Copper and Copper/Zn Ratio in a Series of Children with Chronic Diseases: A Cross-Sectional Study

Evaluation of imprecision in the different detection methods of Zn based on 5 years of data from an external quality assessment program in China

BACKGROUND

This study examines the imprecision of zinc (Zn) measurements across various clinical detection methods by analyzing the external quality assessment (EQA) data from 2018 to 2022. The findings of this study aim to offer recommendations for enhancing Zn measurements.

METHODS

Participating laboratories were grouped into peer categories based on the detection methods. The robust mean and coefficient of variation (CV) of the samples were calculated following ISO 13528 guidelines. The evaluation criteria for optimal, desirable, and minimum allowable imprecision in Zn estimation are 2.50%, 5.05%, and 7.55%, respectively, based on biological variation. Furthermore, the study examined inter-lab CVs, inter-method bias, and the passing rate. The impact of sample concentration on CVs and the pass rate was also investigated.

RESULTS

Over the past five years, 4283 laboratories participated in the EQA program, showing a high pass rate that improved as sample concentration increased. Differential pulse polarography (DPP) demonstrated stable and low CVs (0.61-1.86%). Although differential pulse stripping (DPS) was less stable than DPP, it still exhibited a low CV (0.71-3.10%). Graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS) and flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) performed similarly and displayed stable CVs (2.39-4.42%) within the acceptable range of desirable imprecision (5.05%). However, the CVs for ICP-MS were unacceptable in three out of the five years (5.28-6.20%). In 2022, the number of participating laboratories for DDP, DPS, GFAAS, FAAS and ICP-MS is 131, 35, 35, 820 and 72, respectively.

CONCLUSION

This study provides reliable insights into the imprecision of Zn measurements in clinical laboratories. The findings indicate that additional efforts are required to reduce the imprecision of ICP-MS in Zn measurements.

Prediction of cardiovascular disease risk by serum zinc and copper concentrations and anthropometric measurements

INTRODUCTION

We aimed to investigate the association between cardiovascular disease (CVD) and various anthropometric indices, as well as the serum levels of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn), copper-zinc ratio (Cu/Zn ratio) and zinc-copper ratio (Zn/Cu ratio), in a large population sample from northeastern Iranian.

METHOD

9704 individuals aged 35 to 65 were enrolled in the first phase of the study. After a 10-year follow-up, 7560 participants were enrolled into the second phase. The variables used in this study included demographic characteristics, such as gender and age; biochemical parameters including: serum Zn, Cu, Cu/Zn ratio, and Zn/Cu ratio; anthropometric parameters including: waist circumference (WC), body mass index (BMI), and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). The relationship between the aforementioned indices and CVD was examined using decision tree (DT) and logistic regression (LR) models.

RESULTS

A total of 837 individuals were diagnosed with CVD among the 7560 participants. LR analysis showed that BMI, age, WH zinc-copper ratio (Zn/Cu ratio), and serum Zn/Cu ratio were significantly associated the development of CVD in men, and WHR, age, BMI, serum Cu, and Cu/Zn ratio in women. DT analysis showed that, age was the most important predictor of CVD in both genders. 71% of women, older than 49 years, with a WHR≥ 0.89, serum Cu< 75 (µg/dl), BMI≥ 22.93 (kg/m2), and serum Cu≥ 14 (µg/dl), had the highest risk of CVD. In men, among those who were ≥ 53 years, with a WHR≥ 0.98, serum Zn/Cu ratio< 1.69, and BMI≥ 22.30, had the highest risk of CVD.

CONCLUSION

Among Iranian adult population, BMI, age, and WHR were one of the predictors of CVD for both genders. The Zn/Cu ratio was CVD predictor for men while Cu/Zn ratio was CVD predictor for women.

Determination of trace elements and electrolyte levels in kidney tissue of simvastatin-treated septic rats

Trace elements are cofactors in various enzymes in the antioxidant defense and cell homeostasis required in the tissue during inflammation. In acute kidney injury induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), renal cells are affected by cytotoxicity. Renal evacuation and gastrointestinal absorption rates are important in regulating plasma levels of trace elements. Simvastatin is a widely used anti-lipidemic drug with known anti-inflammatory effects. This study aimed to examine the effect of simvastatin on trace elements and electrolyte levels in kidney tissue in rats with LPS-induced sepsis. Adult male Wistar albino rats were divided into four groups: control, LPS (20 mg/kg, i.p., single dose), simvastatin (20 mg/kg, o.p., 5 days), and LPS + Simvastatin (LPS + Sim). Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, selenium, zinc, copper, and histological structural changes were examined in kidney tissue samples 4 h after LPS execution. The inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy technique (ICP-OES) was used to determine the tissue trace element levels. In rats with sepsis-induced LPS, selenium, calcium, sodium, and magnesium levels significantly decreased while copper, potassium, and zinc levels significantly increased compared to other experimental groups. In sepsis treated with the simvastatin (LPS + Simvastatin) group, trace elements and electrolyte levels are like the control groups, apart from selenium levels. Selenium levels were significantly decreased in the LPS + Simvastatin group compared to the controls. As a result of examining the kidney tissues under a light microscope, simvastatin improved tissue damage caused by LPS-induced acute kidney injury. LPS-induced renal injury and simvastatin caused significant changes in the oxidant/antioxidant system. In septic rats, simvastatin was shown to balance some trace element levels, and it may improve damage in the kidney tissue.

Calcium, Phosphate, and Vitamin D in Children and Adolescents with Chronic Diseases: A Cross-Sectional Study

Chronic diseases may affect the nutritional status of children and adolescents. Calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), and vitamin D (Vit-D) are crucial nutrients for their growth and development. Proper diagnosis and treatment are critical components of personalized and precision medicine. Hence, we conducted a cross-sectional and comparative study to evaluate Ca, P, and Vit-D levels in their non-skeletal functions and their association with health and nutritional biomarkers in children and adolescents with diverse chronic conditions. We performed anthropometric, body composition, clinical evaluation, biochemical analysis, and dietary survey methods. A total of 78 patients (1-19 years, 43 females, 42 children) took part in this study. Overall, 24, 30, and 24 participants were obese, undernourished, and eutrophic, respectively. Results found that 74% and 35% of individuals had deficient Vit-D and Ca intake, respectively. Most cases were normocalcemic. Results also found that 47% of the subjects had Vit-D deficiency (VDD), 37% were insufficient, and 37% had hypophosphatemia. Of the 46% and 31% of patients with VDD and insufficient levels, 19% and 11% were hypophosphatemic, respectively. Calcium, P, and Vit-D levels were associated with anthropometric parameters, body mass index, body composition, physical activity, diet, growth hormones, and the immune, liver, and kidney systems. These results show the coincident risk of altered Ca, P, and Vit-D metabolism in children and adolescents with chronic diseases.

Serum Copper/Zinc Ratio in Overweight and Obese Children: a Cross-Sectional Study

To assess the association between serum copper/zinc ratio (CZR) and overweight/obesity in children. Sociodemographic and clinical data of children aged 8-18 years old were extracted from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) database in this cross-sectional study. These associations were explored using weighted univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses with the odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). High serum CZR level was related to higher odds of overweight (OR = 1.74), obesity (OR = 5.26), and central obesity (OR = 2.99). Subgroup analyses showed that high serum CZR levels were associated with high odds of overweight in children aged ≥ 12 years old (OR = 2.19) and females (OR = 2.02), while the increased odds of obesity and central obesity were found in children aged ≥ 12 years old and both male and female. Elevated serum CZR level was linked to high odds of childhood overweight, obesity, and central obesity, and this relationship was also found in children with different age and gender.

Calcium, Phosphorus, and Vitamin D Levels in a Series of Cystic Fibrosis Patients: A Cross-Sectional Study

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a monogenic disease with different types of mutations that mainly affect the respiratory-digestive system. Calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), and vitamin D (Vit-D) are essential nutrients for maintaining adequate growth and development, as well as key components in crucial metabolic pathways. Proper diagnosis, treatment, and response are decisive components of precision medicine. Therefore, we conducted a cross-sectional study to evaluate Ca, P, and Vit-D levels along with health and nutritional indicators, regarding their non-skeletal functions, in a series of CF patients. Anthropometric and clinical evaluation, biochemical analysis, dietary survey, and respiratory and pancreatic status were performed. Even though the results showed that all patients had normal dietary and serum Ca levels, 47% of patients had deficient Vit-D intake, 53% of patients had hypovitaminosis D, 35% had insufficient Vit-D levels, 18% had hypophosphatemia, 76% had elevated alkaline phosphate levels, 29% had hypercalciuria, and 65% had hyperphosphaturia. There were no significant differences between homozygous and compound heterozygous patients. Ca, P, and Vit-D levels were associated with body mass index; body composition; physical activity; diet; growth hormones; and the immune, liver, and kidney systems. We suggest a periodically evaluation of Ca and P losses.

Nutritional Criminology: Why the Emerging Research on Ultra-Processed Food Matters to Health and Justice

There is mounting concern over the potential harms associated with ultra-processed foods, including poor mental health and antisocial behavior. Cutting-edge research provides an enhanced understanding of biophysiological mechanisms, including microbiome pathways, and invites a historical reexamination of earlier work that investigated the relationship between nutrition and criminal behavior. Here, in this perspective article, we explore how this emergent research casts new light and greater significance on previous key observations. Despite expanding interest in the field dubbed 'nutritional psychiatry', there has been relatively little attention paid to its relevancy within criminology and the criminal justice system. Since public health practitioners, allied mental health professionals, and policymakers play key roles throughout criminal justice systems, a holistic perspective on both historical and emergent research is critical. While there are many questions to be resolved, the available evidence suggests that nutrition might be an underappreciated factor in prevention and treatment along the criminal justice spectrum. The intersection of nutrition and biopsychosocial health requires transdisciplinary discussions of power structures, industry influence, and marketing issues associated with widespread food and social inequalities. Some of these discussions are already occurring under the banner of 'food crime'. Given the vast societal implications, it is our contention that the subject of nutrition in the multidisciplinary field of criminology-referred to here as nutritional criminology-deserves increased scrutiny. Through combining historical findings and cutting-edge research, we aim to increase awareness of this topic among the broad readership of the journal, with the hopes of generating new hypotheses and collaborations.

The relationship between dietary patterns and blood mineral concentration among children in Hunan Province of China

BACKGROUND

Minerals have crucial biological functions in metabolism and are primarily obtained through diet. As a result, various dietary patterns can impact blood mineral levels. The aim of this study was to investigate the correlation between dietary patterns and the concentration of calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, and copper in the bloodstream.

METHODS

Three hundred eighty healthy children (53.7% male) were recruited in a region of Hunan Province in September 2019. We gathered basic information and measured physical proportions, along with completing a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). Using principal component analysis (PCA), we determined dietary patterns. To analyze mineral levels in the blood, we used flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS). We utilized linear regression models to investigate if certain dietary patterns are related to mineral concentration.

RESULTS

Three dietary patterns were identified: 'Vegetables/Nuts,' 'Snacks/Beverages,' and 'Cereal/Beans.' Children from high-income families (annual average income > 50,000 yuan) prefer the 'Vegetables/Nuts' dietary pattern (P = 0.004). In comparison, those from low-income families (annual average income < 20,000 yuan) prefer the 'Snacks/Beverages' dietary pattern (P = 0.03). Following adjustment for age, gender, guardian's identity, education level, and annual household income. We found that an increase in the 'Vegetables/Nuts' pattern score (β = 0.153, CI: 0.053 ~ 0.253; P = 0.003) and 'Snacks/Beverages' pattern score (β = 0.103, CI: 0.002 ~ 0.204; P = 0.033) were significantly associated blood copper concentration.

CONCLUSIONS

Household income was found to be associated with dietary behavior. Furthermore, higher blood copper concentration was significantly correlated with the 'Vegetables/Nuts' dietary pattern and 'Snacks/Beverages' dietary pattern, but the correlation is extremely low.

Evaluation of Selected Antioxidant Parameters in Ready-to-Eat Food for Infants and Young Children

Infants and young children have diverse dietary needs, so conducting a detailed analysis of the food they consume in terms of antioxidant activity and the content of antioxidant elements is of utmost importance. The aim of the study was to assess the antioxidant properties and the content of Cu (copper), Se (selenium), and Zn (zinc) in baby products. A total of 398 samples of ready-to-eat food consumed by children were tested. To evaluate the antioxidant activity (338 samples, without dairy), the Folin-Ciocalteu method and the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging test (DPPH) were employed to determine the total phenolic content (TPC). For the determination of mineral component content (398 samples), atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) was used to analyze the levels of Cu and Zn, while inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was utilized for the quantification of Se. Fruit and vegetable mousses exhibited the highest average total phenolic content (TPC) and the highest percentage of free radical scavenging in the DPPH test. In terms of mineral content, the group of dairy products recorded the highest average levels of Cu and Se, while porridges contained the highest content of Zn. Notably, only organic baby food contained significantly more Zn compared to conventional food (12.2 ± 13.9 mg/kg vs. 10.7 ± 14.4 mg/kg). Ready-to-eat products designed for consumption by children provide antioxidant properties, and the presence of Zn, Cu, and Se can contribute to supporting antioxidant processes.

Association between serum copper, zinc and their ratio and handgrip strength among adults: a study from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011-2014

Evidence for the association between serum copper and zinc status and handgrip strength is very limited only in several observational studies with study participants of specific population or a narrower age range. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between serum copper, zinc and their ratio and handgrip strength in the general population. This study included adult participants aged 20-80 years with complete data of serum copper and zinc status and handgrip strength from NHANES 2011-2014. Handgrip strength was calculated as the average of the maximum measure obtained in each hand with a grip strength dynamometer and corrected using BMI. Serum copper and zinc levels were measured using inductively coupled plasma dynamic reaction cell mass spectrometry, and their ratios were calculated. The multivariable linear regression and restricted cubic spline models were used. Serum copper level was inversely associated with BMI-corrected handgrip strength, and the beta coefficients (95% confidence intervals) comparing the second, third, and fourth to the lowest quartiles of serum copper level were - 0.17 kg (- 0.26; - 0.08), - 0.22 kg (- 0.32; - 0.13), and - 0.36 kg (- 0.44; - 0.28), respectively (P for trend < 0.001). Non-linear association was detected between serum copper level and BMI-corrected handgrip strength (P < 0.01). Consistent with serum copper, serum copper/zinc ratio was inversely associated with BMI-corrected handgrip strength. However, no significant associations were observed between serum zinc level and BMI-corrected handgrip strength (all P > 0.05). Higher serum copper level and copper/zinc ratios were significantly associated with lower handgrip strength. Further research is needed to address related issues.

Detection of copper ions in an aqueous solution by a dual-peak long period fiber grating functionalized with a polypyrrole-chitosan composite

A dual-peak long period fiber grating (DP-LPFG) sensor functionalized by polypyrrole-chitosan composite was proposed for sensitive detection of Cu²⁺ ions in aqueous solution. The nitrogen atom on the polypyrrole ring and the amino group on the chitosan chain in the complex matrix can chelate the Cu²⁺ ions. Thus, the refractive index of the overlay changed and further modulated the transmission spectrum of DP-LPFG. After special design, the double peaks can move in opposite directions with the increase of Cu²⁺ ion concentration, thereby greatly improving detection sensitivity. The linear sensitivity of the fabricated sensor was measured to be 9.12 and 2.14 nm/ppm (0.61 and 0.14 nm/µM) for concentrations of 0.1-0.5 (1.5 µM-7.5 µM) and 0.5-2 ppm (7.5 µM-30 µM), respectively. In addition, the Langmuir isothermal model was used to evaluate the overall response of the sensor to Cu²⁺ ions quantitatively, and the detection limit was determined to be 0.05 ppb (0.75 nM). This ingenious sensor offers a new solution for sensitive detection of heavy metal ions in environmental water.

Copper/Zinc Ratio in Childhood and Adolescence: A Review

Both copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are crucial micronutrients for human growth and development. This literature review covered the last five years of available evidence on the Cu/Zn ratio in children and adolescents. We searched PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Cochrane Library, and Science Direct for publications between 2017 and 2022, especially in English, although publications in other languages with abstracts in English were included. The main terms used were "copper", "zinc", "copper-zinc", and "zinc-copper" ratios. Cu and Zn determinations made in blood, plasma, or serum were included. This review comprises several cross-sectional and case-control studies with substantial results. The bibliographic search generated a compilation of 19 articles, in which 63.2% of the studies mostly reported a significantly higher Cu/Zn ratio, and 57.9% of them informed significantly lower levels of Zn. We conclude that children and adolescents with acute and chronic conditions are at greater risk of developing elevated Cu/Zn ratios, related to altered nutritional, infectious, and inflammatory status.

Associations Between Mild Cognitive Impairment and Whole Blood Zinc and Selenium in the Elderly Cohort

Some studies have shown that an imbalance in trace element homeostasis can lead to cognitive dysfunction, but data are lacking. The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between whole blood zinc (Zn), selenium (Se), copper-zinc ratio (Cu/Zn), copper-selenium ratio (Cu/Se), and zinc-selenium ratio (Zn/Se) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in elderly Chinese individuals. The study was based on the Elderly Health and Controlled Environmental Factors Cohort in Lu'an, Anhui Province, China, from June to September 2016. The cognitive function of the elderly was determined by the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and activities of daily living (ADL) scales. The concentrations of Zn, Cu, and Se in the whole blood were measured by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Binary logistic regression was used to analyze the associations between trace elements and MCI. A total of 1006 participants with an average age of 71.70 years old were included in this study. Compared with healthy people, MCI patients had higher whole blood Zn levels and lower Se levels, and Cu/Zn, Cu/Se, and Zn/Se were also significantly different. Binary logistic regression analysis showed that Zn, Cu/Se, and Zn/Se exposure in the third tertile was associated with an increased risk of MCI, while Se exposure in the third tertile was associated with a reduced risk of MCI. After adjustment for sex, age, marital status, BMI, and living status, whole blood Zn, Se, Cu/Zn, Cu/Se, and Zn/Se were significantly associated with MCI risk, especially in elderly women.

The first trimester plasma copper-zinc ratio is independently related to pregnancy-specific psychological distress symptoms throughout pregnancy

OBJECTIVES

High plasma copper (Cu) and low zinc (Zn) levels have been associated with depression. However, most studies used low sample sizes and a cross-sectional design, and perinatal data are scarce. We investigated the possible association between pregnancy-specific psychological distress and the plasma CuZn ratio using a prospective design.

METHODS

Pregnancy-specific distress symptoms were assessed at each trimester by means of the Tilburg Pregnancy Distress Scale, negative affect subscale, in 2036 pregnant women. Cu and Zn were assessed at 12 wk of gestation in plasma samples by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Growth mixture modeling determined trajectories of women's pregnancy-specific negative affect (P-NA) symptoms, which were entered in a multiple logistic regression analysis as dependent variable and the CuZn ratio as independent variable.

RESULTS

Two P-NA symptom classes were found: 1) persistently low (n = 1820) and 2) persistently high (n = 216). A higher CuZn ratio was independently associated with persistently high P-NA symptom scores (odds ratio = 1.52; 95% confidence interval, 1.13-2.04) after adjustment for confounders. A sensitivity analysis was performed excluding all women with high P-NA scores at 12 wk (>1 SD above the mean P-NA score). In the 1719 remaining women, a higher CuZn ratio significantly predicted the development of increasing P-NA symptom scores after adjustment for confounders (odds ratio = 1.40; 95% confidence interval, 1.04-1.95).

CONCLUSIONS

A higher CuZn plasma ratio is an independent determinant of developing pregnancy-specific distress symptoms throughout pregnancy, suggesting that micronutrients could be used as novel biomarkers for psychological distress research of perinatal mood disorders.

Magnesium Status and Ca/Mg Ratios in a Series of Children and Adolescents with Chronic Diseases

Magnesium (Mg) is an essential divalent cation involved in various enzymatic reactions that regulate vital biological functions. The main goal was to evaluate Mg status and its association with nutritional indicators in 78 children and adolescents with chronic diseases. We assessed anthropometric, biochemical, diet, body composition, and bone densitometry valuations. Serum Mg and Ca levels were determined using the standardized method and diet calcium (Ca) and Mg consumption by a prospective 72 h diet survey. Mean serum Ca (9.9 mg/dL), Mg (2.08 mg/dL) dietary Ca (102% DRI: Dietary Reference Intake), and Mg intake (105% DRI) were normal. A total of 45% had hypomagnesemia, 12% had hypermagnesemia, and 26% and 24% had inadequate and high Mg intake, respectively. Only 6% of patients had poor Mg intake and hypomagnesemia, and 54% and 90% of our series had an elevated serum Ca/Mg ratio > 4.70 (mean 4.79) and a low Ca/Mg intake ratio < 1.70 (mean 1.06), respectively. Both Ca/Mg ratios were linked with the risk of developing other chronic conditions such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, syndrome metabolic, and even several cancers. Therefore, 79% of children and adolescents with chronic diseases were at elevated risk of having abnormal Mg status and developing other chronic illnesses.

The Roles and Pathogenesis Mechanisms of a Number of Micronutrients in the Prevention and/or Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis, COVID-19 and Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus

A trace element is a chemical element with a concentration (or other measures of an amount) that is very low. The essential TEs, such as copper (Cu), selenium (Se), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe) and the electrolyte magnesium (Mg) are among the most commonly studied micronutrients. Each element has been shown to play a distinctive role in human health, and TEs, such as iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu), are among the essential elements required for the organisms' well-being as they play crucial roles in several metabolic pathways where they act as enzyme co-factors, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agents. Epidemics of infectious diseases are becoming more frequent and spread at a faster pace around the world, which has resulted in major impacts on the economy and health systems. Different trace elements have been reported to have substantial roles in the pathogenesis of viral infections. Micronutrients have been proposed in various studies as determinants of liver disorders, COVID-19 and T2DM risks. This review article sheds light on the roles and mechanisms of micronutrients in the pathogenesis and prevention of chronic hepatitis B, C and E, as well as Coronavirus-19 infection and type-2 diabetes mellitus. An update on the status of the aforementioned micronutrients in pre-clinical and clinical settings is also briefly summarized.

Prediagnostic Levels of Copper and Zinc and Breast Cancer Risk in the ORDET Cohort

BACKGROUND

Case-control studies show that copper (Cu) is high and zinc (Zn) low in blood and urine of women with breast cancer compared with controls.

METHODS

To assess whether prediagnostic Cu and Zn are associated with breast cancer risk, OR of breast cancer according to Cu, Zn, and Cu/Zn ratio in plasma and urine was estimated in a nested case-control study within the ORDET cohort, using conditional logistic regression adjusted for multiple variables: First 496 breast cancer cases and matched controls, diagnosed ≥2 years after recruitment (to eliminate reverse causation) were analyzed. Then all eligible cases/controls were analyzed with stratification into years from recruitment to diagnosis.

RESULTS

For women diagnosed ≥2 years, compared with lowest tertiles, breast cancer risk was higher in the highest tertile of plasma Cu/Zn ratio (OR, 1.75; 95% CI, 1.21-2.54) and the highest tertile of both plasma and urine Cu/Zn ratio (OR, 2.37; 95% CI, 1.32-4.25). Risk did not vary with ER/PR/HER2 status. For women diagnosed <2 years, high Cu/Zn ratio was strongly associated with breast cancer risk.

CONCLUSIONS

Our prospective findings suggest that increased Cu/Zn ratio in plasma and urine may be both an early marker of, and a risk factor for, breast cancer development. Further studies are justified to confirm or otherwise our results and to investigate mechanisms.

IMPACT

Our finding that prediagnostic Cu/Zn ratio is a strong risk factor for breast cancer development deserves further investigation and, if confirmed, might open the way to interventions to reduce breast cancer risk in women with disrupted Cu/Zn homeostasis.

Magnesium Status and Calcium/Magnesium Ratios in a Series of Cystic Fibrosis Patients

Magnesium (Mg) is an essential micronutrient that participates in various enzymatic reactions that regulate vital biological functions. The main aim was to assess the Mg status and its association with nutritional indicators in seventeen cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. The serum Mg and calcium (Ca) levels were determined using standardized methods and the dietary Mg intake by prospective 72 h dietary surveys. The mean serum Ca (2.45 mmol/L) and Mg (0.82 mmol/L) had normal levels, and the mean dietary intake of the Ca (127% DRI: Dietary Reference Intake) and Mg (125% DRI) were high. No patients had an abnormal serum Ca. A total of 47% of the subjects had hypomagnesemia and 12% insufficient Mg consumption. One patient had a serum Mg deficiency and inadequate Mg intake. A total of 47 and 82% of our series had a high serum Ca/Mg ratio of >4.70 (mean 4.89) and a low Ca/Mg intake ratio of <1.70 (mean 1.10), respectively. The likelihood of a high Ca/Mg ratio was 49 times higher in patients with a serum Mg deficiency than in normal serum Mg patients. Both Ca/Mg ratios were associated with the risk of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD), type 2 diabetes (T2D), metabolic syndrome (MetS), and even several cancers. Therefore, 53% of the CF patients were at high risk of a Mg deficiency and developing other chronic diseases.