N-Acetylglucosamine Regulates Morphogenesis and Virulence Pathways in Fungi

Unveiling the inverse antimicrobial impact of a hetero-chitooligosaccharide on Candida tropicalis growth and biofilm formation

Chitosan and chitooligosaccharide (COS) are renowned for their potent antimicrobial prowess, yet the precise antimicrobial efficacy of COS remains elusive due to scant structural information about the utilized saccharides. This study delves into the antimicrobial potential of COS, spotlighting a distinct hetero-chitooligosaccharide dubbed DACOS. In contrast to other COS, DACOS remarkably fosters the growth of Candida tropicalis planktonic cells and fungal biofilms. Employing gradient alcohol precipitation, DACOS was fractionated, unveiling diverse structural characteristics and differential impacts on C. tropicalis. Notably, in a murine model of systemic candidiasis, DACOS, particularly its 70 % alcohol precipitates, manifests a promotive effect on Candida infection. This research unveils a new pathway for exploring the intricate nexus between the structural attributes of chitosan oligosaccharides and their physiological repercussions, underscoring the imperative of crafting chitosan and COS with meticulously defined structural configurations.

Inhibition of the morphological transition of Candida spp. by riparins I-IV

Candida spp. is an opportunistic pathogen capable of causing superficial to invasive infections. Morphological transition is one of the main virulence factors of this genus and, therefore, is an important variable to be considered in pharmacological interventions. Riparins I, II, III, and IV are alkamide-type alkaloids extracted from the unripe fruit of Aniba riparia, whose remarkable pharmacological properties were previously demonstrated. This work aimed to evaluate in silico and in vitro the inhibitory effects of Riparins on the morphological transition of Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, and Candida krusei. Molecular docking was applied to analyze the inhibitory effects of riparins against proteins such as N-acetylglucosamine, CYP-51, and protein kinase A (PKA) using the Ramachandran plot. The ligands were prepared by MarvinSketch and Spartan software version 14.0, and MolDock Score and Rerank Score were used to analyze the affinity of the compounds. In vitro analyses were performed by culturing the strains in humid chambers in the presence of riparins or fluconazole (FCZ). The morphology was observed through optical microscopy, and the size of the hyphae was determined using the ToupView software. In silico analysis demonstrated that all riparins are likely to interact with the molecular targets: GlcNAc (>50%), PKA (>60%), and CYP-51 (>70%). Accordingly, in vitro analysis showed that these compounds significantly inhibited the morphological transition of all Candida strains. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that riparins inhibit Candida morphological transition and, therefore, can be used to overcome the pathogenicity of this genus.

Mass spectrometry imaging of natural carbonyl products directly from agar-based microbial interactions using 4-APEBA derivatization

Aliphatic carboxylic acids, aldehydes, and ketones play diverse roles in microbial adaptation to their microenvironment, from excretion as toxins to adaptive metabolites for membrane fluidity. However, the spatial distribution of these molecules throughout biofilms and how microbes in these environments exchange these molecules remain elusive for many of these bioactive species due to inefficient molecular imaging strategies. Herein, we apply on-tissue chemical derivatization (OTCD) using 4-(2-((4-bromophenethyl)dimethylammonio)ethoxy)benzenaminium dibromide (4-APEBA) on a co-culture of a soil bacterium (Bacillus subtilis NCIB 3610) and fungus (Fusarium sp. DS 682) grown on agar as our model system. Using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI), we spatially resolved more than 300 different metabolites containing carbonyl groups within this model system. Various spatial patterns are observable in these species, which indicate possible extracellular or intercellular processes of the metabolites and their up- or downregulation during microbial interaction. The unique chemistry of our approach allowed us to bring additional confidence in accurate carbonyl identification, especially when multiple isomeric candidates were possible, and this provided the ability to generate hypotheses about the potential role of some aliphatic carbonyls in this B. subtilis/Fusarium sp. interaction. The results shown here demonstrate the utility of 4-ABEBA-based OTCD MALDI-MSI in probing interkingdom interactions directly from microbial co-cultures, and these methods will enable future microbial interaction studies with expanded metabolic coverage.IMPORTANCEThe metabolic profiles within microbial biofilms and interkingdom interactions are extremely complex and serve a variety of functions, which include promoting colonization, growth, and survival within competitive and symbiotic environments. However, measuring and differentiating many of these molecules, especially in an in situ fashion, remains a significant analytical challenge. We demonstrate a chemical derivatization strategy that enabled highly sensitive, multiplexed mass spectrometry imaging of over 300 metabolites from a model microbial co-culture. Notably, this approach afforded us to visualize over two dozen classes of ketone-, aldehyde-, and carboxyl-containing molecules, which were previously undetectable from colonies grown on agar. We also demonstrate that this chemical derivatization strategy can enable the discrimination of isobaric and isomeric metabolites without the need for orthogonal separation (e.g., online chromatography or ion mobility). We anticipate that this approach will further enhance our knowledge of metabolic regulation within microbiomes and microbial systems used in bioengineering applications.

Amino sugars influence Aspergillus fumigatus cell wall polysaccharide biosynthesis, and biofilm formation through interfering galactosaminogalactan deacetylation

Aspergillus fumigatus is a ubiquitous fungal pathogen responsible for a significant number of deaths annually due to invasive aspergillosis infection. While the utilization of diverse carbon sources, including amino sugars, has been explored in other fungi, its impact on A. fumigatus remains uncharted territory. In this study, we investigated A. fumigatus responses to glucose (Glc), glucosamine (GlcN) and N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) as carbon sources. GlcN inhibited growth, reduced sporulation and delayed germination, while GlcNAc had no such effects. Both amino sugars induced alterations in cell wall composition, leading to a reduction in glucan and galactomannan levels while increasing chitin and mannan content, rendering A. fumigatus susceptible to cell wall stress and osmotic stress. GlcN repressed biofilm formation via downregulation of galactosaminogalactan (GAG) cluster genes, notably agd3, which encodes a GAG-specific deacetylase. Moreover, GlcN increased biofilm susceptibility to echinocandins, suggesting its potential for enhancing the effectiveness of antifungal treatments. This study sheds light on the multifaceted effects of amino sugars on A. fumigatus, encompassing growth, cell wall biosynthesis, and biofilm formation, offering promising avenues for innovative aspergillosis treatment strategies.

Metabolic and Phenotypic Changes Induced during N-Acetylglucosamine Signalling in the Fungal Pathogen Candida albicans

The human commensal yeast Candida albicans is pathogenic and results in a variety of mucosal and deep tissue problems when the host is immunocompromised. Candida exhibits enormous metabolic flexibility and dynamic morphogenetic transition to survive under host niche environmental conditions and to cause virulence. The amino sugar N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) available at the host infection sites, apart from acting as an extremely good carbon and nitrogen source, also induces cellular signalling in this pathogen. In C. albicans, GlcNAc performs multifaceted roles, including GlcNAc scavenging, GlcNAc import and metabolism, morphogenetic transition (yeast-hyphae and white-opaque switch), GlcNAc-induced cell death (GICD), and virulence. Understanding the molecular mechanism(s) involved in GlcNAc-induced cellular processes has become the main focus of many studies. In the current study, we focused on GlcNAc-induced metabolic changes associated with phenotypic changes. Here, we employed gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), which is a high-throughput and sensitive technology, to unveil global metabolomic changes that occur in GlcNAc vs. glucose grown conditions in Candida cells. The morphogenetic transition associated with metabolic changes was analysed by high-resolution field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). Metabolite analysis revealed the upregulation of metabolites involved in the glyoxylate pathway, oxidative metabolism, and fatty acid catabolism to probably augment the synthesis of GlcNAc-induced hypha-specific materials. Furthermore, GlcNAc-grown cells showed slightly more sensitivity to amphotericin B treatment. These results all together provide new insights into the development of antifungal therapeutics for the control of candidiasis in humans.

Intestinal mucus-derived metabolites modulate virulence of a clade 8 enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7

The human colonic mucus is mainly composed of mucins, which are highly glycosylated proteins. The normal commensal colonic microbiota has mucolytic activity and is capable of releasing the monosaccharides contained in mucins, which can then be used as carbon sources by pathogens such as Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC). EHEC can regulate the expression of some of its virulence factors through environmental sensing of mucus-derived sugars, but its implications regarding its main virulence factor, Shiga toxin type 2 (Stx2), among others, remain unknown. In the present work, we have studied the effects of five of the most abundant mucolytic activity-derived sugars, Fucose (L-Fucose), Galactose (D-Galactose), N-Gal (N-acetyl-galactosamine), NANA (N-Acetyl-Neuraminic Acid) and NAG (N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine) on EHEC growth, adhesion to epithelial colonic cells (HCT-8), and Stx2 production and translocation across a polarized HCT-8 monolayer. We found that bacterial growth was maximum when using NAG and NANA compared to Galactose, Fucose or N-Gal, and that EHEC adhesion was inhibited regardless of the metabolite used. On the other hand, Stx2 production was enhanced when using NAG and inhibited with the rest of the metabolites, whilst Stx2 translocation was only enhanced when using NANA, and this increase occurred only through the transcellular route. Overall, this study provides insights on the influence of the commensal microbiota on the pathogenicity of E. coli O157:H7, helping to identify favorable intestinal environments for the development of severe disease.

Demystifying the O-GlcNAc Code: A Systems View

Post-translational modification with O-linked β-N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc), a process referred to as O-GlcNAcylation, occurs on a vast variety of proteins. Mounting evidence in the past several decades has clearly demonstrated that O-GlcNAcylation is a unique and ubiquitous modification. Reminiscent of a code, protein O-GlcNAcylation functions as a crucial regulator of nearly all cellular processes studied. The primary aim of this review is to summarize the developments in our understanding of myriad protein substrates modified by O-GlcNAcylation from a systems perspective. Specifically, we provide a comprehensive survey of O-GlcNAcylation in multiple species studied, including eukaryotes (e.g., protists, fungi, plants, Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster, murine, and human), prokaryotes, and some viruses. We evaluate features (e.g., structural properties and sequence motifs) of O-GlcNAc modification on proteins across species. Given that O-GlcNAcylation functions in a species-, tissue-/cell-, protein-, and site-specific manner, we discuss the functional roles of O-GlcNAcylation on human proteins. We focus particularly on several classes of relatively well-characterized human proteins (including transcription factors, protein kinases, protein phosphatases, and E3 ubiquitin-ligases), with representative O-GlcNAc site-specific functions presented. We hope the systems view of the great endeavor in the past 35 years will help demystify the O-GlcNAc code and lead to more fascinating studies in the years to come.

Role of Cellular Metabolism during Candida-Host Interactions

Microscopic fungi are widely present in the environment and, more importantly, are also an essential part of the human healthy mycobiota. However, many species can become pathogenic under certain circumstances, with Candida spp. being the most clinically relevant fungi. In recent years, the importance of metabolism and nutrient availability for fungi-host interactions have been highlighted. Upon activation, immune and other host cells reshape their metabolism to fulfil the energy-demanding process of generating an immune response. This includes macrophage upregulation of glucose uptake and processing via aerobic glycolysis. On the other side, Candida modulates its metabolic pathways to adapt to the usually hostile environment in the host, such as the lumen of phagolysosomes. Further understanding on metabolic interactions between host and fungal cells would potentially lead to novel/enhanced antifungal therapies to fight these infections. Therefore, this review paper focuses on how cellular metabolism, of both host cells and Candida, and the nutritional environment impact on the interplay between host and fungal cells.

Metabolic Adaptations During Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans Co-Infection

Successful pathogens require metabolic flexibility to adapt to diverse host niches. The presence of co-infecting or commensal microorganisms at a given infection site can further influence the metabolic processes required for a pathogen to cause disease. The Gram-positive bacterium Staphylococcus aureus and the polymorphic fungus Candida albicans are microorganisms that asymptomatically colonize healthy individuals but can also cause superficial infections or severe invasive disease. Due to many shared host niches, S. aureus and C. albicans are frequently co-isolated from mixed fungal-bacterial infections. S. aureus and C. albicans co-infection alters microbial metabolism relative to infection with either organism alone. Metabolic changes during co-infection regulate virulence, such as enhancing toxin production in S. aureus or contributing to morphogenesis and cell wall remodeling in C. albicans. C. albicans and S. aureus also form polymicrobial biofilms, which have greater biomass and reduced susceptibility to antimicrobials relative to mono-microbial biofilms. The S. aureus and C. albicans metabolic programs induced during co-infection impact interactions with host immune cells, resulting in greater microbial survival and immune evasion. Conversely, innate immune cell sensing of S. aureus and C. albicans triggers metabolic changes in the host cells that result in an altered immune response to secondary infections. In this review article, we discuss the metabolic programs that govern host-pathogen interactions during S. aureus and C. albicans co-infection. Understanding C. albicans-S. aureus interactions may highlight more general principles of how polymicrobial interactions, particularly fungal-bacterial interactions, shape the outcome of infectious disease. We focus on how co-infection alters microbial metabolism to enhance virulence and how infection-induced changes to host cell metabolism can impact a secondary infection.

Integrative multi-omics profiling reveals cAMP-independent mechanisms regulating hyphal morphogenesis in Candida albicans

Microbial pathogens grow in a wide range of different morphologies that provide distinct advantages for virulence. In the fungal pathogen Candida albicans, adenylyl cyclase (Cyr1) is thought to be a master regulator of the switch to invasive hyphal morphogenesis and biofilm formation. However, faster growing cyr1Δ/Δ pseudorevertant (PR) mutants were identified that form hyphae in the absence of cAMP. Isolation of additional PR mutants revealed that their improved growth was due to loss of one copy of BCY1, the negative regulatory subunit of protein kinase A (PKA) from the left arm of chromosome 2. Furthermore, hyphal morphogenesis was improved in some of PR mutants by multigenic haploinsufficiency resulting from loss of large regions of the left arm of chromosome 2, including global transcriptional regulators. Interestingly, hyphal-associated genes were also induced in a manner that was independent of cAMP. This indicates that basal protein kinase A activity is an important prerequisite to induce hyphae, but activation of adenylyl cyclase is not needed. Instead, phosphoproteomic analysis indicated that the Cdc28 cyclin-dependent kinase and the casein kinase 1 family member Yck2 play key roles in promoting polarized growth. In addition, integrating transcriptomic and proteomic data reveals hyphal stimuli induce increased production of key transcription factors that contribute to polarized morphogenesis.

From Jekyll to Hyde: The Yeast-Hyphal Transition of Candida albicans

Candida albicans is a major fungal pathogen of humans, accounting for 15% of nosocomial infections with an estimated attributable mortality of 47%. C. albicans is usually a benign member of the human microbiome in healthy people. Under constant exposure to highly dynamic environmental cues in diverse host niches, C. albicans has successfully evolved to adapt to both commensal and pathogenic lifestyles. The ability of C. albicans to undergo a reversible morphological transition from yeast to filamentous forms is a well-established virulent trait. Over the past few decades, a significant amount of research has been carried out to understand the underlying regulatory mechanisms, signaling pathways, and transcription factors that govern the C. albicans yeast-to-hyphal transition. This review will summarize our current understanding of well-elucidated signal transduction pathways that activate C. albicans hyphal morphogenesis in response to various environmental cues and the cell cycle machinery involved in the subsequent regulation and maintenance of hyphal morphogenesis.

Metabolic flexibility and extensive adaptability governing multiple drug resistance and enhanced virulence in Candida albicans

Commensal fungus-Candida albicans turn pathogenic during the compromised immunity of the host, causing infections ranging from superficial mucosal to dreadful systemic ones. C. albicans has evolved various adaptive measures which collectively contribute towards its enhanced virulence. Among fitness attributes, metabolic flexibility and vigorous stress response are essential for its pathogenicity and virulence. Metabolic flexibility provides a means for nutrient assimilation and growth in diverse host microenvironments and reduces the vulnerability of the pathogen to various antifungals besides evading host immune response(s). Inside the host micro-environments, C. albicans efficiently utilizes the multiple fermentable and non-fermentable carbon sources to sustain and proliferate in glucose deficit conditions. The utilization of alternative carbon sources further highlights the importance of understanding these pathways as the attractive and potential therapeutic target. A thorough understanding of metabolic flexibility and adaptation to environmental stresses is warranted to decipher in-depth insights into virulence and molecular mechanisms of fungal pathogenicity. In this review, we have attempted to provide a detailed and recent understanding of some key aspects of fungal biology. Particular focus will be placed on processes like nutrient assimilation and utilization, metabolic adaptability, virulence factors, and host immune response in C. albicans leading to its enhanced pathogenicity.

Plant-associated fungal biofilms-knowns and unknowns

Nearly all microbes, including fungi, grow firmly attached to surfaces as a biofilm. Yet, attention toward fungal interactions with plants and the environment is dedicated to free-floating (planktonic) cells. Fungal biofilms are generally thought to configure interactions across and among plant populations. Despite this, plant fungal biofilm research lags far behind the research on biofilms of medically important fungi. The deficit in noticing and exploring this research avenue could limit disease management and plant improvement programs. Here, we provide the current state of knowledge of fungal biofilms and the different pivotal ecological roles they impart in the context of disease, through leveraging evidence across medically important fungi, secondary metabolite production, plant beneficial functions and climate change. We also provide views on several important information gaps potentially hampering plant fungal biofilm research, and propose a way forward to address these gaps.

N-acetylglucosamine Signaling: Transcriptional Dynamics of a Novel Sugar Sensing Cascade in a Model Pathogenic Yeast, Candida albicans

The amino sugar, N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc), has emerged as an attractive messenger of signaling in the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, given its multifaceted role in cellular processes, including GlcNAc scavenging, import and metabolism, morphogenesis (yeast to hyphae and white to opaque switch), virulence, GlcNAc induced cell death (GICD), etc. During signaling, the exogenous GlcNAc appears to adopt a simple mechanism of gene regulation by directly activating Ngs1, a novel GlcNAc sensor and transducer, at the chromatin level, to activate transcriptional response through the promoter acetylation. Ngs1 acts as a master regulator in GlcNAc signaling by regulating GlcNAc catabolic gene expression and filamentation. Ndt80-family transcriptional factor Rep1 appears to be involved in the recruitment of Ngs1 to GlcNAc catabolic gene promoters. For promoting filamentation, GlcNAc adopts a little modified strategy by utilizing a recently evolved transcriptional loop. Here, Biofilm regulator Brg1 takes up the key role, getting up-regulated by Ngs1, and simultaneously induces Hyphal Specific Genes (HSGs) expression by down-regulating NRG1 expression. GlcNAc kinase Hxk1 appears to play a prominent role in signaling. Recent developments in GlcNAc signaling have made C. albicans a model system to understand its role in other eukaryotes as well. The knowledge thus gained would assist in designing therapeutic interventions for the control of candidiasis and other fungal diseases.

N-acetylglucosamine-mediated morphological transition in Candida albicans and Candida tropicalis

Morphological transitions in Candida species are key factors in facilitating invasion and adapting to environmental changes. N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) is a monosaccharide signalling molecule that can regulate morphological transitions in Candida albicans and Candida tropicalis. Interestingly, although the uptake and metabolic pathways of GlcNAc and GlcNAc-mediated white-to-opaque cell switching are similar between the two Candida species, GlcNAc induces hyphal development in C. albicans, whereas it suppresses hyphal development in C. tropicalis. These findings indicate that the characteristics of C. albicans and C. tropicalis in response to GlcNAc are remarkably different. Here, we compare the conserved and divergent GlcNAc-mediated signalling pathways and catabolism between the two Candida species. Deletion of NGT1, a GlcNAc transportation gene, inhibited hyphal formation in C. albicans but promoted hyphal development in C. tropicalis. To further understand these opposite effects on filamentous growth in response to GlcNAc in the two Candida species, the cyclic adenosine monophosphate/protein kinase A (cAMP/PKA) signalling pathways in both C. albicans and C. tropicalis were compared. Interestingly, GlcNAc activated the cAMP/PKA signalling pathway of the two Candida species, suggesting that the hyphal development-regulated circuit is remarkably diverse between the two species. Indeed, the Ndt80-like gene REP1, which is critical for regulating GlcNAc catabolism, exhibits distinct roles in the hyphal development of C. albicans and C. tropicalis. These data suggest possible reasons for the divergent hyphal growth response in C. albicans and C. tropicalis upon GlcNAc induction.

Pathogenesis and Clinical Relevance of Candida Biofilms in Vulvovaginal Candidiasis

The ability of Candida spp. to form biofilms is crucial for its pathogenicity, and thus, it should be considered an important virulence factor in vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) and recurrent VVC (RVVC). Its ability to generate biofilms is multifactorial and is generally believed to depend on the site of infection, species and strain involved, and the microenvironment in which the infection develops. Therefore, both cell surface proteins, such as Hwp1, Als1, and Als2, and the cell wall-related protein, Sun41, play a critical role in the adhesion and virulence of the biofilm. Immunological and pharmacological approaches have identified the NLRP3 inflammasome as a crucial molecular factor contributing to host immunopathology. In this context, we have earlier shown that Candida albicans associated with hyphae-secreted aspartyl proteinases (specifically SAP4-6) contribute to the immunopathology of the disease. Transcriptome profiling has revealed that non-coding transcripts regulate protein synthesis post-transcriptionally, which is important for the growth of Candida spp. Other studies have employed RNA sequencing to identify differences in the 1,245 Candida genes involved in surface and invasive cellular metabolism regulation. In vitro systems allow the simultaneous processing of a large number of samples, making them an ideal screening technique for estimating various physicochemical parameters, testing the activity of antimicrobial agents, and analyzing genes involved in biofilm formation and regulation (in situ) in specific strains. Murine VVC models are used to study C. albicans infection, especially in trials of novel treatments and to understand the cause(s) for resistance to conventional therapeutics. This review on the clinical relevance of Candida biofilms in VVC focuses on important advances in its genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics. Moreover, recent experiments on the influence of biofilm formation on VVC or RVVC pathogenesis in laboratory animals have been discussed. A clear elucidation of one of the pathogenesis mechanisms employed by Candida biofilms in vulvovaginal candidiasis and its applications in clinical practice represents the most significant contribution of this manuscript.

N-Acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) Sensing, Utilization, and Functions in Candida albicans

The sensing and efficient utilization of environmental nutrients are critical for the survival of microorganisms in environments where nutrients are limited, such as within mammalian hosts. Candida albicans is a common member of the human microbiota as well as an opportunistic fungal pathogen. The amide derivative sugar N-acetlyglucosamine (GlcNAc) is an important signaling molecule for C. albicans that could be a major nutrient source for this fungus in host settings. In this article, we review progress made over the past two decades on GlcNAc utilization, sensing, and functions in C. albicans and its related fungal species. GlcNAc sensing and catabolic pathways have been intensively studied in C. albicans. The C. albicans protein Ngt1 represents the first identified GlcNAc-specific transporter in eukaryotic organisms. In C. albicans, GlcNAc not only induces morphological transitions including the yeast to hyphal transition and the white to opaque phenotypic switch, but it also promotes fungal cell death. The Ras-cAMP/PKA signaling pathway plays critical roles in regulating these processes. Given the importance of GlcNAc sensing and utilization in C. albicans, targeting GlcNAc associated pathways and key pathway components could be promising in the development of new antifungal strategies.

Potential use of Nikkomycin Z as an anti- Sporothrix spp. drug

Sporotrichosis, the most common subcutaneous mycosis in several countries, is caused by the dimorphic fungus, Sporothrix spp. Given some limitations in the treatment of this disease, and the high potential of nikkomycin Z (NikZ) as an antifungal against dimorphic fungi, this study aimed to evaluate the in vitro susceptibility of Sporothrix spp. to NikZ alone and with the drug of choice, itraconazole (ITZ). Seventeen clinical isolates of three Sporothrix spp. species (10 S. brasiliensis, six S. schenckii sensu stricto and one S. globosa) were tested in microdilution and checkerboard assays. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimal fungicidal concentration (MFC), fractional inhibitory and fungicidal concentration indexes (FICi and FFCi) were analyzed. MIC of NikZ alone could be determined against S. globosa (12.5 μg/ml) and against 67% (4/6) and 30% (3/10) of the S. schenckii sensu stricto and S. brasiliensis isolates, respectively (≤ 400 μg/ml). Synergism with ITZ was showed against almost all the isolates tested (94%; 16/17), including reversing resistance to ITZ alone in some isolates. Our study shows the potential of NikZ in sporotrichosis treatment. Further studies in experimental models are needed to understand the possible future application of this drug as an alternative therapy or as an adjuvant in sporotrichosis treatment.

LAY ABSTRACT

Sporotrichosis is a subcutaneous and lymphatic infection, caused by fungi of Sporothrix spp. Our study shows the potential of NikZ to inhibiting Sporothrix species in vitro. Further studies are needed to understand the future application of this drug to sporotrichosis treatment.