Farrerol Relieve Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-Induced Mastitis by Inhibiting AKT/NF-κB p65, ERK1/2 and P38 Signaling Pathway

Paeonol attenuates LPS-induced inflammatory injury in mastitis by regulating the MAPK and Nrf2 signaling pathways

Mastitis is an inflammatory udder disease that causes important economic losses in the animal breeding and dairy product industries. While antibiotics have contributed to disease control, their use presents risks due to drug residues in livestock products that can potentially threaten human health. Paeonol, an active ingredient extracted from the dried root bark of paeonia suffruticosa, exhibits various pharmacological effects, including anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties, but its role in mastitis remains unclear. In this study, we first evaluated the effects of paeonol on LPS-induced mastitis in mice and further explored the potential anti-inflammatory mechanism of paeonol on bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMECs). The results showed that paeonol alleviated LPS-induced mouse mastitis by inhibiting the infiltration of inflammatory cells and the release of inflammatory factors. Cellular assays further demonstrated that paeonol reduced apoptosis and inhibited inflammation and oxidative stress injury by mechanisms involving activation of Nrf2 signaling and inhibition of MAPK signaling in BMECs. Collectively, our results suggest that paeonol holds promise as a therapeutic agent for alleviating LPS-induced mastitis injury while providing novel insights into potential drug targets for mastitis treatment.

Nanocomposite Hydrogel for Real-Time Wound Status Monitoring and Comprehensive Treatment

Current skin sensors or wound dressings fall short in addressing the complexities and challenges encountered in real-world scenarios, lacking adequate capability to facilitate wound repair. The advancement of methodologies enabling early diagnosis, real-time monitoring, and active regulation of drug delivery for timely comprehensive treatment holds paramount significance for complex chronic wounds. In this study, a nanocomposite hydrogel is devised for real-time monitoring of wound condition and comprehensive treatment. Tannins and siRNA containing matrix metalloproteinase-9 gene siRNA interference are self-assembled to construct a degradable nanogel and modified with bovine serum albumin. The nanogel and pH indicator are encapsulated within a dual-crosslinking hydrogel synthesized with norbornene dianhydride-modified paramylon. The hydrogel exhibited excellent shape adaptability due to borate bonding, and the click polymerization reaction led to rapid in situ curing of the hydrogel. The system not only monitors pH, temperature, wound exudate alterations, and peristalsis during wound healing but also exhibits hemostatic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, modulates macrophage polarization, and facilitates vascular tissue regeneration. This therapeutic approach, which integrates the monitoring of pathological parameters with comprehensive treatment, is anticipated to address the clinical issues and challenges associated with chronic diabetic wounds and infected wounds, offering broad prospects for application.

Farrerol Alleviates Diabetic Cardiomyopathy by Regulating AMPK-Mediated Cardiac Lipid Metabolic Pathways in Type 2 Diabetic Rats

Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a prevalent complication of diabetes mellitus characterized by cardiac dysfunction and myocardial remodeling. Farrerol (FA), an active ingredient in Rhododendron with various pharmacological activities, has an unclear specific role in DCM. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effects of FA on DCM rats and elucidate its mechanism. The type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) model was induced in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats by administering a high-fat diet for 8 weeks along with STZ injection. Subsequent to successful modeling, FA and the positive drug Dapagliflozin (Dapa) were orally administered via gavage for an additional 8-week period. After administration, the rats' body weight, fasting blood glucose, fasting insulin, and blood lipid profiles were quantified. Cardiac function was assessed through evaluation of cardiac function parameters, histopathological examination and measurement of myocardial enzyme markers were conducted to assess myocardial injury and fibrosis, Oil red O staining was utilized to evaluate myocardial lipid accumulation, wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) staining was used for assessing cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, and Western blot analysis was used to detect the proteins expression level of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway. The rat cardiomyocyte H9c2 were induced with palmitic acid to establish an in vitro cell model of myocardial lipid toxicity. Subsequently, the cells were subjected to treatment with FA and AMPK inhibitor Compound C, followed by assessment of lipid formation and expression levels of proteins related to the AMPK signaling pathway. The findings demonstrated that both FA and Dapa exhibited efficacy in ameliorating diabetic symptoms, cardiac dysfunction, myocardial fibrosis, cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, and lipid accumulation in T2DM rats. Additionally, they were found to enhance AMPK phosphorylation and PPARα expression while down-regulating CD36. Similarly, FA was observed to inhibit lipid formation in H9c2 and activate the AMPK signaling pathway. However, the improved effect of FA on lipotoxic cardiomyocytes induced by palmitic acid was partially reversed by Compound C. Therefore, the activation of the AMPK signaling pathway by FA may enhance cardiac lipid metabolism, thereby improving cardiac dysfunction and myocardial fibrosis in DCM rats.

Farrerol Alleviates Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury by Promoting Neuronal Survival and Reducing Neuroinflammation

Ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury is a key influencing factor in the outcome of stroke. Inflammatory response, oxidative stress, and neuronal apoptosis are among the main factors that affect the progression of I/R injury. Farrerol (FAR) is a natural compound that can effectively inhibit the inflammatory response and oxidative stress. However, the role of FAR in cerebral I/R injury remains unknown. In this study, we found that FAR reduced brain injury and neuronal viability after cerebral I/R injury. Meanwhile, administration of FAR also reduced the inflammatory response of microglia after brain injury. Mechanistically, FAR treatment directly reduced neuronal death after oxygen glucose deprivation/re-oxygenation (OGD/R) through enhancing cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) activation to increase the expression of downstream neurotrophic factors and anti-apoptotic genes. Moreover, FAR decreased the activation of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways, inhibited microglia activation, and reduced the production of inflammatory cytokines in microglia after OGD/R treatment or LPS stimulation. The compromised inflammatory response by FAR directly promoted the survival of neurons after OGD/R. In conclusion, FAR exerted a protective effect on cerebral I/R injury by directly decreasing neuronal death through upregulating CREB expression and attenuating neuroinflammation. Therefore, FAR could be a potentially effective drug for the treatment of cerebral I/R injury.

Tectorigenin inhibits inflammatory responses in murine inflammatory bowel disease and LPS-stimulated macrophages via inactivating MAPK signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Considering the antihepatitis effects of Tectorigenin (TEC), and the same adenosine mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway in both hepatitis and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) models, exploring the role of TEC in IBD is contributive to develop a new treatment strategy against IBD.

METHODS

The IBD mouse model was constructed by feeding with dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) and injection of TEC. Afterward, the mouse body weight, colon length, and disease activity index (DAI) were tested to assess the enteritis level. Mouse intestine lesions were detected by hematoxylin and eosin staining. Murine macrophages underwent lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induction to establish an inflammation model. Cell viability was determined by cell counting kit-8 assay. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was performed to measure interleukin 6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expressions were quantified via quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Levels of MAPK pathway-related proteins (p-P38, P38, p-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), JNK, signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p-ERK), COX-2 and iNOS were quantitated by Western blot.

RESULTS

TEC improved the inflammatory response through ameliorating weight loss, shortening colon, and increasing DAI score in IBD mouse. Expressions of intestinal inflammatory factors (IL-6, TNF-α, iNOS and COX-2) and MAPK pathway-related proteins (p-P38, p-JNK, and p-ERK) were increased both in DSS-induced mouse intestinal tissue, but TEC inhibited expressions of inflammatory factors. The same increased trend was identified in LPS-induced macrophages, but TEC improved macrophage inflammation, as evidenced by downregulation of inflammatory factors.

CONCLUSION

TEC mitigates IBD and LPS-induced macrophage inflammation in mice via inhibiting MAPK signaling pathway.

The preventive effects of Lactobacillus casei 03 on Escherichia coli-induced mastitis in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND

Lactobacillus casei possesses many kinds of bioactivities, such as anti-inflammation and anti-oxidant, and has been applied to treating multiple inflammatory diseases. However, its role in mastitis prevention has remained ambiguous.

METHODS

This study aimed to examine the mechanisms underlying the preventive effects of L. casei 03 against E. coli- mastitis utilizing bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMECs) and a mouse model.

RESULTS

In vitro assays revealed pretreatment with L. casei 03 reduced the apoptotic ratio and the mRNA expression levels of IL1β, IL6 and TNFα and suppressed phosphorylation of p65, IκBα, p38, JNK and ERK in the NF-κB signaling pathway and MAPK signaling pathway. Furthermore, in vivo tests indicated that intramammary infusion of L. casei 03 relieved pathological changes, reduced the secretion of IL1β, IL6 and TNFα and MPO activity in the mouse mastitis model.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that L. casei 03 exerts protective effects against E. coli-induced mastitis in vitro and in vivo and may hold promise as a novel agent for the prevention and treatment of mastitis.

Retinoic acid ameliorates low-grade endotoxemia-induced mastitis by limiting inflammatory responses in mice

Mastitis is a serious disease for humans and animals, which causes huge economic losses in the dairy industry and is hard to prevent due to the complex and unclear pathogenesis. Subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) has contributed to the development of mastitis by inducing ruminal dysbiosis and subsequent low-grade endotoxemia (LGE), however, how ruminal metabolic changes regulate this progress is still unclear. Our previous study revealed that cows with SARA had increased ruminal retinoic acid (RA) levels, a metabolic intermediate of vitamin A that plays an essential role in mucosal immune responses. Hence, the aim of this study was to investigate the protective effect of RA on LGE-induced mastitis and the underlying mechanisms in mice. The results showed that RA alleviated LGE-induced mastitis, as evidenced by RA significantly reduced the increase in mammary proinflammatory cytokines and improved blood-milk barrier injury caused by LGE. In addition, RA increased the expression of tight junction proteins, including ZO-1, occludin and claudin-3. Furthermore, we found that RA limited the mammary inflammatory responses by inhibiting the activation of NF-κB and NLRP3 signaling pathways. These findings suggest that RA effectively alleviates LGE-induced mastitis and implies a potential strategy for the treatment and prevention of mastitis and other diseases.

Wogonin attenuates inflammation and oxidative stress in lipopolysaccharide-induced mastitis by inhibiting Akt/NF-κB pathway and activating the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling

Mastitis is a disease involved in inflammation of breast which affects human and animals. Wogonin is one bioactive compound from many Chinese herbal medicines, which have multiple properties, including anti-inflammatory activity. However, the roles of wogonin in mastitis progression are largely undefined. Mastitis models were established using LPS-treated mice and mammary epithelial cells (MECs). Infiltration of inflammatory cells was analyzed by hematoxylin-eosin staining and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity. Inflammatory cytokine (TNF-α and IL-1β) levels were detected via ELISA. The phosphorylation and total of Akt and NF-κB levels and content of Nrf2 and HO-1 were measured via western blot. Cell viability was examined by CCK-8 assay. Oxidative stress was assessed by ROS generation and levels of MDA, GSH, and SOD. Wogonin attenuated LPS-induced infiltration of inflammatory cells, increase of MPO activity and levels of TNF-α and IL-1β, and activation of the Akt/NF-κB pathway in murine mammary gland tissues, and promoted activation of Nrf2/HO-1 signaling. Wogonin did not affect MEC viability, but mitigated LPS-induced inflammation in MECs by reducing TNF-α and IL-1β levels. Wogonin relieved LPS-induced oxidative stress in MECs through decreasing ROS generation and MDA level and increasing GSH and SOD levels. Wogonin repressed LPS-induced activation of the Akt/NF-κB pathway in MECs and increased Nrf2/HO-1 signaling activation. Activated Akt/NF-κB signaling or Nrf2/HO-1 signaling inactivation reversed the suppressive effects of wogonin on LPS-induced inflammation and oxidative stress in MECs. Wogonin mitigates LPS-induced inflammation and oxidative stress of MECs via suppressing activation of the Akt/NF-κB signaling and activating Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, indicating the therapeutic potential of wogonin in mastitis.

Maslinic acid alleviates LPS-induced mice mastitis by inhibiting inflammatory response, maintaining the integrity of the blood-milk barrier and regulating intestinal flora

Mastitis occurs frequently in breastfeeding women and not only affects the women's health but also hinders breastfeeding. Maslinic acid is a type of pentacyclic triterpenoid widely found in olives that has good anti-inflammatory activity. This study aims to discuss the protective function of maslinic acid against mastitis and its underlying mechanism. For this, mice models of mastitis were established using lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The results revealed that maslinic acid reduced the pathological lesions in the mammary gland. In addition, it reduced the generation of pro-inflammatory factors and enzymes (IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, iNOS, and COX2) in both mice mammary tissue and mammary epithelial cells. The high-throughput 16S rDNA sequencing of intestinal flora showed that in mice with mastitis, maslinic acid treatment altered β-diversity and regulated microbial structure by increasing the abundance of probiotics such as Enterobacteriaceae and downregulating harmful bacteria such as Streptococcaceae. In addition, maslinic acid protected the blood-milk barrier by maintaining tight-junction protein expression. Furthermore, maslinic acid downregulated mammary inflammation by inhibiting the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome, AKT/NF-κB, and MAPK signaling pathways. Thus, in a mice model of LPS-induced mastitis, maslinic acid can inhibit the inflammatory response, protect the blood-milk barrier, and regulate the constitution of intestinal flora.

Antioxidant, Anti-Apoptotic, and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Farrerol in a Mouse Model of Obstructive Uropathy

Obstructive uropathy is a clinical condition that can lead to chronic kidney disease. However, treatments that can prevent the progression of renal injury and fibrosis are limited. Farrerol (FA) is a natural flavone with potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Here, we investigated the effect of FA on renal injury and fibrosis in a mouse model of unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO). Mice underwent a sham or UUO operation and received intraperitoneal injections of FA (20 mg/kg) daily for 8 consecutive days. Histochemistry, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence staining, TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling assay, Western blotting, gene expression analysis, and biochemical tests were performed. FA attenuated renal dysfunction (p < 0.05) and ameliorated renal tubular injury (p < 0.01) and interstitial fibrosis (p < 0.001) in UUO mice. FA alleviated 4-hydroxynonenal expression (p < 0.001) and malondialdehyde levels (p < 0.01) by regulating pro-oxidant and antioxidant enzymes. Apoptosis in the kidneys of UUO mice was inhibited by FA (p < 0.001), and this action was accompanied by decreased expression of cleaved caspase-3 (p < 0.01). Moreover, FA alleviated pro-inflammatory cytokine production (p < 0.001) and macrophage infiltration (p < 0.01) in the kidneys of UUO mice. These results suggest that FA ameliorates renal injury and fibrosis in the UUO model by inhibiting oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammation.

The pharmacological properties and corresponding mechanisms of farrerol: a comprehensive review

CONTEXT

Farrerol, a typical natural flavanone isolated from the traditional Chinese herb 'Man-shan-hong' [Rhododendron dauricum L. (Ericaceae)] with phlegm-reducing and cough-relieving properties, is widely used in China for treating bronchitis and asthma.

OBJECTIVE

To present the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, vasoactive, antitumor, and antimicrobial effects of farrerol and its underlying molecular mechanisms.

METHODS

The literature was reviewed by searching PubMed, Medline, Web of Knowledge, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases between 2011 and May 2021. The following key words were used: 'farrerol,' 'flavanone,' 'anti-inflammatory,' 'antioxidant,' 'vasoactive,' 'antitumor,' 'antimicrobial,' and 'molecular mechanisms'.

RESULTS

Farrerol showed anti-inflammatory effects mainly mediated via the inhibition of interleukin (IL)-6/8, IL-1β, tumour necrosis factor(TNF)-α, NF-κB, NO, COX-2, JNK1/2, AKT, PI3K, ERK1/2, p38, Keap-1, and TGF-1β. Farrerol exhibited antioxidant effects by decreasing JNK, MDA, ROS, NOX4, Bax/Bcl-2, caspase-3, p-p38 MAPK, and GSK-3β levels and enhancing Nrf2, GSH, SOD, GSH-Px, HO-1, NQO1, and p-ERK levels. The vasoactive effects of farrerol were also shown by the reduced α-SMA, NAD(P)H, p-ERK, p-Akt, mTOR, Jak2, Stat3, Bcl-2, and p38 levels, but increased OPN, occludin, ZO-1, eNOS, CaM, IP3R, and PLC levels. The antitumor effects of farrerol were evident from the reduced Bcl-2, Slug, Zeb-1, and vimentin levels but increased p27, ERK1/2, p38, caspase-9, Bax, and E-cadherin levels. Farrerol reduced α-toxin levels and increased NO production and NF-κB activity to impart antibacterial activity.

CONCLUSIONS

This review article provides a theoretical basis for further studies on farrerol, with a view to develop and utilise farrerol for treating of vascular-related diseases in the future.

Astragalus polysaccharides and astragaloside IV alleviate inflammation in bovine mammary epithelial cells by regulating Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

The Wnt/β-catenin signaling regulates cell renewal and repair and is closely associated with inflammation. Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) and astragaloside IV (AS-IV), which are the main active substances extracted from Radix Astragali, protect cells by regulating Wnt signaling in cells, exerting antiinflammatory, antioxidant, and antistress effects. However, the mechanisms by which APS and AS-IV interact with Wnt signaling to achieve their therapeutic effects in bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMECs) are not understood. In this study, we used lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated BMECs as an in vitro model of inflammation to investigate the effects of APS and AS-IV on Wnt signaling in inflamed BMECs. Drug concentrations were screened using the CCK-8 method, the effect on protein expression was analyzed using immunoblotting, the effect on inflammatory factors using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and the effect on oxidative factors using enzyme labeling and flow cytometry. LPS activated the expression of inflammatory and oxidative factors in cells and inhibited Wnt/β-catenin signaling. APS and AS-IV antagonized the inhibitory effect of LPS, protecting BMECs. They inhibited the expression of the IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α inflammatory factors, and that of the MDA oxidative factor, and activated Wnt signaling in LPS-stimulated BMECs. Silencing of β-catenin abolished the protective effect of APS and AS-IV against LPS-stimulated BMECs. Thus, APS and AS-IV mediate protective effects in inflammatory BMECs model through activation of the Wnt signaling pathway. Wnt signaling pathway is one of the targets of the inhibitory effects of APS and AS-IV on inflammation.

Active components and molecular mechanism of Syringa oblata Lindl. in the treatment of endometritis based on pharmacology network prediction

Antibiotic treatment of endometritis was limited by the inevitable antibiotic residues and risk of bacterial resistance. Therefore, the development of safe and effective strategies for endometritis treatment is urgently needed. Syringa oblata Lindl. (SOL) showed great pharmacological potential against endometritis. However, the active components and underlying mechanism of SOL for endometritis treatment remain indeterminate. In our study, the active components and possible molecular mechanism of SOL against endometritis were predicted through computer data mining and biological networks construction. It was predicted that the main active components of SOL were luteolin, kaempferol, oleanolic acid, and rutin, and their anti-endometritis effect was mainly attributed to the TLRs/NF-κB signaling pathway. Furthermore, a green and efficient deep eutectic solvent combined with ultrasound-assisted extraction (DES-UAE) was performed and optimized to obtain high contents of total flavonoid, rutin, and luteolin. The four predicted active components in the SOL extracts were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed by LC/MS and HPLC. Finally, the pharmacological effects of SOL and active components have been verified by Staphylococcus aureus-endometritis models in mice. H&E staining and bacterial load in uterus tissues assays initially validated the pharmacodynamic effects of SOL, and quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) and ELISA results confirmed that SOL and four active components could ameliorate the uterus injury caused by Staphylococcus aureus, the mechanism of action is related to the TLRs/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Tamquam alter idem: formal similarities in a subset of reports on anti-inflammatory compounds in the years 2008–2019

A literature search on the in vitro testing of anti-inflammatory compounds of natural origin revealed a considerable number of studies adopting a similar template for data reporting in the years up to 2019. Sixty-five such reports appear to have been published between the years 2008 and 2019. Interestingly, this format template was clearly recognizable by a few hallmarks, such as a precise way of plotting cell viability data, extremely consistent endpoints, and the way these were graphically represented. In some instances the similarities extended to some textual features, such as in the case of figure legends. The similarity was so high that chance can be excluded and these studies can be safely assumed to have intentionally followed a template. By 2020, however, no new reports following this format have been published. Although a consistent and reproducible formatting for data reporting may improve report readability, this phenomenon should also be closely scrutinized to assess the rationale why it occurred, the validity of the endpoints that were chosen and why it was then abandoned. The present report reviewed the mean features of this format, traced its origin and its evolution over time, while discussing the limitations of this model.

Farrerol alleviates collagenase-induced tendinopathy by inhibiting ferroptosis in rats

Tendinopathy is mainly characterized by local pain, functional limitation and decreased athletic ability, which seriously affects the quality of life of patients and the career of athletes. Farrerol (FA), one of the main active compounds extracted from Rhododendron and plants in the Rhododendron family, has a wide range of pharmacological activities, such as immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory and antiviral effects. However, the effect of FA on tendinopathy is unclear. Here, we investigated the pharmacological effect and mechanism of FA in tendon injury through collagenase-induced tendinopathy in vivo and RSL3-induced tenocytes injury in vitro. The results showed that FA alleviated the infiltration of inflammatory cells, promoted tenogenesis and improved mechanical properties of the Achilles tendon in rats. In addition, ferroptosis inducer RSL3 inhibits the tenogenesis in vitro and in vivo, which accelerates the progression of tendinopathy. Moreover, FA effectively inhibited iron accumulation and alleviated ferroptosis in the Achilles tendon. Using in vitro experiments, we found that FA antagonized ferroptosis by reducing lipid peroxidation and iron accumulation in tenocytes. Finally, we found that glutathione peroxidase 4 silencing could block the protective effect of FA on ferroptosis of tenocytes. Therefore, the results of this study suggest that FA can relieve collagenase-induced tendinopathy by inhibiting ferroptosis, and reveal that FA may be a potentially effective drug for the treatment of tendinopathy in the future.

Phytic Acid Maintains the Integrity of the Blood-Milk Barrier by Regulating Inflammatory Response and Intestinal Flora Structure

The destruction of the blood-milk barrier (BMB) caused by the mammary inflammatory response (MIR) is one of the main reasons that hinders breastfeeding. To relieve the inflammatory response and maintain BMB, we found that phytic acid (PA) has good anti-inflammatory activity. Therefore, we focused on researching the influence and mechanism of PA on BMB and MIR. We constructed a mammary inflammatory response model using lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in vivo, and we used mammary epithelial cells (mMECs) to construct a cell inflammatory response model in vitro. The results showed that PA alleviated mammary tissue damage and reduced the production of inflammatory mediators (such as IL-1β and iNOS) in mammary tissue and mMECs. PA also maintained the integrity of the BMB in mice by increasing the expression of tight junction proteins. 16S rDNA high-throughput sequencing showed that PA significantly ameliorated the intestinal flora of model mice. Mechanism studies showed that PA exerted an anti-MIR effect by inhibiting the AKT/NF-κB signaling pathway. In summary, our study found that PA maintains the integrity of BMB by regulating the inflammatory response and intestinal flora structure.

Evodiamine Relieve LPS-Induced Mastitis by Inhibiting AKT/NF-κB p65 and MAPK Signaling Pathways

Evodiamine, an alkaloid component in the fruit of Evodia, has been shown to have biological functions such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory. But whether evodiamine plays an improvement role on mastitis has not been studied. To investigate the effect and mechanism of evodiamine on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mastitis was the purpose of this study. In animal experiments, the mouse mastitis model was established by injecting LPS into the canals of the mammary gland. The results showed that evodiamine could significantly relieve the pathological injury of breast tissue and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and inhibit the activation of inflammation-related pathways such as AKT, NF-κB p65, ERK1/2, p38, and JNK. In cell experiments, the mouse mammary epithelial cells (mMECs) were incubated with evodiamine for 1 h and then stimulated with LPS. Next, pro-inflammatory mediators and inflammation-related signal pathways were detected. As expected, our results showed that evodiamine notably ameliorated the inflammatory reaction and inhibit the activation of related signaling pathways of mMECs. All the results suggested that evodiamine inhibited inflammation by inhibiting the phosphorylation of AKT, NF-κBp65, ERK1/2, p38, and JNK thus the LPS-induced mastitis was ameliorated. These findings suggest that evodiamine maybe a potential drug for mastitis because of its anti-inflammatory effects.

Lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in human peritoneal mesothelial cells is controlled by ERK1/2-CDK5-PPARγ axis

Background

Peritonitis is a common complication in which the peritoneum becomes inflamed. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)γ agonists and extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2) inactivation have been found to restore damage caused by lipopolysaccharide-induced (LPS) inflammation. This study aimed to investigate the association between PPARγ and ERK1/2 in LPS-induced inflammation in peritonitis.

Methods

Human peritoneal mesothelial cells were maintained in Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium and treated with LPS under a series of different concentrations and treatment times. Cellular interleukins-1βeta (IL-1β), cellular interleukins-6 (IL-6), cellular interleukins-12 (IL-12) were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) assay. Expression or activation of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)5, ERK1/2, and PPARγ was detected using quantitative real-time PCR and/or western blot.

Results

LPS induced dose- and time-dependent increments in the cellular IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-12 contents, cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) expression, and PPARγ^Ser273 phosphorylation. Treatment with 1 µg/mL LPS for 12 hours was the optimal experimental design for inflammation stimulation. The concentration of LPS over 1 µg/mL or treatment more than 12 hours reduced the inflammatory status. LPS stimulation also activated ERK1/2 and increased its interaction with CDK5. Further, ERK1/2 inhibition by AZD0364 prevented IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, and CDK5 expression, as well as activation of ERK1/2 and phosphorylation of PPARγ, induced by LPS. Knockdown of CDK5 using its siRNA caused similar changes as AZD0364, minus ERK1/2 inactivation.

Conclusions

Our results suggested that LPS-induced inflammation in human peritoneal mesothelial cells can be partly suppressed by inhibiting the ERK1/2/CDK5/PPARγ axis.

Luteolin Regulates the Differentiation of Regulatory T Cells and Activates IL-10-Dependent Macrophage Polarization against Acute Lung Injury

Objectives

Inflammatory disease characterized by clinical destructive respiratory disorder is called acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ALI/ARDS). Studies have shown that luteolin exerts anti-inflammatory effects by increasing regulatory T cells (Tregs). In this study, we aimed to determine the effects of luteolin on ALI/ARDS and Treg differentiation.

Methods

In this paper, we used cecal ligation puncture (CLP) to generate an ALI mouse model to determine the effects of luteolin on ALI/ARDS. Lung tissues were stained for interleukin- (IL-) 17A and myeloperoxidase (MPO) by immunohistochemical analysis. The levels of Treg-related cytokines in serum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of mice were detected. The protein levels of NF-κB p65 in lung tissues were measured. Macrophage phenotypes in lung tissues were measured using immunofluorescence. The proportion of Tregs in splenic mononuclear cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was quantified. Furthermore, in vitro, we evaluated the effects of luteolin on Treg differentiation, and the effects of IL-10 immune regulation on macrophage polarization were examined.

Results

Luteolin alleviated lung injury and suppressed uncontrolled inflammation and downregulated IL-17A, MPO, and NF-κB in the lungs of CLP-induced mouse models. At this time, luteolin upregulated the level of IL-10 in serum and BALF and the frequency of CD4⁺CD25⁺FOXP3⁺ Tregs in PBMCs and splenic mononuclear cells of CLP mice. Luteolin treatment decreased the proportion of M1 macrophages and increased the proportion of M2 macrophages in lungs of CLP-induced mouse models. In vitro, administration of luteolin significantly induced Treg differentiation, and IL-10 promoted the polarization of M2 macrophages but reduced the polarization of M1 macrophages.

Conclusions

Luteolin alleviated lung injury and suppressed uncontrolled inflammation by inducing the differentiation of CD4⁺CD25⁺FOXP3⁺ Tregs and upregulating the expression of IL-10. Furthermore, the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 promoted polarization of M2 macrophages in vitro. Luteolin-induced Treg differentiation from naïve CD4⁺ T cells may be a potential mechanism for regulating IL-10 production.

Nrf2-ARE Signaling Partially Attenuates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Mammary Lesions via Regulation of Oxidative and Organelle Stresses but Not Inflammatory Response in Mice

The incidence of mastitis is high during the postpartum stage, which causes severe pain and hinders breast feeding in humans and reduces milk production in dairy cows. Studies suggested that inflammation in multiple organs is associated with oxidative stress and nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-antioxidant response element pathway is one of the most important antioxidant pathways, but the effects of Nrf2 on antioxidation in the mammary gland during mastitis are still unclear. In this study, intramammary lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge was carried out in wild-type (WT) and Nrf2 knockout mice. Results showed that the expression of Nrf2 affected the expression of milk protein genes (Csn2 and Csn3). Importantly, LPS treatment increased the expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 and the content of glutathione in the mammary gland of WT mice, but not in Nrf2(-/-) mice. The expression levels of glutathione synthesis genes (GCLC, GCLM, and xCT) were lower in Nrf2(-/-) mice than in WT mice. Moreover, mitochondrial-dependent apoptotic and endoplasmic reticulum stress were significantly relieved in WT mice compared with that in Nrf2(-/-) mice. In summary, the expression of Nrf2 may play an important role in prevention of oxidative and organelle stresses during endotoxin-induced mastitis in mouse mammary gland.

Methionyl-Methionine Exerts Anti-Inflammatory Effects through the JAK2-STAT5-NF-κB and MAPK Signaling Pathways in Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells

Methionyl-methionine (Met-Met) is a functional dipeptide. Although the role of a dipeptide in milk protein synthesis is clearly established, whether Met-Met has an anti-inflammatory effect and a protective mechanism in bovine mammary epithelial cell (MAC-T) inflammation remains unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine the beneficial effects and underlying mechanisms of Met-Met on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced MAC-T cell inflammation. RNA-seq, siRNA interference, and western blotting were performed to determine the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of Met-Met in the context of LPS exposure. Pretreatment with 2 mM Met-Met could reduce the increase in TNF-α (3.14 ± 0.55 vs 1.54 ± 0.26, P < 0.01), IL-1β (2.30 ± 0.21 vs 1.86 ± 0.11, P < 0.05), and IL-8 (3.49 ± 0.29 vs 0.62 ± 0.20, P < 0.01) after 1 μg/mL LPS exposure. RNA-seq analyses indicated that the overlapping genes were primarily enriched in the nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and IL-17 pathways. The suppression of NF-κB, P38, and JNK by Met-Met was mediated through the Janus kinase 2-signal transducers and activators of transcription 5 (JAK2-STAT5) pathway. Moreover, the Met-Met-mediated decrease in the LPS-induced activation of p-IκB, NF-κB, and JNK was reversed by knocking down JAK2. Collectively, Met-Met has beneficial effects on MAC-T cell inflammation by activating the JAK2-STAT5 pathway and then inhibiting the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways.

Diosmetin exerts cardioprotective effect on myocardial ischaemia injury in neonatal rats by decreasing oxidative stress and myocardial apoptosis

Myocardial injury caused by the myocardial ischaemia (MI) is still a troublesome condition in the clinic, including apoptosis, oxidative stress and inflammation. Diosmetin inhibits the cellular apoptosis and inflammatory response and enhances antioxidant activity. So, this study was designed to investigate the cardioprotective effects of diosmetin on MI model neonatal rats. Forty Sprague Dawley (SD) rats 7 days old were randomly divided into five groups. Four groups of rats received diosmetin (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) or vehicle (MI group) after ischaemia. Another group received vehicle without ischaemia to serve as a control group. Rats were pretreated with diosmetin intraperitoneally for 7 days and intoxicated with isoproterenol (ISO, 85 mg/kg, sc) on the last 2 days. The expression of apoptotic molecules, myocardial systolic function index, antioxidant enzymes and myocardial enzyme was analyzed. Compared with the control group, the proliferation marker proteins of Ki67 were increased significantly (P < .05), the MI group significantly increased the cardiac apoptosis, oxidative stress and myocardial enzymes, and weakened myocardial contractility. The levels of p-P65/P65 were increased significantly (P < .05) with decreased p-AKT/AKT and p-Nrf2/Nrf2 (P < .05). Nevertheless, pretreatment with diosmetin reversed these changes, especially high-dose group. In summary, diosmetin has significant potential as a therapeutic intervention to ameliorate myocardial injury after MI and provides the rationale for further clinical studies.

Dehydroandrographolide inhibits mastitis by activating autophagy without affecting intestinal flora

Mastitis can seriously damage the physical and mental health of lactating women. The use of antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs may damage the flora balance in lactating women. To alleviate mastitis in lactating women and reduce drug-induced damage to the flora, we found that dehydroandrographolide (Deh) has good anti-inflammatory and bacterial balance functions. In vivo, we found that Deh significantly inhibited the expression of MPO, IL6, IL-1β, TNF-α, COX2 and iNOS and reduced pathological damage to the mammary gland. The feces in the control and Deh groups were collected and sequenced for 16S flora. The results showed that Deh did not change the primary intestinal microflora composition of the two groups. In vitro, our study showed that Deh significantly inhibited the expression of IL6, IL-1β and TNF-α in the EpH4-Ev cell line. When an AMPK inhibitor was added, the anti-inflammatory effect of Deh was blocked. To further study the anti-inflammatory mechanism of Deh, we found that Deh significantly promoted autophagy through the phosphorylation of AMPK, Beclin and ULK1. In conclusion, our study found that Deh promoted autophagy and played an anti-inflammatory role by activating the AMPK/Beclin/ULK1 signaling pathway and did not affect intestinal flora.

Anti‑inflammatory activity of 3,5,6,7,3',4'‑hexamethoxyflavone via repression of the NF‑κB and MAPK signaling pathways in LPS‑stimulated RAW264.7 cells

Citrus peel has been used as a Traditional medicine in Asia to treat coughs, asthma and bronchial disorders. Therefore, the anti-inflammatory effects of 3,5,6,7,3′,4′-hexamethoxyflavone (quercetogetin, QUE) isolated from Citrus unshiu peel were investigated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. The results showed that QUE repressed the production of prostaglandin E2 and nitric oxide by suppressing LPS-induced expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase. It also suppressed the production of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α cytokines, and decreased the nuclear translocation of NF-κB by interrupting the phosphorylation of NF-κB inhibitor α in macrophage cells. Based on the finding that QUE inhibited the phosphorylation of ERK protein expression in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells, it was confirmed that inhibition of inflammatory responses by QUE was mediated via the ERK pathway. Therefore, this study suggests that QUE has strong anti-inflammatory effects, making it a promising compound for use as a therapeutic agent in treating inflammatory lung diseases, such as emphysema.

Expression and role of miR-338-3p in peripheral blood and placenta of patients with pregnancy-induced hypertension

The present study aimed to investigate the role of miR-338-3p in pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH), and its effects on human trophoblast cells in vitro. Quantitative real-time PCR was used to detect miR-338-3p expression. Human trophoblast HTR8/SVneo cells were transfected with miR-338-3p mimics. Effects of miR-338-3p on cell proliferation, invasion and metastasis, and anoikis resistance were detected by CCK-8 assay, Transwell chamber assay, flow cytometry and western blot analysis, respectively. Bioinformatics analysis was performed to predict the target of miR-338-3p, and the results were confirmed by dual luciferase reporter assay. The expression level of miR-338-3p was significantly upregulated in the peripheral blood and placenta of PIH patients. CCK-8 assay showed that miR-338-3p mimics inhibited the proliferation of HTR8/SVneo cells at indicated time points. Flow cytometry showed that miR-338-3p transfection significantly increased the Ki-67 expression in the HTR8/SVneo cells, indicating enhanced cell proliferation. Transwell chamber assay and western blot analysis showed that the invasion and metastatic abilities of the HTR8/SVneo cells were significantly decreased in the miR-338-3p transfection group, as well as expression levels of MMP-2 and MMP-9. Bioinformatics analysis and dual luciferase reporter assay indicated that AKT3 is a target gene of miR-338-3p. Our results suggest that miR-338-3p is significantly increased in the peripheral blood and placenta of PIH patients, which is correlated with the disease development. miR-338-3p inhibits proliferation, invasion and metastasis, and apoptosis resistance of human trophoblast cells by targeting AKT3.

Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Sanjie Zhentong Capsule Assessed By Network Pharmacology Analysis of Adenomyosis Treatment

Background

Sanjie Zhentong capsule (SZC) offers excellent effect in treating adenomyosis (AM), which is a common and difficult gynecological disease in the clinic. However, the systematic analysis of its mechanism has not been carried out yet and further studies are needed to reveal the role of SZC.

Methods

A systematic network pharmacology analysis was conducted by integrating construction of SZC compound database and AM target database, prediction of potential active compounds and targets by molecular docking combined with compound-target prediction graph (CTPG), protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis, Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis. Then, the anti-inflammation experiments in vitro were performed by investigating SZC and the representative compounds regulating nitric oxide (NO), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-10 (IL-10).

Results

Our findings show that SZC mainly treated AM by stimulating 28 core targets through 30 key potential active compounds, and affecting 4 crucial pathways. The treatment was associated with inflammation reaction, hormone regulation, cell adhesion, proliferation, and angiogenesis. Additionally, SZC achieved the anti-inflammatory activity by the cooperation of the compounds through inhibiting NO and IL-6, both promoting and inhibiting IL-10.

Conclusion

This study investigated the anti-inflammatory activity of SZC based on a systematic analysis of SZC remedying AM, which was revealed to be one of the essential mechanisms. These findings will provide valuable guidance for further research of the SZC treatment of AM, and help improve the comprehension of SZC pharmacological basis as well as AM pathogenesis.

Gas6 negatively regulates the Staphylococcus aureus-induced inflammatory response via TLR signaling in the mouse mammary gland

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)-induced mastitis is the most frequent, pathogenic, and prevalent infection of the mammary gland. The ligand growth arrest-specific 6 (Gas6) is a secretory protein that binds to and activates Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK receptors. This study explored the role of Gas6 in S. aureus-induced mastitis. Our results revealed that TLR receptors initiate the innate immune response in mammary gland tissues and epithelial cells and that introducing S. aureus activates TLR2 and TLR6 to drive multiple intracellular mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) pathways. Moreover, S. aureus also induces Gas6, which then activates the TAM receptor kinase pathway, which is related to the inhibition of TLR2- and TLR6-mediated inflammatory pathways through SOCS1 and SOCS3 induction. Gas6 absence alone was found to be involved in the downregulation of TAM receptor-mediated anti-inflammatory effects by inducing significantly prominent expression of TRAF6 and low protein and messenger RNA expression of SOCS1 and SOCS3. S. aureus-induced MAPK and NF-ĸB p65 phosphorylation were also dependent on Gas6, which negatively regulated the production of Pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) in S. aureus-treated mammary tissues and mammary epithelial cells. Our in vivo and in vitro study uncovered the Gas6-mediated negative feedback mechanism, which inhibits TLR2- and TLR6-mediated MAPK and NF-ĸB signaling by activating TAM receptor kinase (MerTK, Axl, and Tyro3) through the induction of SOCS1/SOCS3 proteins.

Farrerol attenuates MPP+ -induced inflammatory response by TLR4 signaling in a microglia cell line

Farrerol was found to possess neuroprotective effect; however, the mechanism remains unknown. The aim of the present study was to explore the effect of farrerol on MPP⁺ -induced inflammation in mouse microglial BV-2 cells and to elaborate the underlying mechanism. MTT assay was performed to measure the cell viability. The pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines including interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α); inducible nitric oxide synthase; and cyclooxygenase 2 were measured. The expression of p-p65, p-IκBα, toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), and myeloid differentiation primary response 88 were analyzed by western blot. We found that farrerol treatment improved cell viability in MPP⁺ -induced BV-2 cells. MPP⁺ -induced upregulation of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α was inhibited by farrerol treatment. Farrerol treatment also attenuated MPP⁺ -induced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase 2 as well as the activation of NF-κB in BV-2 cells. MPP⁺ -induced TLR4 signaling was markedly diminished by farrerol treatment. Knockdown of TLR4 attenuated MPP⁺ -induced inflammatory response in BV-2 cells. In conclusion, farrerol treatment attenuated MPP⁺ -induced inflammatory response by inhibiting the TLR4 signaling pathway in BV-2 cells. The results indicated that farrerol could be used as a therapeutic agent for preventing or alleviating the neuroinflammation-related diseases, such as Parkinson's disease.