Endothelin-1 in Health and Disease

The role of endothelin and its receptors in cardiomyopathy: From molecular mechanisms to therapeutic insights

Cardiomyopathy is an anatomical and pathologic condition that is related to the cardiac muscle or left ventricular failure. A diverse range of illnesses known as cardiomyopathies often result in progressive heart failure with high morbidity and death rates. Primary cardiomyopathies are hereditary, mixed, or adopted. Secondary cardiomyopathies are infiltrative, harmful, or pathogenic. The activation of many paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine factors is closely linked to pathological left ventricular (LV) deformation. After the myocardial injury, in the context of higher LV wall pressure and haemodynamic disturbance, these variables are raised. New therapy techniques have been focused on these novel targets after recent studies revealed that endothelin, nitric oxide or cytokines may be implicated in the remodelling process. Vasoconstrictive peptide endothelin-1 (ET-1) is mostly generated in the endothelium and works by binding to the ETA- and ETB-endothelin receptors (ET-Rs). The expression of both ET-Rs is widespread in cardiac tissues. Heart failure, pulmonary arterial hypertension, hypertension, cardiomyopathy, and coronary artery disease are just a few of the cardiovascular disorders for which the endothelin system has been shown to play a crucial role over the years. The occurrence, pathogenesis, and natural history of endothelin antagonists in cardiomyopathies are currently not well understood, and specific aspects of their treatment responses have not received comprehensive attention. Therefore, in this study, we address the variable degrees of success that have been achieved in treating cardiomyopathy using endothelin-targeting treatments, such as endothelin receptor antagonists.

Neuroinflammation Involving Endothelin-1 and Platelet-Activating Factor Receptors Contributes To Self-Injurious Behaviors Induced by Bay k-8644 in Adolescent Mice

Bay k-8644, an activator of L-type voltage-gated calcium channels, induces self-injurious behaviors in mice. Although previous studies using animal models have suggested the possible implications of neuroinflammation in self-injurious behaviors, this has not yet been elucidated in the context of Bay k-8644-induced self-injurious behaviors. In this study, Bay k-8644 (50 µg, i.c.v.)-induced self-injurious behaviors were accompanied by increased expression of endothelin (ET)-1, platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptors, and Iba-1 in the striatum. Pretreatment with the ET receptor antagonist bosentan (10 mg/kg, i.p.), the PAF receptor antagonist ginkgolide B (10 mg/kg, i.p.), or the microglial activation inhibitor minocycline (40 mg/kg/day for 5 days, i.p.) significantly inhibited Bay k-8644-induced self-injurious behaviors and microglial activation in the striatum. Interestingly, bosentan also suppressed Bay k-8644-induced PAF receptor expression, indicating that ET-1 may act as an upstream modulator of the PAF signaling under these experimental conditions. Bay k-8644-induced ET-1 expression and consequent pro-inflammatory changes were reversed by the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor NPC-15,437 and the Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) inhibitor KN-93. Moreover, Bay k-8644-induced self-injurious behaviors and microglial activation were significantly potentiated by exogenous ET-1 administration (10 pmol, i.c.v.) or by weak neuroinflammation in the striatum induced by systemic injection of low-dose lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 1 mg/kg, i.p.). Our results suggest that neuroinflammatory changes associated with ET-1/PAF signaling in the striatum contribute to Bay k-8644-induced self-injurious behaviors.

Vascular Pathogenesis in Acute and Long COVID: Current Insights and Therapeutic Outlook

Long coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-a postacute consequence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection-manifests with a broad spectrum of relapsing and remitting or persistent symptoms as well as varied levels of organ damage, which may be asymptomatic or present as acute events such as heart attacks or strokes and recurrent infections, hinting at complex underlying pathogenic mechanisms. Central to these symptoms is vascular dysfunction rooted in thrombotic endothelialitis. We review the scientific evidence that widespread endothelial dysfunction (ED) leads to chronic symptomatology. We briefly examine the molecular pathways contributing to endothelial pathology and provide a detailed analysis of how these cellular processes underpin the clinical picture. Noninvasive diagnostic techniques, such as flow-mediated dilation and peripheral arterial tonometry, are evaluated for their utility in identifying ED. We then explore mechanistic, cellular-targeted therapeutic interventions for their potential in treating ED. Overall, we emphasize the critical role of cellular health in managing Long COVID and highlight the need for early intervention to prevent long-term vascular and cellular dysfunction.

The Role of Triterpenoids in Gastric Ulcer: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potentials

Gastric ulcer (GU) is a prevalent gastrointestinal disorder impacting millions worldwide, with complex pathogenic mechanisms that may progress to severe illnesses. Conventional therapies relying on anti-secretory agents and antibiotics are constrained by drug abuse and increased bacterial resistance, highlighting the urgent need for safer therapeutic alternatives. Natural medicinal compounds, particularly triterpenoids derived from plants and herbs, have gained significant attention in recent years due to their favorable efficacy and reduced toxicity profiles. Emerging evidence indicates that triterpenoids exhibit potent anti-ulcer properties across various experimental models, modulating key pathways involved in inflammation, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and mucosal protection. Integrating current knowledge of these bioactive compounds facilitates the development of natural triterpenoids, addresses challenges in their clinical translation, deepens mechanistic understanding of GU pathogenesis, and drives innovation of therapeutic strategies for GU. This review comprehensively evaluates the progress of research on triterpenoids in GU treatment since 2000, discussing their biological sources, structural characteristics, pharmacological activities, and mechanisms of action, the animal models employed in the studies, current limitations, and the challenges associated with their clinical application.

Treatment of endothelial cell dysfunction in atherosclerosis: a new perspective integrating traditional and modern approaches

Atherosclerosis (AS), a prime causative factor in cardiovascular disease, originates from endothelial cell dysfunction (ECD). Comprising a vital part of the vascular endothelium, endothelial cells play a crucial role in maintaining vascular homeostasis, optimizing redox balance, and regulating inflammatory responses. More evidence shows that ECD not only serves as an early harbinger of AS but also exhibits a strong association with disease progression. In recent years, the treatment strategies for ECD have been continuously evolving, encompassing interventions ranging from lifestyle modifications to traditional pharmacotherapy aimed at reducing risk factors, which also have demonstrated the ability to improve endothelial cell function. Additionally, novel strategies such as promising biotherapy and gene therapy have drawn attention. These methods have demonstrated enormous potential and promising prospects in improving endothelial function and reversing AS. However, it is essential to remain cognizant that the current treatments still present significant challenges regarding therapeutic efficacy, long-term safety, and ethical issues. This article aims to provide a systematic review of these treatment methods, analyze the mechanisms and efficacy of various therapeutic strategies, with the goal of offering insights and guidance for clinical practice, and further advancing the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases.

From physiology to pathology: Emerging roles of GPER in cardiovascular disease

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are among the leading causes of death globally and pose a significant threat to public health. Factors such as prolonged high cholesterol levels, diabetes, smoking, unhealthy diet, and genetic predisposition could contribute to the occurrence and development of CVDs. Common CVDs include hypertension (HTN), atherosclerosis (AS), myocardial infarction (MI), myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury (MIRI), heart failure (HF) and arrhythmia. Estrogen is recognized for its cardiovascular protective effects, resulting in lower incidence and mortality rates of CVDs in premenopausal women compared to men. The G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER), a G protein-coupled receptor with a seven-transmembrane structure, exhibits unique structural characteristics and widespread tissue distribution. GPER activates intracellular signaling pathways through its interaction with G proteins, mediating estrogen's biological effects and participating in the regulation of cardiovascular function, metabolic balance, and nervous system. Although recent research has highlighted the significant role of GPER in the cardiovascular system, its specific mechanisms remain unclear. Therefore, this review summarizes the latest research on GPER in CVDs, including its fundamental characteristics, physiological functions in the cardiovascular system, and its roles and potential therapeutic applications in common CVDs such as HTN, AS, MI, MIRI, HF and arrhythmia. Exploring GPER's positive effects on cardiovascular health will provide new strategies and research directions for the treatment of CVDs.

EDN1 facilitates cisplatin resistance of non-small cell lung cancer cells by regulating the TNF signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Cisplatin (DDP) is a commonly utilized chemotherapeutic agent. Nevertheless, the development of resistance to DDP significantly diminishes the effectiveness of DDP-based chemotherapy in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). In this study, we investigated the impact of endothelin 1 (EDN1) on the resistance to DDP in NSCLC.

METHODS

The proliferation, invasion, and migration of NSCLC cells were detected by cell counting kit-8 and Transwell migration and invasion assays. ELISA was performed to analyze the inflammatory cytokines concentrations. The related protein levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling pathway were analyzed by Western blot. Besides, a xenograft tumor mice model was established to explore the role of EDN1 in vivo.

RESULTS

The results showed that DDP-resistance upregulated EDN1 expression, cell viability, invasion, migration, and inflammation in NSCLC cells, while the results were reversed after EDN1 inhibition. EDN1 affected DDP-resistance of NSCLC by regulating TNF signaling pathway. Overexpression of TNF receptor-1 (TNFR1) reversed the decreased cell viability, invasion, migration, and inflammation induced by silencing EDN1 in A549/DDP cells. Moreover, silencing EDN1 inhibited tumor growth and the protein levels of EDN1 and TNFR1.

CONCLUSION

EDN1 promoted DDP resistance in NSCLC cells through the modulation of the TNF signaling pathway, suggesting a potential therapeutic intervention strategy for NSCLC.

Loss of Endothelial TRPC1 Induces Aortic Hypercontractility and Hypertension

BACKGROUND

The increasing prevalence of obesity-related cardiovascular diseases demands a better understanding of the contribution of different cell types to vascular function for developing new treatment strategies. Previous studies have established a fundamental role of TRPC1 (transient receptor potential channel canonical family member 1) in blood vessels. However, little is known about its functional roles within different cell types.

METHODS

We generated endothelial-specific TRPC1-deficient and knockin mice and analyzed their changes in vascular function under physiological and pathologically obese state. Wire myography, Ca2+ image, blood pressure measurements, RNA-sequencing analysis, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, immunoblotting, ELISA, luciferase reporter assay, and morphometric assessments were performed to unravel phenotype and molecular changes in response to the absence or presence of endothelial TRPC1.

RESULTS

Loss of endothelial TRPC1 reduced endothelial-dependent relaxation and exaggerated endothelial-dependent contraction in mouse aorta. As expected, loss of endothelial TRPC1 amplified blood pressure and decreased acetylcholine-induced intracellular Ca2+ concentration rise in the aorta. In endothelial-specific TRPC1-deficient mouse arteries, the mRNA profile identified upregulation of c-Fos (Fos proto-oncogene, activator protein-1 transcription factor subunit). Blockade of c-Fos rescued the impaired vasomotor tone in the aorta of mice deficient in endothelial TRPC1. Endothelial TRPC1-regulated nitric oxide/endothelin-1 production is involved in vascular c-Fos expression. Moreover, knockin of endothelial TRPC1 ameliorated enhanced endothelial-dependent contraction and hypertension in obese mice which is related to alleviated endothelial endothelin-1/c-Fos production and smooth muscle contraction.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results identify endothelial TRPC1 as a previously unclear regulator of vascular changes and blood pressure in both physiological and pathologically obese state, and it is associated with nitric oxide/endothelin-1/c-Fos signaling.

Endothelial Dysfunction: Redox Imbalance, NLRP3 Inflammasome, and Inflammatory Responses in Cardiovascular Diseases

Endothelial dysfunction (ED) is characterized by an imbalance between vasodilatory and vasoconstrictive factors, leading to impaired vascular tone, thrombosis, and inflammation. These processes are critical in the development of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) such as atherosclerosis, hypertension and ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI). Reduced nitric oxide (NO) production and increased oxidative stress are key contributors to ED. Aging further exacerbates ED through mitochondrial dysfunction and increased oxidative/nitrosative stress, heightening CVD risk. Antioxidant systems like superoxide-dismutase (SOD), glutathione-peroxidase (GPx), and thioredoxin/thioredoxin-reductase (Trx/TXNRD) pathways protect against oxidative stress. However, their reduced activity promotes ED, atherosclerosis, and vulnerability to IRI. Metabolic syndrome, comprising insulin resistance, obesity, and hypertension, is often accompanied by ED. Specifically, hyperglycemia worsens endothelial damage by promoting oxidative stress and inflammation. Obesity leads to chronic inflammation and changes in perivascular adipose tissue, while hypertension is associated with an increase in oxidative stress. The NLRP3 inflammasome plays a significant role in ED, being triggered by factors such as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, ischemia, and high glucose, which contribute to inflammation, endothelial injury, and exacerbation of IRI. Treatments, such as N-acetyl-L-cysteine, SGLT2 or NLRP3 inhibitors, show promise in improving endothelial function. Yet the complexity of ED suggests that multi-targeted therapies addressing oxidative stress, inflammation, and metabolic disturbances are essential for managing CVDs associated with metabolic syndrome.

EDN1 and NTF3 in keloid pathogenesis: computational and experimental evidence as novel diagnostic biomarkers for fibrosis and inflammation

Objective

To investigate the roles of oxidative stress-related differentially expressed genes (OSRDEGs) in keloid formation and explore their potential value in diagnosis and treatment.

Methods

Gene expression data from the GEO database, including GSE145725 and GSE44270 as training sets and GSE7890 as a validation set, were utilized. OSRDEGs were identified, followed by Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA), GO/KEGG enrichment analysis, and Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA). Key genes were further screened through protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. miRNA targets, transcription factors (TF), and potential drug targets of these genes were predicted. Immune cell infiltration analysis was performed to assess the association between OSRDEGs and immune cells, which was validated using GSE7890. Finally, the expression of key genes was experimentally validated using quantitative PCR (qPCR), immunohistochemistry (IHC), and hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining.

Results

A total of 13 OSRDEGs were identified. WGCNA and functional enrichment analyses revealed that these genes were primarily involved in fibrosis and inflammatory processes in keloids, such as the MAPK signaling pathway, lymphocyte and monocyte proliferation, and inflammatory pathways involving IL-18 and IL-23. PPI network analysis, ROC analysis, and immune infiltration results identified Endothelin-1 (EDN1) and Neurotrophin-3(NTF3) as key genes with high sensitivity and specificity. These genes were positively and negatively correlated with activated mast cells, respectively, suggesting their dual regulatory roles in fibrosis and inflammation. External dataset validation, qPCR, correlation analysis, HE staining, and IHC results demonstrated that EDN1 and NTF3 were highly expressed in keloid tissues and were associated with excessive collagen deposition and immune cell infiltration.

Conclusion

EDN1 and NTF3, as OSRDEGs, play critical roles in the pathogenesis and progression of keloids. They may contribute to fibrosis and inflammation through the regulation of oxidative stress, the MAPK signaling pathway, and mast cell activation. These findings highlight EDN1 and NTF3 as potential diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets, providing novel insights into the pathogenesis and treatment strategies for keloids.

CYP24A1 is overexpressed in keloid keratinocytes and its inhibition alters profibrotic gene expression

Background

Keloids are disfiguring, fibrotic scar-like lesions that are challenging to treat and commonly recur after therapy. A deeper understanding of the mechanisms driving keloid formation is necessary for the development of more effective therapies. Reduced vitamin D receptor (VDR) expression has been observed in keloids, implicating vitamin D signaling in keloid pathology. Vitamin D exhibits anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory properties, suggesting it could have therapeutic utility in keloid disorder. The current study investigated vitamin D-regulated gene expression in keloid keratinocytes and the effects of inhibiting an enzyme involved in vitamin D metabolism on the phenotype of keloid-derived keratinocytes.

Methods

Normal and keloid-derived primary keratinocytes were isolated from normal skin and keloid lesions, respectively, and were cultured in the absence or presence of vitamin D. In some experiments, inhibitors of the vitamin D metabolizing enzyme CYP24A1, ketoconazole or VID400 were added in the absence or presence of vitamin D. Cellular proliferation, migration and gene expression were measured.

Results

We observed significant overexpression of CYP24A1 mRNA in keloid versus normal keratinocytes and increased CYP24A1 protein levels in keloids versus normal skin. CYP24A1 encodes 24 hydroxylase and is induced by vitamin D in a feedback loop that regulates vitamin D levels; thus, inhibition of CYP24A1 activity may locally increase active vitamin D levels. Ketoconazole, a non-specific cytochrome P-450 inhibitor, reduced proliferation of keloid and normal keratinocytes, but VID400, a specific CYP24A1 inhibitor, only significantly affected keloid keratinocyte proliferation. Neither inhibitor significantly reduced keratinocyte migration. The two inhibitors had different effects on vitamin D target gene expression in keratinocytes. Specifically, ketoconazole treatment reduced CYP24A1 expression in normal and keloid keratinocytes, whereas VID400 increased CYP24A1 expression. Both inhibitors decreased expression of profibrotic genes, including periostin and hyaluronan synthase 2, in keloid-derived cells. Combined treatment of keloid keratinocytes with vitamin D and ketoconazole or VID400 increased the effects of vitamin D treatment on target genes, although the effects were gene- and cell type-specific.

Conclusions

The data suggest that reduction of vitamin D inactivation with CYP24A1 inhibitors may reduce profibrotic gene expression in keloid-derived cells. Therefore, CYP24A1 inhibitors may serve as adjunctive therapies to suppress keloid-associated gene expression changes.

Blood Biomarkers as a Non-Invasive Method for the Assessment of the State of the Fontan Circulation

The Fontan operation has become the primary palliative treatment for patients with a functionally univentricular heart. The population of patients with Fontan circulation is constantly growing and aging. As the number of Fontan patients surviving into adulthood increases, there is a clear need for research on how best to follow these patients and manage their complications. Monitoring blood biomarkers is a promising method for the non-invasive assessment of the Fontan circulation. In this article, we provide a comprehensive review of the available evidence on this topic. The following biomarkers were included: natriuretic peptides, red blood cell distribution width (RDW), cystatin C, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, von Willebrand factor, carbohydrate antigen 125, lipoproteins, hepatocyte growth factor, troponins, ST2 protein, galectin-3, adrenomedullin, endothelin-1, components of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, norepinephrine, interleukin 6, tumor necrosis factor α, and uric acid. We did not find strong enough data to propose evidence-based recommendations. Nevertheless, significantly elevated levels of brain natriuretic peptide (BNP)/N-terminal prohormone of BNP (NT-proBNP) are most likely associated with the failure of the Fontan circulation. The use of the RDW is also promising. Several biomarkers appear to be useful in certain clinical presentations. Certainly, robust longitudinal, preferably multicenter, prospective studies are needed to determine the sensitivity, specificity, evidence-based cut-off values and overall predictive value of different biomarkers in monitoring Fontan physiology.

Ambient Air Pollution and Congenital Heart Disease: Updated Evidence and Future Challenges

Congenital heart disease (CHD) represents the major cause of infant mortality related to congenital anomalies globally. The etiology of CHD is mostly multifactorial, with environmental determinants, including maternal exposure to ambient air pollutants, assumed to contribute to CHD development. While particulate matter (PM) is responsible for millions of premature deaths every year, overall ambient air pollutants (PM, nitrogen and sulfur dioxide, ozone, and carbon monoxide) are known to increase the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. In this literature review, we provide an overview regarding the updated evidence related to the association between maternal exposure to outdoor air pollutants and CHD occurrence, also exploring the underlying biological mechanisms from human and experimental studies. With the exception of PM, for which there is currently moderate evidence of its positive association with overall CHD risk following exposure during the periconception and throughout pregnancy, and for ozone which shows a signal of association with increased risk of pooled CHD and certain CHD subtypes in the periconceptional period, for the other pollutants, the data are inconsistent, and no conclusion can be drawn about their role in CHD onset. Future epidemiological cohort studies in countries with different degree of air pollution and experimental research on animal models are warranted to gain a comprehensive picture of the possible involvement of ambient air pollutants in CHD etiopathogenesis. While on the one hand this information could also be useful for timely intervention to reduce the risk of CHD, on the other hand, it is mandatory to scale up the use of technologies for pollutant monitoring, as well as the use of Artificial Intelligence for data analysis to identify the non-linear relationships that will eventually exist between environmental and clinical variables.

Pathological roles of mitochondrial dysfunction in endothelial cells during the cerebral no-reflow phenomenon: A review

Emergency intravascular interventional therapy is the most effective approach to rapidly restore blood flow and manage occlusion of major blood vessels during the initial phase of acute ischemic stroke. Nevertheless, several patients continue to experience ineffective reperfusion or cerebral no-reflow phenomenon, that is, hypoperfusion of cerebral blood supply after treatment. This is primarily attributed to downstream microcirculation disturbance. As integral components of the cerebral microvascular structure, endothelial cells (ECs) attach importance to regulating microcirculatory blood flow. Unlike neurons and microglia, ECs harbor a relatively low abundance of mitochondria, acting as key sensors of environmental and cellular stress in regulating the viability, structural integrity, and function of ECs rather than generating energy. Mitochondria dysfunction including increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species levels and disturbed mitochondrial dynamics causes endothelial injury, further causing microcirculation disturbance involved in the cerebral no-reflow phenomenon. Therefore, this review aims to discuss the role of mitochondrial changes in regulating the role of ECs and cerebral microcirculation blood flow during I/R injury. The outcomes of the review will provide promising potential therapeutic targets for future prevention and effective improvement of the cerebral no-reflow phenomenon.

PDE4B abrogation extenuates angiotensin II-induced endothelial dysfunction related to hypertension through up-regulation of AMPK/Sirt1/Nrf2/ARE signaling

Endothelial dysfunction is commonly perceived as a precursor in the process of hypertension, a severe cardiovascular disorder. Phosphodiesterase 4B (PDE4B) inactivation has been proposed to exert cardioprotective effects and prevent pulmonary hypertension. However, the role of PDE4B in endothelial dysfunction in hypertension remains inexplicit, which will be investigated in the present work. In angiotensin II (Ang II)-induced human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), RT-qPCR and Western blotting were used to analyze PDE4B expression. CCK-8 method was used to detect cell viability. Flow cytometry assay and Caspase 3 assay kit were used to detect cellular apoptotic level. Wound healing and tube formation assays were respectively used to detect cell migration and angiogenesis. Western blotting and corresponding assay kits were respectively used to analyze the expressions and contents of endothelial dysfunction markers. JC-1 assay, RT-qPCR and relevant assay kit were respectively used to detect mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), quantify mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number and mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) opening. Besides, Western blotting was used to analyze the expressions of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/sirtuin 1 (Sirt1)/nuclear factor-erythroid 2 related factor 2 (Nrf2)/antioxidant response element (ARE) signaling-associated proteins. PDE4B expression was increased in Ang II- induced HUVECs. PDE4B knockdown promoted the viability, migration, angiogenesis while inhibiting the apoptosis, endothelial dysfunction, ERS and mitochondrial damage in Ang II-induced HUVECs. Additionally, PDE4B silence activated AMPK/Sirt1/Nrf2/ARE pathway and AMPK inhibitor Compound C (CC) partially reversed the effects of PDE4B down-regulation on Ang II-induced HUVECs. Conclusively, PDE4B inhibition might protect against Ang II-induced endothelial dysfunction in HUVECs via up-regulating AMPK/Sirt1/Nrf2/ARE pathway, which might be mediated by the suppression of ERS and mitochondrial damage.

A tale of two endothelins: the rise and fall of the corpus luteum

Endothelins are small 21 amino acid peptides that interact with G-protein-coupled receptors. They are highly conserved across species and play important roles in vascular biology as well as in disease development and progression. Endothelins, mainly endothelin-1 and endothelin-2, are intricately involved in ovarian function and metabolism. These two peptides differ only in two amino acids but are encoded by different genes, which suggests an independent regulation and a cell-specific mode of expression. This review aims to comprehensively discuss the distinct regulation and roles of endothelin-1 and endothelin-2 regarding corpus luteum function throughout its life span.

Neurovascular unit, neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration markers in brain disorders

Neurovascular unit (NVU) inflammation via activation of glial cells and neuronal damage plays a critical role in neurodegenerative diseases. Though the exact mechanism of disease pathogenesis is not understood, certain biomarkers provide valuable insight into the disease pathogenesis, severity, progression and therapeutic efficacy. These markers can be used to assess pathophysiological status of brain cells including neurons, astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes, specialized microvascular endothelial cells, pericytes, NVU, and blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption. Damage or derangements in tight junction (TJ), adherens junction (AdJ), and gap junction (GJ) components of the BBB lead to increased permeability and neuroinflammation in various brain disorders including neurodegenerative disorders. Thus, neuroinflammatory markers can be evaluated in blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), or brain tissues to determine neurological disease severity, progression, and therapeutic responsiveness. Chronic inflammation is common in age-related neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and dementia. Neurotrauma/traumatic brain injury (TBI) also leads to acute and chronic neuroinflammatory responses. The expression of some markers may also be altered many years or even decades before the onset of neurodegenerative disorders. In this review, we discuss markers of neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration associated with acute and chronic brain disorders, especially those associated with neurovascular pathologies. These biomarkers can be evaluated in CSF, or brain tissues. Neurofilament light (NfL), ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 (UCHL1), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), Ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1), transmembrane protein 119 (TMEM119), aquaporin, endothelin-1, and platelet-derived growth factor receptor beta (PDGFRβ) are some important neuroinflammatory markers. Recent BBB-on-a-chip modeling offers promising potential for providing an in-depth understanding of brain disorders and neurotherapeutics. Integration of these markers in clinical practice could potentially enhance early diagnosis, monitor disease progression, and improve therapeutic outcomes.

Transpulmonary Plasma Endothelin-1 Arterial:Venous Ratio Differentiates Survivors from Non-Survivors in Critically Ill Patients with COVID-19-Induced Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

Endothelin-1 (ET-1) is a potent vasoconstrictor produced by endothelial cells and cleared from circulating blood mainly in the pulmonary vasculature. In a healthy pulmonary circulation, the rate of local production of ET-1 is less than its rate of clearance. In the present study, we aimed to investigate whether the abnormal pulmonary circulatory handling of ET-1 relates to poor clinical outcomes in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). To this end, central venous and systemic arterial ET-1 plasma levels were simultaneously measured on Days 1 and 3 following ICU admission in mechanically ventilated COVID-19 patients with ARDS (COVID-19 ARDS, N = 18). Central venous and systemic arterial ET-1 plasma levels were also measured in two distinct SARS-CoV-2-negative mechanically ventilated critically ill patient groups, matched for age, sex, and critical illness severity, with ARDS (non-COVID-19 ARDS, N = 14) or without ARDS (non-COVID-19 non-ARDS, N = 20). Upon ICU admission, COVID-19-induced ARDS patients had higher systemic arterial and central venous ET-1 levels compared to the non-COVID-19 ARDS and non-COVID-19 non-ARDS patients (p < 0.05), yet a normal systemic arterial:central venous (A:V) ET-1 ratio [0.63 (0.49-1.02)], suggesting that pulmonary ET-1 clearance is intact in these patients. On the other hand, the non-COVID-19 ARDS patients demonstrated abnormal ET-1 handling [A:V ET-1 ratio 1.06 (0.93-1.20)], while the non-COVID-19 non-ARDS group showed normal ET-1 handling [0.79 (0.52-1.11)]. On Day 3, the A:V ratio in all three groups was <1. When the COVID-19 ARDS patients were divided based on 28-day ICU mortality, while their systemic arterial and central venous levels did not differ, the A:V ET-1 ratio was statistically significantly higher upon ICU admission in the non-survivors [0.95 (0.78-1.34)] compared to the survivors [0.57 (0.48-0.92), p = 0.027]. Our results highlight the potential importance of ET-1 as both a biomarker and a therapeutic target in critically ill COVID-19 patients. The elevated A:V ET-1 ratio in non-survivors suggests that the early disruption of pulmonary ET-1 handling may be a key marker of poor prognosis.

Impact of the environmental pollution on cardiovascular diseases: From epidemiological to molecular evidence

Environmental pollution poses a significant threat to human health, particularly concerning its impact on cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). This review synthesizes epidemiological and molecular evidence to elucidate the intricate relationship between environmental pollutants and CVDs. Epidemiological studies highlight the association between exposure to air, water, and soil pollutants and increased CVD risk, including hypertension, coronary artery disease, and stroke. Furthermore, molecular investigations unravel the underlying mechanisms linking pollutant exposure to CVD pathogenesis, such as oxidative stress, inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and autonomic imbalance. Understanding these molecular pathways is crucial for developing targeted interventions and policy strategies to mitigate the adverse effects of environmental pollution on cardiovascular health. By integrating epidemiological and molecular evidence, this review provides insights into the complex interplay between environmental factors and CVDs, emphasizing the urgent need for comprehensive preventive measures and environmental policies to safeguard public health.

Engineered SPIONs functionalized with endothelin a receptor antagonist ameliorate liver fibrosis by inhibiting hepatic stellate cell activation

Endothelin-1/endothelin A receptor (ET-1/ETAR) pathway plays an important role in the progression of liver fibrosis by activating hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) - a key cell type involved in the pathogenesis of liver fibrosis. Inactivating HSCs by blocking the ET-1/ETAR pathway using a selective ETAR antagonist (ERA) represents a promising therapeutic approach for liver fibrosis. Unfortunately, small-molecule ERAs possess limited clinical potential due to poor bioavailability, short half-life, and rapid renal clearance. To improve the clinical applicability, we conjugated ERA to superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) and investigated the therapeutic efficacy of ERA and ERA-SPIONs in vitro and in vivo and analyzed liver uptake by in vivo and ex vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), HSCs-specific localization, and ET-1/ETAR-pathway antagonism in vivo. In murine and human liver fibrosis/cirrhosis, we observed overexpression of ET-1 and ETAR that correlated with HSC activation, and HSC-specific localization of ETAR. ERA and successfully synthesized ERA-SPIONs demonstrated significant attenuation in TGFβ-induced HSC activation, ECM production, migration, and contractility. In an acute CCl4-induced liver fibrosis mouse model, ERA-SPIONs exhibited higher liver uptake, HSC-specific localization, and ET-1/ETAR pathway antagonism. This resulted in significantly reduced liver-to-body weight ratio, plasma ALT levels, and α-SMA and collagen-I expression, indicating attenuation of liver fibrosis. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that the delivery of ERA using SPIONs enhances the therapeutic efficacy of ERA in vivo. This approach holds promise as a theranostic strategy for the MRI-based diagnosis and treatment of liver fibrosis.

Alteration of reactivity in isolated mesenteric artery from Zucker fatty diabetes mellitus rats

Obesity and diabetes are major risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. Zucker fatty diabetes mellitus (ZFDM) rats are novel animal model of obesity and type 2 diabetes. We have recently reported that blood pressure in ZFDM-Leprfa/fa (Homo) rats was normal, while blood adrenaline level and heart rate were lower than those in control ZFDM-Leprfa/+ (Hetero) rats. Here, we compared the reactivity in isolated mesenteric artery between Hetero and Homo rats. Contraction induced by phenylephrine was increased, while relaxation induced by isoprenaline was decreased in Homo rats at 21-23 weeks old compared with those in Hetero rats. The mRNA expression for α1A but not β2 adrenoreceptor in Homo rats was increased. Nitric oxide (NO)-mediated relaxation induced by acetylcholine was decreased, while the mRNA expression for endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) was rather increased in mesenteric artery from Homo rats. These findings for the first time revealed that in Homo rats with reduced plasma adrenaline, blood pressure could be maintained by enhancing vascular contractility induced by adrenaline through the increased α1 adrenoceptor expression and the attenuated β2 adrenoceptor signaling. Additionally, NO-mediated endothelium-dependent relaxation is impaired perhaps due to eNOS dysfunction, which might also contribute to maintain the blood pressure in Homo rats.

The involvement of keratinocytes in pruritus of chronic inflammatory dermatosis

Frequent itching and incessant scratching are commonly observed in various chronic inflammatory skin conditions, including atopic dermatitis and psoriasis. The persistent and prolonged nature of pruritus can worsen one's quality of life. Keratinocytes (KCs), the predominant cells of the epidermis, have been confirmed to interact with sensory neurons and immune cells and be involved in chronic skin inflammatory diseases associated with pruritus. Initially, KCs and sensory neurons form a unique synapse-like connection within the epidermis, serving as the structural foundation for their interaction. Additionally, several receptors, including toll-like receptors and protease-activated receptor 2, expressed on KCs, become activated in an inflammatory milieu. On the one hand, activated KCs are sources of pro-inflammatory cytokines and neurotrophic factors, such as adenosine triphosphate, thymic stromal lymphopoietin, and nerve growth factor, which directly or indirectly participate in stimulating sensory neurons, thereby contributing to the itch sensations. On the other hand, KCs also function as primary transducers alongside intraepidermal nerve endings, directly initiating pruritic responses. This review summarizes the current literature and highlights the critical role of KCs in the development and persistence of chronic itch in inflammatory skin disorders.

New rat model of spinal cord infarction with long-lasting functional disabilities generated by intraspinal injection of endothelin-1

BACKGROUND

The current method for generating an animal model of spinal cord (SC) infarction is highly invasive and permits only short-term observation, typically limited to 28 days.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to establish a rat model characterised by long-term survival and enduring SC dysfunction by inducing selective ischaemic SC damage.

METHODS

In 8-week-old male Wistar rats, a convection-enhanced delivery technique was applied to selectively deliver endothelin-1 (ET-1) to the anterior horn of the SC at the Th13 level, leading to SC infarction. The Basso, Beattie and Bresnahan (BBB) locomotor score was assessed for 56 days. The SC was examined by a laser tissue blood flowmeter, MRI, immunohistochemistry, triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining, Western blots and TUNEL staining.

RESULTS

The puncture method was used to bilaterally inject 0.7 µL ET-1 (2.5 mg/mL) from the lateral SC into the anterior horns (40° angle, 1.5 mm depth) near the posterior root origin. Animals survived until day 56 and the BBB score was stably maintained (5.5±1.0 at day 14 and 6.2±1.0 at day 56). Rats with BBB scores ≤1 on day 1 showed stable scores of 5-6 after day 14 until day 56 while rats with BBB scores >1 on day 1 exhibited only minor dysfunction with BBB scores >12 after day 14. TTC staining, immunostaining and TUNEL staining revealed selective ischaemia and neuronal cell death in the anterior horn. T2-weighted MR images showed increasing signal intensity at the SC infarction site over time. Western blots revealed apoptosis and subsequent inflammation in SC tissue after ET-1 administration.

CONCLUSIONS

Selective delivery of ET-1 into the SC allows for more precise localisation of the infarcted area at the targeted site and generates a rat SC infarction model with stable neurological dysfunction lasting 56 days.

New insight on the possible role of statins in Vascular Parkinsonism: A need for presumptive therapy

Vascular Parkinsonism (VP) is clinical term represents a progressive ischemic changes and subcortical lacunar infarct leading to Parkinsonism mainly in the lower limbs so called lower body Parkinsonism. The VP neuropathology is differed from that of PD neuropathology which rarely associated with basal ganglion lesions. Dopamine transporters are normal in VP but are highly reduced in PD, and dopaminergic agonists had no effective role on VP. The neuropathological mechanisms of VP are related to vascular injury which induces the interruption of the neural connection between basal ganglion and cerebral cortex. Hyperlipidemia and other cardiometabolic risk factors augment VP risk and the related neuropathology. Targeting of these cardiometabolic disorders by lipid-lowering statins may be effective in the management of VP. Therefore, this mini-review aims to clarify the possible role of statins in the management of VP. Statins have neuroprotective effects against different neurodegenerative diseases by anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antithrombotic effects with enhancement of endothelial function. In conclusion, statins can prevent and treat VP by inhibiting inflammatory and oxidative stress disorders, mitigating of white matter hyperintensities and improving of neuronal signaling pathways. Additional preclinical, clinical trials and prospective studies are warranted in this regard.

E. Coli LPS-induced calcium signaling regulates the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α in periodontal ligament fibroblasts in a non-hypoxia-dependent manner

Periodontitis, an inflammatory disease, can cause significant damage to the oral tissues which support the teeth. During the early development of periodontitis, periodontal ligament fibroblasts (PDLFs) undergo metabolic reprogramming regulated by hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α), which is strongly linked to the progression of inflammation. However, the precise mechanisms by which PDLFs regulate HIF-1α and its associated metabolic reprogramming during early inflammation remain unclear. This study illustrated that brief and low-dose exposure to Escherichia coli (E. coli) lipopolysaccharide (LPS) can serve as a non-hypoxic stimulus, effectively replicating early periodontal inflammatory reactions. This is evidenced by the upregulation of HIF-1α expression and the activation of HIF-1α-mediated crucial glycolytic enzymes, namely lactate dehydrogenase a, pyruvate kinase, and hexokinase 2, concomitant with an augmentation in the inflammatory response within PDLFs. We observed that the effects mentioned and their impact on macrophage polarization were notably attenuated when intracellular and extracellular stores of Ca2+ were depleted using BAPTA-AM and Ca2+-free medium, respectively. Mechanistically, our findings demonstrated that the transcriptional process of HIF-1α is regulated by Ca2+ during E. coli LPS stimulation, mediated through the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) pathway. Additionally, we observed that the stabilization of intracellular HIF-1α proteins occurs via the endothelin (ET)-1-endothelin A receptor pathway, independent of hypoxia. Taken together, our research outcomes underscore the pivotal involvement of Ca2+ in the onset of early periodontitis by modulating HIF-1α and glycolysis, thereby presenting novel avenues for early therapeutic interventions.

Possible Molecular Mechanisms of Hypertension Induced by Sleep Apnea Syndrome/Intermittent Hypoxia

Intermittent hypoxia (IH) is a central characteristic of sleep apnea syndrome (SAS), and it subjects cells in the body to repetitive apnea, chronic hypoxia, oxygen desaturation, and hypercapnia. Since SAS is linked to various serious cardiovascular complications, especially hypertension, many studies have been conducted to elucidate the mechanism of hypertension induced by SAS/IH. Hypertension in SAS is associated with numerous cardiovascular disorders. As hypertension is the most common complication of SAS, cell and animal models to study SAS/IH have developed and provided lots of hints for elucidating the molecular mechanisms of hypertension induced by IH. However, the detailed mechanisms are obscure and under investigation. This review outlines the molecular mechanisms of hypertension in IH, which include the regulation systems of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that activate the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) and catecholamine biosynthesis in the sympathetic nervous system, resulting in hypertension. And hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs), Endotheline 1 (ET-1), and inflammatory factors are also mentioned. In addition, we will discuss the influences of SAS/IH in cardiovascular dysfunction and the relationship of microRNA (miRNA)s to regulate the key molecules in each mechanism, which has become more apparent in recent years. These findings provide insight into the pathogenesis of SAS and help in the development of future treatments.