the offline samples exceeded the limit. These results showed it is important to monitor regularly the content of patulin in apples, hawthorns, and their products to ensure consumer food safety.

Overexpression of the SDR gene improves the ability of Meyerozyma guilliermondii to degrade patulin in pears and juices

The intracellular enzymes of antagonistic yeast are effective in controlling patulin (PAT) contamination. However, countless enzymes that have been revealed remain functionally uncharacterized. The study built on previous transcriptomic data obtained by our research group to amplify and express a gene encoding a short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase (SDR) in Meyerozyma guilliermondii. Overexpression of SDR increased the tolerance of M. guilliermondii to PAT and the ability to degrade PAT of the intracellular enzymes. Furthermore, MgSDR-overexpressed M. guilliermondii showed higher PAT degradation in juices (apple and peach) and controlled the blue mold of pears at 20 °C and 4 °C while significantly reduced the content of PAT and the biomass of Penicillium expansum in decayed tissues than wild-type M. guilliermondii. This study provides theoretical references for the subsequent heterologous expression, formulation, and application of the SDR protein from M. guilliermondii and contributes to elucidating the PAT degradation mechanism of antagonistic yeasts.

Comprehensive review on patulin and Alternaria toxins in fruit and derived products

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by certain fungi, which can contaminate various food commodities, including fruits and their derived products. Patulin and Alternaria toxins are among the most commonly encountered mycotoxins in fruit and their derived products. In this review, the sources, toxicity, and regulations related to these mycotoxins, as well as their detection and mitigation strategies are widely discussed. Patulin is a mycotoxin produced mainly by the fungal genera Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Byssochlamys. Alternaria toxins, produced by fungi in the Alternaria genus, are another common group of mycotoxins found in fruits and fruit products. The most prevalent Alternaria toxins are alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME). These mycotoxins are of concern due to their potential negative effects on human health. Ingesting fruits contaminated with these mycotoxins can cause acute and chronic health problems. Detection of patulin and Alternaria toxins in fruit and their derived products can be challenging due to their low concentrations and the complexity of the food matrices. Common analytical methods, good agricultural practices, and contamination monitoring of these mycotoxins are important for safe consumption of fruits and derived products. And Future research will continue to explore new methods for detecting and managing these mycotoxins, with the ultimate goal of ensuring the safety and quality of fruits and derived product supply.

Development and validation of a label-free colorimetric aptasensor based on the HCR and hemin/G-quadruplex DNAzyme for the determination of patulin in fruits and fruit-based products from Xinjiang (China)

In this study, a simple, novel and practical label-free colorimetric aptasensor was successfully prepared for the ultrasensitive detection of patulin, based on the hybridization chain reaction (HCR) and hemin/G-quadruplex DNAzyme-signal amplification strategy. In this aptasensor, a detection probe was designed consisting of the aptamer sequence for the patulin and an initiator sequence to trigger the HCR. Two hairpin structures (H1 and H2) that included the G-quadruplex sequences in inactive configuration were used as functional elements. The presence of patulin triggered the opening of the hairpin structure and the beginning of the HCR. After the addition of hemin, G-rich DNA self-assembled into the peroxidase-mimicking hemin/G-quadruplex DNAzymes, which catalyzed a colorimetric reaction. Under optimized conditions, patulin was measured within a linear range of 0.1-200 ng mL^-1, and the detection limit was 0.060 ng mL^-1. The recovery rates ranged from 91.4 to 105% for fruits and fruit-based products. Subsequently, a total of 311 samples comprising fruits, fruit-based products and dried fruits were collected from supermarkets, production bases and farmers' markets in Xinjiang, and analyzed for patulin using the proposed aptasensor. Patulin was detected in 16 samples (5.14%) at concentrations ranging from 1.23 to 16.4 μg kg^-1. None of the samples exceeded the maximal level set by the EU commission (50 μg kg^-1). The positivity in fresh fruits (7.69%) was significantly higher than that of fruit-based products (4.00%) and dried fruits (1.25%). In summary, the proposed aptasensor can quickly detect patulin in food samples, thus providing a warning for mycotoxin contamination.

A Comprehensive Review on Grape Juice Beverage in Context to Its Processing and Composition with Future Perspectives to Maximize Its Value

Red and purple grape juices (GJs) have long been consumed worldwide for their unique taste and nutritive value. Moreover, grape is postulated to play an important role in the improvement of cardiovascular risk factors owing to its rich polyphenol content. Little is known regarding GJ’s holistic chemistry and functionality as compared to those of other fruit juices. This review aims to compile the state-of-the art chemistry of colored grape juices and in context to its analysis and nutritional values. Further, a review of potential contaminants to be introduced during manufacturing and other factors that influence juice quality and or health effects are presented to help maximize GJ’s quality. A comparison between analytical methods for juice QC establishment is presented employing hyphenated platforms versus direct spectroscopic techniques. The enrichment of the colored skin with a myriad of phenolics poses it as a functional beverage compared to that of skinless juice.

Graphical abstract

Cardiotoxicity of patulin was found in H9c2 cells

Patulin (PAT) is a kind of mycotoxins that is universally found at rotten fruits, especially apples and apple products. Previous studies have shown that PAT has hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. However, cardiotoxicity of PAT is rarely reported. Present study aimed at investigate the cardiotoxicity and relevant mechanisms of PAT on H9c2 cells. Cytotoxicity of PAT were evaluated by MTT assay and LDH. Hoechst 33258 staining was used to examine the nuclear morphology and AV/PI double staining was employed for apoptosis on H9c2 cells. Expression level of Caspase-3, Caspase-9, Bax, Bcl-2 were quantified to verify the potential mechanism of mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. The tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin 6 (IL-6) were quantified to determine the inflammatory response by using ELISA assay. ROS, SOD, MDA, GSH levels were measured to determine the oxidative stress status. Results demonstrated that PAT significantly induced cell injury, as evidenced by the down-regulated of cell viability, and the increase of LDH release. Hoesst33258 staining and flow cytometry showed that apoptosis rate was elevated by PAT. PAT treatment up-regulated the expression of Caspase-3, Caspase-9, Bax level and down-regulated the expression of Bcl-2 level. TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 levels showed that PAT increased the pro-inflammatory response. As PAT concentration increased, intracellular MDA, ROS content were elevated, while GSH content and the activity of SOD were significantly decreased. Thus, it is concluded that PAT may induce apoptosis of H9c2 cells through oxidative stress.

Current Strategies for Studying the Natural and Synthetic Bioactive Compounds in Food by Chromatographic Separation Techniques

The present study summarizes the new strategies including advanced equipment and validation parameters of liquid and gas chromatography methods i.e., thin-layer chromatography (TLC), column liquid chromatography (CLC), and gas chromatography (GC) suitable for the identification and quantitative determination of different natural and synthetic bioactive compounds present in food and food products, which play an important role in human health, within the period of 2019–2021 (January). Full characteristic of some of these procedures with their validation parameters is discussed in this work. The present review confirms the vital role of HPLC methodology in combination with different detection modes i.e., HPLC-UV, HPLC-DAD, HPLC-MS, and HPLC-MS/MS for the determination of natural and synthetic bioactive molecules for different purposes i.e., to characterize the chemical composition of food as well as in the multi-residue analysis of pesticides, NSAIDs, antibiotics, steroids, and others in food and food products.

Patulin in food: A mycotoxin concern for human health and its management strategies

The mycotoxin patulin is primarily produced as a secondary metabolite by numerous fungal species and predominantly by Aspergillus, Byssochlamys, and Penicillium species. It is generally associated with fungal infected food materials. Penicillium expansum is considered the only fungal species liable for patulin contamination in pome fruits, especially in apples and apple-based products. This toxin in food poses serious health concerns and economic threat, which has aroused the need to adopt effective detection and mitigation strategies. Understanding its origin sources and biosynthetic mechanism stands essential for efficiently designing a management strategy against this fungal contamination. This review aims to present an updated outline of the sources of patulin occurrence in different foods and their biosynthetic mechanisms. It further provides information regarding the detrimental effects of patulin on human and agriculture as well as its effective detection, management, and control strategies.