Erythritol Ameliorates Small Intestinal Inflammation Induced by High-Fat Diets and Improves Glucose Tolerance

Mind over Microplastics: Exploring Microplastic-Induced Gut Disruption and Gut-Brain-Axis Consequences

As environmental plastic waste degrades, it creates an abundance of diverse microplastic particles. Consequently, microplastics contaminate drinking water and many staple food products, meaning the oral ingestion of microplastics is an important exposure route for the human population. Microplastics have long been considered inert, however their ability to promote microbial dysbiosis as well as gut inflammation and dysfunction suggests they are more noxious than first thought. More alarmingly, there is evidence for microplastics permeating from the gut throughout the body, with adverse effects on the immune and nervous systems. Coupled with the now-accepted role of the gut-brain axis in neurodegeneration, these findings support the hypothesis that this ubiquitous environmental pollutant is contributing to the rising incidence of neurodegenerative diseases, like Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. This comprehensive narrative review explores the consequences of oral microplastic exposure on the gut-brain-axis by considering current evidence for gastrointestinal uptake and disruption, immune activation, translocation throughout the body, and neurological effects. As microplastics are now a permanent feature of the global environment, understanding their effects on the gut, brain, and whole body will facilitate critical further research and inform policy changes aimed at reducing any adverse consequences.

Lab-on-chip technologies for exploring the gut-immune axis in metabolic disease

The continued rise in metabolic diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus poses a global health burden, necessitating further research into factors implicated in the onset and progression of these diseases. Recently, the gut-immune axis, with diet as a main regulator, has been identified as a possible role player in their development. Translation of conventional 2D in vitro and animal models is however limited, while human studies are expensive and preclude individual mechanisms from being investigated. Lab-on-chip technology therefore offers an attractive new avenue to study gut-immune interactions. This review provides an overview of the influence of diet on gut-immune interactions in metabolic diseases and a critical analysis of the current state of lab-on-chip technology to study this axis. While there has been progress in the development of "immuno-competent" intestinal lab-on-chip models, with studies showing the ability of the technology to provide mechanical cues, support longer-term co-culture of microbiota and maintain in vivo-like oxygen gradients, platforms which combine all three and include intestinal and immune cells are still lacking. Further, immune cell types and inclusion of microenvironment conditions which enable in vivo-like immune cell dynamics as well as host-microbiome interactions are limited. Future model development should focus on combining these conditions to create an environment capable of hosting more complex microbiota and immune cells to allow further study into the effects of diet and related metabolites on the gut-immune ecosystem and their role in the prevention and development of metabolic diseases in humans.

Pharmacology of bioactive compounds from plant extracts for improving non-alcoholic fatty liver disease through endoplasmic reticulum stress modulation: A comprehensive review

Background

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a prevalent chronic liver condition with significant clinical implications. Emerging research indicates endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress as a critical pathogenic factor governing inflammatory responses, lipid metabolism and insulin signal transduction in patients with NAFLD. ER stress-associated activation of multiple signal transduction pathways, including the unfolded protein response, disrupts lipid homeostasis and substantially contributes to NAFLD development and progression. Targeting ER stress for liver function enhancement presents an innovative therapeutic strategy. Notably, the natural bioactive compounds of plant extracts have shown potential for treating NAFLD by reducing the level of ER stress marker proteins and mitigating inflammation, stress responses, and de novo lipogenesis. However, owing to limited comprehensive reviews, the effectiveness and pharmacology of these bioactive compounds remain uncertain.

Objectives

To address the abovementioned challenges, the current review categorizes the bioactive compounds of plant extracts by chemical structures and properties into flavonoids, phenols, terpenoids, glycosides, lipids and quinones and examines their ameliorative potential for NAFLD under ER stress.

Methods

This review systematically analyses the literature on the interactions of bioactive compounds from plant extracts with molecular targets under ER stress, providing a holistic view of NAFLD therapy.

Results

Bioactive compounds from plant extracts may improve NAFLD by alleviating ER stress; reducing lipid synthesis, inflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis and enhancing fatty acid metabolism. This provides a multifaceted approach for treating NAFLD.

Conclusion

This review underscores the role of ER stress in NAFLD and the potential of plant bioactive compounds in treating this condition. The molecular mechanisms by which plant bioactive compounds interact with their ER stress targets provide a basis for further exploration in NAFLD management.

Cow's Milk Allergy May Induce Lipid Metabolism Disorder in BALB/c Mice via Exosomes

Allergic diseases and lipid-metabolism-disorder-derived diseases are both significant public health issues. Recent studies have shown that exosomes are associated with the course of allergic diseases and are involved in lipid metabolism. In this study, exosomes derived from cow's milk allergic (CMA) mice medially loaded lesser proteins favoring cholesterol metabolism. The levels of total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) in the serum were increased in the CMA mice, and hepatic lipid deposition was observed in the liver, but these phenomena were improved by inhibiting the exosome release. Specifically, the higher expression of the sterol regulatory element binding factor 2 (SREBP2) protein and HMGCR gene in the liver of CMA mice indicated an increase in cholesterol synthesis. NPC1L1 was also highly expressed in the small intestine of CMA mice, and fecal TC level was decreased, suggesting that the reabsorption of cholesterol was elevated. The biosynthesis of cholesterol, the reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) process, and the synthesis of bile acid in the liver were improved by inhibiting exosome release, as well as the reabsorption of cholesterol in the small intestine. This study has for the first time demonstrated the lipid metabolism disorder caused by CMA, especially the important role of exosomes in food allergies and lipid metabolism.

Single-cell RNA-seq analysis decodes the kidney microenvironment induced by polystyrene microplastics in mice receiving a high-fat diet

In recent years, the environmental health issue of microplastics has aroused an increasingly significant concern. Some studies suggested that exposure to polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) may lead to renal inflammation and oxidative stress in animals. However, little is known about the essential effects of PS-MPs with high-fat diet (HFD) on renal development and microenvironment. In this study, we provided the single-cell transcriptomic landscape of the kidney microenvironment induced by PS-MPs and HFD in mouse models by unbiased single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq). The kidney injury cell atlases in mice were evaluated after continued PS-MPs exposure, or HFD treated for 35 days. Results showed that PS-MPs plus HFD treatment aggravated the kidney injury and profibrotic microenvironment, reshaping mouse kidney cellular components. First, we found that PS-MPs plus HFD treatment acted on extracellular matrix organization of renal epithelial cells, specifically the proximal and distal convoluted tubule cells, to inhibit renal development and induce ROS-driven carcinogenesis. Second, PS-MPs plus HFD treatment induced activated PI3K-Akt, MAPK, and IL-17 signaling pathways in endothelial cells. Besides, PS-MPs plus HFD treatment markedly increased the proportions of CD8+ effector T cells and proliferating T cells. Notably, mononuclear phagocytes exhibited substantial remodeling and enriched in oxidative phosphorylation and chemical carcinogenesis pathways after PS-MPs plus HFD treatment, typified by alterations tissue-resident M2-like PF4+ macrophages. Multispectral immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry identified PF4+ macrophages in clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) and adjacent normal tissues, indicating that activate PF4+ macrophages might regulate the profibrotic and pro-tumorigenic microenvironment after renal injury. In conclusion, this study first systematically revealed molecular variation of renal cells and immune cells in mice kidney microenvironment induced by PS-MPs and HFD with the scRNA-seq approach, which provided a molecular basis for decoding the effects of PS-MPs on genitourinary injury and understanding their potential profibrotic and carcinogenesis in mammals.

Re-evaluation of erythritol (E 968) as a food additive

This opinion addresses the re-evaluation of erythritol (E 968) as food additive and an application for its exemption from the laxative warning label requirement as established under Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011. Erythritol is a polyol obtained by fermentation with Moniliella pollinis BC or Moniliella megachiliensis KW3-6, followed by purifications and drying. Erythritol is readily and dose-dependently absorbed in humans and can be metabolised to erythronate to a small extent. Erythritol is then excreted unchanged in the urine. It does not raise concerns regarding genotoxicity. The dataset evaluated consisted of human interventional studies. The Panel considered that erythritol has the potential to cause diarrhoea in humans, which was considered adverse because its potential association with electrolyte and water imbalance. The lower bound of the range of no observed adverse effect levels (NOAELs) for diarrhoea of 0.5 g/kg body weight (bw) was identified as reference point. The Panel considered appropriate to set a numerical acceptable daily intake (ADI) at the level of the reference point. An ADI of 0.5 g/kg bw per day was considered by the Panel to be protective for the immediate laxative effect as well as potential chronic effects, secondary to diarrhoea. The highest mean and 95th percentile chronic exposure was in children (742 mg/kg bw per day) and adolescents (1532 mg/kg bw per day). Acute exposure was maximally 3531 mg/kg bw per meal for children at the 99th percentile. Overall, the Panel considered both dietary exposure assessments an overestimation. The Panel concluded that the exposure estimates for both acute and chronic dietary exposure to erythritol (E 968) were above the ADI, indicating that individuals with high intake may be at risk of experiencing adverse effects after single and repeated exposure. Concerning the new application, the Panel concluded that the available data do not support the proposal for exemption.

Erythritol aggravates gut inflammation and anxiety-like behavioral disorders induced by acute dextran sulfate sodium administration in mice

Erythritol is a widely used sugar substitute in food and beverages with beneficial and detrimental roles in obesity and cardiovascular diseases, respectively; however, its influence on inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and related behavioral disorders is not well understood. Here, we found that erythritol exacerbated gut inflammation by promoting macrophage infiltration and inducing M1 macrophage polarization, thus increasing gut leakage during colitis triggered by acute dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) treatment. Increased gut permeability can cause neuroinflammation and anxiety-like behavioral disorders. In conclusion, our results revealed a negative role for erythritol in gut inflammation and anxiety-like behavioral disorders induced by erythritol administration in a mouse model of acute colitis, suggesting that erythritol intake control may be necessary for IBD treatment.

ILC3: a case of conflicted identity

Innate lymphoid cells type 3 (ILC3s) are the first line sentinels at the mucous tissues, where they contribute to the homeostatic immune response in a major way. Also, they have been increasingly appreciated as important modulators of chronic inflammatory and autoimmune responses, both locally and systemically. The proper identification of ILC3 is of utmost importance for meaningful studies on their role in immunity. Flow cytometry is the method of choice for the detection and characterization of ILC3. However, the analysis of ILC3-related papers shows inconsistency in ILC3 phenotypic definition, as different inclusion and exclusion markers are used for their identification. Here, we present these discrepancies in the phenotypic characterization of human and mouse ILC3s. We discuss the pros and cons of using various markers for ILC3 identification. Furthermore, we consider the possibilities for the efficient isolation and propagation of ILC3 from different organs and tissues for in-vitro and in-vivo studies. This paper calls upon uniformity in ILC3 definition, isolation, and propagation for the increased possibility of confluent interpretation of ILC3's role in immunity.

Erythritol Can Inhibit the Expression of Senescence Molecules in Mouse Gingival Tissues and Human Gingival Fibroblasts

Oral aging causes conditions including periodontal disease. We investigated how the sugar alcohol erythritol, which has anti-caries effects, impacts aging periodontal tissues and gingival fibroblasts in mice and humans in vivo and in vitro. Mice were classified into three groups: control groups of six-week-old (YC) and eighteen-month-old mice (AC) and a group receiving 5% w/w erythritol water for 6 months (AE). After rearing, RNA was extracted from the gingiva, and the levels of aging-related molecules were measured using PCR. Immunostaining was performed for the aging markers p21, γH2AX, and NF-κB p65. p16, p21, γH2AX, IL-1β, and TNFα mRNA expression levels were higher in the gingiva of the AC group than in the YC group, while this enhanced expression was significantly suppressed in AE gingiva. NF-κB p65 expression was high in the AC group but was strongly suppressed in the AE group. We induced senescence in cultured human gingival fibroblasts using H2O2 and lipopolysaccharide before erythritol treatment, which reduced elevated senescence-related marker (p16, p21, SA-β-gal, IL-1β, and TNFα) expression levels. Knockdown of PFK or PGAM promoted p16 and p21 mRNA expression, but erythritol subsequently rescued pyruvate production. Overall, intraoral erythritol administration may prevent age-related oral mucosal diseases.

Elevated Erythritol: A Marker of Metabolic Dysregulation or Contributor to the Pathogenesis of Cardiometabolic Disease?

Erythritol is a non-nutritive sugar replacement that can be endogenously produced by humans. Witkowski et al. reported that elevated circulating erythritol is associated with adverse cardiovascular events in three independent cohorts, demonstrated in vitro and ex vivo that erythritol promotes platelet activation, and showed faster clotting time in mice injected with erythritol. It was concluded that erythritol fosters enhanced thrombosis. This narrative review presents additional evidence that needs to be considered when evaluating these data and conclusions. We conducted a search of all studies related to erythritol exposure with focus on those that reported vascular health outcomes. Patients with chronically elevated erythritol levels due to inborn errors of metabolism do not exhibit higher platelet activation or thrombosis risk. Most long-term studies in which animals consumed high levels of erythritol do not support its role in platelet activation and thrombosis formation. Clinical data on the effects of chronic intake of erythritol are limited. Erythritol may be merely a marker of dysregulation in the Pentose Phosphate Pathway caused by impaired glycemia. However, this suggestion and the findings of Witkowski et al. need to be further examined. Clinical trials examining the long-term effects of erythritol consumption on cardiometabolic outcomes are required to test the causality between dietary erythritol and cardiometabolic risk. Until supportive data from these trials are available, it cannot be concluded that dietary erythritol promotes platelet activation, thrombosis, and cardiometabolic risk.

The intestinal immune system and gut barrier function in obesity and ageing

Obesity and ageing predispose to numerous, yet overlapping chronic diseases. For example, metabolic abnormalities, including insulin resistance (IR) and type 2 diabetes (T2D) are important causes of morbidity and mortality. Low-grade chronic inflammation of tissues, such as the liver, visceral adipose tissue and neurological tissues, is considered a significant contributor to these chronic diseases. Thus, it is becoming increasingly important to understand what drives this inflammation in affected tissues. Recent evidence, especially in the context of obesity, suggests that the intestine plays an important role as the gatekeeper of inflammatory stimuli that ultimately fuels low-grade chronic tissue inflammation. In addition to metabolic diseases, abnormalities in the intestinal mucosal barrier have been linked to a range of other chronic inflammatory conditions, such as neurodegeneration and ageing. The flow of inflammatory stimuli from the gut is in part controlled by local immunological inputs impacting the intestinal barrier. Here, we will review the impact of obesity and ageing on the intestinal immune system and its downstream consequences on gut barrier function, which is strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of obesity and age-related diseases. In particular, we will discuss the effects of age-related intestinal dysfunction on neurodegenerative diseases.

The Effect of Bioactive Aliment Compounds and Micronutrients on Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

In the current review, we focused on identifying aliment compounds and micronutrients, as well as addressed promising bioactive nutrients that may interfere with NAFLD advance and ultimately affect this disease progress. In this regard, we targeted: 1. Potential bioactive nutrients that may interfere with NAFLD, specifically dark chocolate, cocoa butter, and peanut butter which may be involved in decreasing cholesterol concentrations. 2. The role of sweeteners used in coffee and other frequent beverages; in this sense, stevia has proven to be adequate for improving carbohydrate metabolism, liver steatosis, and liver fibrosis. 3. Additional compounds were shown to exert a beneficial action on NAFLD, namely glutathione, soy lecithin, silymarin, Aquamin, and cannabinoids which were shown to lower the serum concentration of triglycerides. 4. The effects of micronutrients, especially vitamins, on NAFLD. Even if most studies demonstrate the beneficial role of vitamins in this pathology, there are exceptions. 5. We provide information regarding the modulation of the activity of some enzymes related to NAFLD and their effect on this disease. We conclude that NAFLD can be prevented or improved by different factors through their involvement in the signaling, genetic, and biochemical pathways that underlie NAFLD. Therefore, exposing this vast knowledge to the public is particularly important.

Oral Exposure to Polystyrene Microplastics of Mice on a Normal or High-Fat Diet and Intestinal and Metabolic Outcomes

BACKGROUND

Microplastics (MPs) are small particles of plastic (≤5mm in diameter). In recent years, oral exposure to MPs in living organisms has been a cause of concern. Leaky gut syndrome (LGS), associated with a high-fat diet (HFD) in mice, can increase the entry of foreign substances into the body through the intestinal mucosa.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to evaluate the pathophysiology of intestinal outcomes associated with consuming a high-fat diet and simultaneous intake of MPs, focusing on endocrine and metabolic systems.

METHODS

C57BL6/J mice were fed a normal diet (ND) or HFD with or without polystyrene MP for 4 wk to investigate differences in glucose tolerance, intestinal permeability, gut microbiota, as well as metabolites in serum, feces, and liver.

RESULTS

In comparison with HFD mice, mice fed the HFD with MPs had higher blood glucose, serum lipid concentrations, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) activity scores. Permeability and goblet cell count of the small intestine (SI) in HFD-fed mice were higher and lower, respectively, than in ND-fed mice. There was no obvious difference in the number of inflammatory cells in the SI lamina propria between mice fed the ND and mice fed the ND with MP, but there were more inflammatory cells and fewer anti-inflammatory cells in mice fed the HFD with MPs in comparison with mice fed the HFD without MPs. The expression of genes related to inflammation, long-chain fatty acid transporter, and Na+/glucose cotransporter was significantly higher in mice fed the HFD with MPs than in mice fed the HFD without MPs. Furthermore, the genus Desulfovibrio was significantly more abundant in the intestines of mice fed the HFD with MPs in comparison with mice fed the HFD without MPs. Muc2 gene expression was decreased when palmitic acid and microplastics were added to the murine intestinal epithelial cell line MODE-K cells, and Muc2 gene expression was increased when IL-22 was added.

DISCUSSION

Our findings suggest that in this study, MP induced metabolic disturbances, such as diabetes and NAFLD, only in mice fed a high-fat diet. These findings suggest that LGS might have been triggered by HFD, causing MPs to be deposited in the intestinal mucosa, resulting in inflammation of the intestinal mucosal intrinsic layer and thereby altering nutrient absorption. These results highlight the need for reducing oral exposure to MPs through remedial environmental measures to improve metabolic disturbance under high-fat diet conditions. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11072.

Erythritol: An In-Depth Discussion of Its Potential to Be a Beneficial Dietary Component

The sugar alcohol erythritol is a relatively new food ingredient. It is naturally occurring in plants, however, produced commercially by fermentation. It is also produced endogenously via the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP). Consumers perceive erythritol as less healthy than sweeteners extracted from plants, including sucrose. This review evaluates that perspective by summarizing current literature regarding erythritol's safety, production, metabolism, and health effects. Dietary erythritol is 30% less sweet than sucrose, but contains negligible energy. Because it is almost fully absorbed and excreted in urine, it is better tolerated than other sugar alcohols. Evidence shows erythritol has potential as a beneficial replacement for sugar in healthy and diabetic subjects as it exerts no effects on glucose or insulin and induces gut hormone secretions that modulate satiety to promote weight loss. Long-term rodent studies show erythritol consumption lowers body weight or adiposity. However, observational studies indicate positive association between plasma erythritol and obesity and cardiometabolic disease. It is unlikely that dietary erythritol is mediating these associations, rather they reflect dysregulated PPP due to impaired glycemia or glucose-rich diet. However, long-term clinical trials investigating the effects of chronic erythritol consumption on body weight and risk for metabolic diseases are needed. Current evidence suggests these studies will document beneficial effects of dietary erythritol compared to caloric sugars and allay consumer misperceptions.

Diet-Related Changes of Short-Chain Fatty Acids in Blood and Feces in Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome

Obesity-related illnesses are one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Metabolic syndrome has been associated with numerous health issues. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) have been shown to have multiple effects throughout the body, both directly as well as through specific G protein-coupled receptors. The main SCFAs produced by the gut microbiota are acetate, propionate, and butyrate, which are absorbed in varying degrees from the large intestine, with some acting mainly locally and others systemically. Diet has the potential to influence the gut microbial composition, as well as the type and amount of SCFAs produced. High fiber-containing foods and supplements increase the production of SCFAs and SCFA-producing bacteria in the gut and have been shown to have bodyweight-lowering effects. Dietary supplements, which increase SCFA production, could open the way for novel approaches to weight loss interventions. The aim of this review is to analyze the variations of fecal and blood SCFAs in obesity and metabolic syndrome through a systematic search and analysis of existing literature.

Effects of Dietary Allitol on Body Fat Accumulation in Rats

Allitol is a rare sugar alcohol obtained by reducing d-allulose (d-psicose). However, information on the effects of long-term dietary allitol intake is limited. This study aimed to investigate the effect of allitol supplementation, as a sugar substitute, on body fat accumulation in rats compared with sucrose, rare sugar d-allulose, or erythritol. Thirty-two male Wistar rats (3 wk old) were fed experimental diets including 5% sucrose, allitol, erythritol, or d-allulose for 8 wk ad libitum. Weight gain, food intake, and food efficiency did not differ among the groups. The total body fat mass and percentage, and intra-abdominal adipose tissue weights were significantly lower in rats fed with the allitol diet than in those fed with the sucrose diet. These body fat indicators tended to be lower in rats fed with the erythritol and d-allulose diets than in those fed with the sucrose diet, but there was no significant difference. The serum glucose-lowering effect obtained in rats fed with the d-allulose diet did not appear in rats fed with the allitol diet. These results suggest that the anti-obesity effect of allitol may be equal to or greater than that of d-allulose.

Gut Microbiota Changes by an SGLT2 Inhibitor, Luseogliflozin, Alters Metabolites Compared with Those in a Low Carbohydrate Diet in db/db Mice

In recent years, sarcopenic obesity has been considered central pathological factors in diabetes. This study aimed to compare the effect of luseogliflozin, a sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 inhibitor (SGLT2i), on sarcopenic obesity in comparison to that of a low-carbohydrate diet (LCD). Twenty-week-old male db/db mice were fed a normal diet (Ctrl), LCD, and normal diet with 0.01% w/w luseogliflozin (SGLT2i) for eight weeks. Skeletal muscle mass and grip strength decreased in the LCD group mice compared to those in the control group, while they increased in the SGLT2i group mice. The amino acid content in the liver, skeletal muscle, and serum were lower in the LCD group than those in the Ctrl group but increased in the SGLT2i group mice. Short-chain fatty acids in rectal feces were lower in the LCD group mice than those in the Ctrl group, whereas they were higher in the SGLT2i group mice. The abundance of Gammaproteobacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, Escherichia, Enterobacterales, and Bacteroides caccae species increased in the LCD group compared to the other two groups, whereas the abundance of Syntrophothermus lipocalidus, Syntrophomonadaceae family, Parabacteroidesdistasonis distasonis, and the genus Anaerotignum increased in the SGLT2i group. Luseogliflozin could prevent sarcopenic obesity by improving amino acid metabolism.

Food Additives Associated with Gut Microbiota Alterations in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Friends or Enemies?

During the 21st century, the incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is rising globally. Despite the pathogenesis of IBD remaining largely unclear, the interactions between environmental exposure, host genetics and immune response contribute to the occurrence and development of this disease. Growing evidence implicates that food additives might be closely related to IBD, but the involved molecular mechanisms are still poorly understood. Food additives may be categorized as distinct types in accordance with their function and property, including artificial sweeteners, preservatives, food colorant, emulsifiers, stabilizers, thickeners and so on. Various kinds of food additives play a role in modifying the interaction between gut microbiota and intestinal inflammation. Therefore, this review comprehensively synthesizes the current evidence on the interplay between different food additives and gut microbiome alterations, and further elucidates the potential mechanisms of food additives–associated microbiota changes involved in IBD.

Partially Hydrolyzed Guar Gum Suppresses the Development of Sarcopenic Obesity

Partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG) is a soluble dietary fiber derived through controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of guar gum, a highly viscous galactomannan derived from the seeds of Cyamopsis tetragonoloba. Here, we examined the therapeutic potential of dietary supplementation with PHGG against sarcopenic obesity using Db/Db mice. Db/Db mice fed a normal diet alone or a fiber-free diet, or supplemented with a diet containing PHGG (5%), were examined. PHGG increased grip strength and the weight of skeletal muscles. PHGG increased the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) concentration in feces and sera. Concerning innate immunity, PHGG decreased the ratio of inflammatory cells, while increasing the ratio of anti-inflammatory cells in the small intestine. The present study demonstrated the preventive effect of PHGG on sarcopenic obesity. Changes in nutrient absorption might be involved through the promotion of an anti-inflammatory shift of innate immunity in the intestine accompanied by an increase in SCFA production by PHGG.

Role of Innate lymphoid Cells in Obesity and Insulin Resistance

Obesity, a growing chronic metabolic disease, greatly increases the risk of metabolic syndrome which includes type 2 diabetes, fatty liver and cardiovascular diseases. Obesity-associated metabolic diseases significantly contribute to mortality and reduce life expectancy. Recently, innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) have emerged as crucial regulators of metabolic homeostasis and tissue inflammation. This review focuses on the roles of ILCs in different metabolic tissues, including adipose tissue, liver, pancreas, and intestine. We briefly outline the relationship between obesity, inflammation, and insulin resistance. We then discuss how ILCs in distinct metabolic organs may function to maintain metabolic homeostasis and contribute to obesity and its associated metabolic diseases. The potential of ILCs as the therapeutic target for obesity and insulin resistance is also addressed.

Erythritol Improves Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease by Activating Nrf2 Antioxidant Capacity

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a kind of serious fat disorder that has become a critical problem to human society. Therefore, finding drugs that are safe and effective has become more and more important. Erythritol (Ery) is a polyol sweetener with a variety of biological functions. However, whether Ery has a relieving effect on NAFLD has not been reported yet. Therefore, we induced HepG2 cells with oleic acid and palmitic acid as our in vitro model. Moreover, we choose wild-type mice with tyloxapol and high-fat diet and nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) knockout mice with high-fat diet as our in vivo model. We found that Ery could reverse the lipid accumulation, oxidative stress, and endoplasmic reticulum stress caused by the NAFLD model. The mechanism studies showed that Ery promoted the translocation of Nrf2 from cytoplasm to nucleus, and the molecular simulation docking results of Ery and Nrf2 showed that there was a hydrogen bond between them. Moreover, Ery could promote the production of HO-1 and NQO1 antioxidant proteins and inhibit the expression of endoplasmic reticulum stress proteins GPR78, p-PERK, and CHOP. On the contrast, when Nrf2 was knocked out in mice, Ery lost its protective effect on NAFLD. In conclusion, we found that the potential mechanism of Ery's protective effect is that it plays an antioxidant role by activating the Nrf2 signaling pathway, thereby inhibiting endoplasmic reticulum stress and lipid accumulation in NAFLD.