Structural and Antihypertensive Properties of Enzymatic Hemp Seed Protein Hydrolysates

Obtaining bioactive peptides by enhancing enzymatic hydrolysis of salmon by-product proteins through pulsed electric fields (PEF)

Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF) exhibit significant potential to modify proteins and enzymes, enhancing their enzymatic activity and increasing bioactive peptide production. This work aimed to enhance the obtention of bioactive peptides using PEF as a pre-treatment for enzymatic hydrolysis of salmon by-product proteins. Results show that PEF treatments at 15 and 20 kV/cm improved flavourzyme (FV) enzymatic activity by altering the protein's tertiary structure, decreasing its surface hydrophobicity and intrinsic fluorescence. PEF improved the hydrolysis process, especially when both FV and salmon protein were subjected to PEF, increasing the hydrolysis degree and peptide yield from 9.6 % up to 16.6 % and 10.6 % up to 18.7 %, respectively. PEF-assisted hydrolysis modified molecular weight distribution of the peptides obtained, increasing the amount of 3 and 5 kDa peptides. Optimal antioxidant and anti-ACE activities were achieved by applying PEF at FV and SPI at 50 Hz and 15 kV/cm. These findings suggest that PEF is a promising technology for producing bioactive peptides by increasing enzyme activity and improving the obtained peptide yield.

Fabrication of tannins and oat protein non-covalent complexes: Effect on the structure and in vitro digestion properties of oat proteins

This study explored the non-covalent interactions between oat protein isolate (OPI) and two tannic compounds-proanthocyanidins (PA) and tannic acid (TA)-and examined their impact on the structural and digestive properties of oat proteins. The combination of OPI with tannic compounds formed granular complexes with particle sizes ranging from 126 to 240 nm and zeta potentials between -35 and -44 mV. Compared to OPI alone, the α-helix and β-turn contents decreased, while the β-sheet and random coil contents increased in both OPI-tannin complexes. Fluorescence spectra analysis indicated that hydrogen bonding was the main interaction force in OPI-PA complexes, while OPI and TA were primarily bound by hydrophobic interactions. The simulated digestion analysis showed that the protein digestibility was delayed in the OPI-tannin complexes, likely due to the inhibition of digestive enzyme activity by tannic compounds, which slowed OPI digestibility. Additionally, the oxidation resistance of the OPI-tannin complexes significantly improved after in vitro digestion, indicating that the non-covalent complexes provided superior protection for the tannic compounds. These findings offer theoretical support for the design and utilization of oat- and tannin-rich foods.

Hempseed Water-Soluble Protein Fraction and Its Hydrolysate Display Different Biological Features

Hempseeds, from the Cannabis sativa plant, and its derivates are a versatile food option for various dietary preferences. Due to their aminoacidic profile, researchers have studied the presence of bioactive peptides in hempseed proteins. In this study, the water-soluble fraction of hempseed protein was extracted, and the derived peptides were analyzed. The investigation focused on their biological function, particularly their antioxidant activity. Several biological functions have arisen, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition activity, dipeptidyl-peptidase IV, dipeptidyl-peptidase III inhibition, and ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis activation. The hydrolysates show greater 2,2-azinobis-[3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging activity compared to the proteins (97.95 ± 4.48 versus 81.04 ± 10.63). Furthermore, the impact of these proteins and peptides on the U937 cell line was evaluated to assess cell viability and their potential role in modulating inflammation associated with gastrointestinal autoimmune diseases. Protein treatment resulted in a significant reduction in cell viability, as opposed to hydrolysates, which did not affect it.

Integrative approach to assessing bioactivity from hempseed protein isolate extracted and dehydrated by different methods: Synergising in silico prediction and in vitro validation

This study demonstrated a comprehensive workflow combining in silico screening and prediction with in vitro validation to investigate the bioactivity of hempseed protein isolate (HPI) extracted and dehydrated using different methods. By adopting an in silico approach, 13 major proteins of HPI were hydrolysed by 20 selected enzymes, leading to the prediction of 20 potential bioactivities. With papain hydrolysis, dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP4) and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activities emerged as having the highest potential. In vitro experiments confirmed these predictions, with DPP4 and ACE inhibitory activities displaying IC50 values of 0.32-0.42 mg/mL and 6.8-9.17 μg/mL, respectively. A strong correlation (r2 = 0.96) was observed between in vitro protein inhibitory results and in silico predicted data. This study demonstrated an effective integrative approach for predicting bioactive peptides in food protein, providing valuable guidance on its processing to create value-added products.

In vitro digestion of starch and protein aerogels generated from defatted rice bran via supercritical carbon dioxide drying

This study investigated the in vitro digestibility of starch and protein aerogels produced from defatted rice bran (DRB), an underutilized rice processing byproduct, using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) drying. The extracted starch (i.e., purified starch), crude starch, and proteins were used for the aerogel formation at 15% (w/w) concentration and further characterized. All aerogels exhibited three-dimensional open porous structures with high surface areas of 36-47 m2/g, densities lower than 0.3 g/cm3, and porosities higher than 84%. The starch hydrolyses in starch and crude starch aerogels were 86 and 73%, respectively, while the protein hydrolysis in protein aerogels reached up to 82% after sequential oral, gastric, and intestinal digestion. Thus, the hydrolysis rates achieved in simulated digestions suggest that the developed aerogels from DRB have the potential to serve as vehicles for delivering bioactive compounds and add value to the underutilized DRB.

Assessing and optimizing the bioactivities of diverse enzyme-derived protein hydrolysates from Porphyra yezoensis: unlocking the health potential

The interest in algae-derived bioactive compounds has grown due to their potential therapeutic efficacy against a range of diseases. These compounds, derived from proteins, exhibit diverse functions and profound pharmacological effects. Recent research has highlighted the extensive health benefits of algae-derived bioactive compounds, positioning them as potential natural antioxidants in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. This study focuses on extracting proteins from Porphyra yezoensis using innovative physical pre-treatment methods such as stirring, ball milling, and homogenization, under various acidic and alkaline conditions. Enzymatic hydrolysis, employing commercial enzymes at optimal temperature, pH, and enzyme-substrate ratios, produced distinct fractions according to molecular weight. Pepsin demonstrated the highest hydrolysis rate, with the fraction above 10 kDa identified as the most bioactive hydrolysate. Antioxidant activity was evaluated through DPPH, ABTS, ferrous ion chelation, and reducing power assays, demonstrating high antioxidant potential and the ability to mitigate oxidative stress. The 10 kDa fraction of pepsin hydrolysate exhibited 82.6% DPPH activity, 77.5% ABTS activity, 88.4% ferrous ion chelation activity, and higher reducing power potential (0.84 absorbance at 700 nm). Further exploration of mechanisms, amino acid profiles, and potential in vivo benefits is essential to fully exploit the medicinal potential of these algae-derived hydrolysates.

Hemp seed protein and its hydrolysate compared with casein protein consumption in adults with hypertension: a double-blind crossover study

BACKGROUND

The effects of consuming hemp seed protein (HSP) as well as its hydrolysate-derived bioactive peptide (HSP+) on blood pressure (BP) has not, to our knowledge, been investigated in humans.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to investigate how consumption of HSP and its hydrolysate modulates 24-h systolic (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP) and plasma biomarkers of BP compared with casein.

METHODS

In a double-blind, randomized, crossover design trial, 35 adults who had mild hypertension with SBP between 130 and 160 mmHg and DBP ≤110 mmHg were recruited. Participants were randomly assigned to varying sequences of 3 6-wk treatments, 50 g casein/d, 50 g HSP/d, or 45 g HSP plus 5 g HSP-derived bioactive peptides/d (HSP+), separated by a 2-wk washout period. Treatment effects were assessed with a linear mixed model with repeated measures.

RESULTS

Compared with casein, after HSP+ consumption, 24-h SBP and 24-h DBP decreased from 135.1 and 80.0 mmHg to 128.1 ± 1.6 (P < 0.0001) and 76.0 ± 1.4 mmHg (P < 0.0001), respectively, whereas these values were 133.5 ± 1.6 and 78.9 ± 1.4 mmHg after HSP consumption (P < 0.0001). There were no differences between the HSP and HSP+ consumption in plasma angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) activity, renin, or nitric oxide (NO) concentrations. However, these 2 treatments were able to lower both ACE and renin activities and raise NO concentration in plasma compared with casein.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that hemp protein consumption, as well as in combination with bioactive peptides, may have a role in the dietary management of hypertension. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03508895.

Hempseed protein-derived short- and medium-chain peptides and their multifunctional properties

Nowadays, the growing knowledge about the high nutritional value and potential functionality of hempseeds, the edible fruits of the Cannabis sativa L. plant, has sparked a surge in interest in exploring the worthwhile attributes of hempseed proteins and peptides. This trend aligns with the increasing popularity of hemp-based food, assuming a vital role in the global food chain. This chapter targets the nutritional and chemical composition of hempseed in terms of short- and medium-chain bioactive peptides. The analytical approaches for their characterization and multifunctional properties are summarized in detail. Moreover, the processing, functionality, and application of various hempseed protein products are discussed. In the final part of the chapter-for evaluating their propensity to be transported by intestinal cells-the transepithelial transport of peptides within hempseed protein hydrolysate is highlighted.

A comprehensive review on hempseed protein: Production, functional and nutritional properties, novel modification methods, applications, and limitations

With the global population on the rise, challenges in meeting protein demands are amplified by recent crises, prompting a swift shift to alternative protein sources due to disruptions in the supply chain. Plant-based proteins are gaining momentum due to economic, cultural, and environmental considerations, aligning with the preference for sustainable diets and resulting in more affordable plant-based products. The distinction between drug and industrial hemp fuels demand for its nutritional value, digestibility, low allergenicity, and bioactive properties. Industrial hempseed, featuring minimal Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content (<0.2 %), emerges as a promising crop, offering high-quality protein and oil. The de-oiled hempseed cake stands as an eco-friendly and promising protein source enriched with phenolic compounds and fiber. Ongoing research seeks to enhance techno-functional properties of hempseed protein, surmounting initial limitations for integration into various foods. A range of techniques, both conventional and innovative, optimize protein characteristics, while modifying plant-based protein structures augments their application potential. Modification approaches like ultrasound, high-pressure homogenization, conjugation, complexation, fibrillization, and enzymatic methods enhance hempseed protein functionality. The review critically evaluates the techno-functional attributes of hempseed protein and explores strategies for customization through structural modifications. Lastly, the review assesses its composition, potential as a plant-based source, addresses challenges, and discusses strategies for enhanced functionality.

The Role of Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) as a Functional Food in Vegetarian Nutrition

Recently, there has been a renewed interest in Cannabis sativa and its uses. The recreational use of inflorescences as a source of THC has led to the legal restriction of C. sativa cultivation to limit the detrimental effects of psychotropic substance abuse on health. However, this has also limited the cultivation of textile/industrial varieties with a low content of THC used for textile and nutritional purposes. While previously the bans had significantly penalized the cultivation of C. sativa, today many countries discriminate between recreational use (marijuana) and industrial and food use (hemp). The stalks of industrial hemp (low in psychotropic substances) have been used extensively for textile purposes while the seeds are nutritionally versatile. From hemp seeds, it is possible to obtain flours applicable in the bakery sector, oils rich in essential fatty acids, proteins with a high biological value and derivatives for fortification, supplementation and nutraceutical purposes. Hemp seed properties seem relevant for vegetarian diets, due to their high nutritional value and underestimated employment in the food sector. Hemp seed and their derivatives are a valuable source of protein, essential fatty acids and minerals that could provide additional benefit to vegetarian nutrition. This document aims to explore the information available in the literature about hemp seeds from a nutritional point of view, highlighting possible beneficial effects for humans with particular attention to vegetarian nutrition as a supplemental option for a well-planned diet.

Antioxidant and Renin Inhibitory Activities of Peptides from Food Proteins on Hypertension: A Review

Hypertension is a condition induced by oxidative stress causing an alteration in the endothelium, which increases the risk of suffering from other degenerative diseases. This review compiles the findings on peptides from food proteins with antioxidant and antihypertensive activities. Antihypertensive peptides are mainly focused on renin inhibition. Peptides containing hydrophobic amino acids have antioxidant and renin inhibitory activities, as reported by studies on the biological activity of peptides from various food sources evaluated separately and simultaneously. Peptides from food sources can present multiple biological activities. Moreover, antioxidant peptides have the potential to be evaluated against renin, offering an alternative for hypertension therapy without causing adverse side effects.

RETRACTED: Hemp bioactive peptides: Nutrition, functional properties and action mechanisms to maximize their nutraceutical applications and future prospects

This article has been retracted: please see Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal (https://www.elsevier.com/locate/withdrawalpolicy). This review article has been retracted at the request of the Editor in Chief and authors. The article has been retracted as it duplicates several figures from a paper that had already appeared in Trends in Food Science & Technology, Volume 127, September 2022, Pages 303-318, without giving appropriate credit to this paper. One of the conditions of submission of a paper for publication is that authors declare explicitly that their work is original and has not appeared in a publication elsewhere. Re-use of any data should be appropriately cited. As such this article falls short of the scientific quality requirement of the journal. The third author admits responsibility for the oversight and wishes to apologize to the readers and editors of Food Chemistry for the inconvenience. The scientific community takes a very strong view on this matter and apologies are offered to readers of the journal that this was not detected during the submission process.

Antioxidant Effect Assessment and Trans Epithelial Analysis of New Hempseed Protein Hydrolysates

Hempseed (Cannabis sativa) is one of the most promising sources of plant proteins. It contains approximately 24% (w/w) protein, and edestin accounts for approximately 60-80% (w/w) of its total proteins. In a framework of research aimed at fostering the proteins recovered from the press cake by-products generated after the extraction of hempseed oil, two hempseed protein hydrolysates (HH1 and HH2) were produced at an industrial level using a mixture of different enzymes from Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus oryzae, and Bacillus licheniformis for different times (5 h and 18 h). Using a combination of different direct antioxidant tests (DPPH, TEAC, FRAP, and ORAC assays, respectively), it has been demonstrated that HHs exert potent, direct antioxidant activity. A crucial feature of bioactive peptides is their intestinal bioavailability; for this reason, in order to solve this peculiar issue, the ability of HH peptides to be transported by differentiated human intestinal Caco-2 cells has been evaluated. Notably, by using mass spectrometry analysis (HPLC Chip ESI-MS/MS), the stable peptides transported by intestinal cells have been identified, and dedicated experiments confirmed that the trans-epithelial transported HH peptide mixtures retain their antioxidant activity, suggesting that these hempseed hydrolysates may be considered sustainable antioxidant ingredients to be exploited for further application, i.e., nutraceutical and/or food industries.

Physicochemical, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and in vitro cytotoxic activities of corn pollen protein hydrolysates obtained by different peptidases

The applications of protein hydrolysates as food preservatives and nutraceutical ingredients have attracted much attention because of their beneficial effects. The interest in these ingredients has shifted toward their biological activities with benefits to human health. Bioactive peptides are known as antioxidant agents that could promote health-promoting effects and prolong food shelf-life beyond their basic nutritional value. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate antioxidant, antimicrobial, and in vitro cytotoxic properties of corn pollen protein (CPP) hydrolysates obtained by different enzymes. Proteolytic activity in terms of degree of hydrolysis (DH) and SDS-PAGE analysis was measured in pancreatin (H-Pan), pepsin (H-Pep), and trypsin (H-Tri) hydrolysates. Amino acid composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, and cytotoxicity of hydrolysates were evaluated. DH and SDS-PAGE revealed higher proteolytic activity of pepsin compared to other enzymes. Amino acid analysis showed that the functional amino acids such as antioxidant types were most predominant in H-Pep compared to two other samples. Antioxidant activity of hydrolysates was found to be affected by the type of enzyme and the concentration of hydrolysates. There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) between antioxidant activity of different hydrolysates. The highest antioxidant activity in terms of Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (0.23-2.75 mM), DPPH (33.3%-64.8%), and hydroxyl (33.7%-63.2%) radical scavenging activities, chelation of iron (33.2%-62.5%) and copper (30.2%-50.5%) metals, and total antioxidant activity (0.65-0.85) was obtained for H-Pep followed by H-Pan and H-Tri samples. Antibacterial tests showed that pepsin-hydrolyzed protein was not significantly (P > 0.05) effective against E. coli at any concentrations, however, it showed significant (P < 0.05) concentration-dependent effect against S. aureus (with inhibition zones of 15-25 mm). Cytotoxicity results revealed that CPP, as a nonhydrolyzed protein, did not generally show antiproliferative activity, however, a significant (P < 0.05) ability of H-Pep hydrolysate in decreasing HT-29 colon cancer cell line viability was seen in a concentration-dependent manner (the lowest cell viability of 32% at 5 mg/mL). Overall, investigating the application of protein-based hydrolysates is one of the possible strategies that govern their applied intentions as preservatives and nutraceuticals in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Isolation and functional characterization of hemp seed protein-derived short- and medium-chain peptide mixtures with multifunctional properties for metabolic syndrome prevention

This study aims to obtain a valuable mixture of short-chain peptides from hempseed as a new ingredient for developing nutraceutical and functional foods useful for preventing metabolic syndrome that represents the major cause of death globally. A dedicated analytical platform based on a purification step by size exclusion chromatography or ultrafiltration membrane and high-resolution mass spectrometry was developed to isolate and comprehensively characterize short-chain peptides leading to the identification of more than 500 short-chain peptides. Our results indicated that the short-chain peptide mixture was about three times more active than the medium-chain peptide mixture and total hydrolysate with respect to measured inhibition of the angiotensin-converting enzyme. The short-chain peptide mixture was also two times more active as a dipeptidyl peptidase IV, and twofold more active on the cholesterol metabolism pathway through the modulation of low-density lipoprotein receptor.

Uncovering the secrets of industrial hemp in food and nutrition: The trends, challenges, and new-age perspectives

Hemp is a valuable crop with a wide range of use, from applications in foods and textiles to pharmaceuticals. Over recent years, the use of hemp as food and food ingredients has drastically increased. The growth is driven by numerous health benefits hemp possesses and its wide range of applications in the food industry. This review provides the scientific literature concerning the benefits of industrial hemp in the food industry. The relevant historical context of use, recent applications in the food industry, health benefits, various development challenges, and the global market outlook for hemp-based food products have been analyzed. Evidence suggests that today hemp is widely consumed as food or an ingredient in the food. Hemp-based foods are marketed as having various health benefits, although their reception by target consumers and success varies. Besides, scientific research on hemp-derived foods has dramatically increased over recent years. Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have investigated the health benefits of hemp-based foods. Therefore, there is a promising growth trend in producing novel foods from industrial hemp. Nevertheless, due to health concerns related to THC, there is a general need for regulatory compliance when integrating hemp into foods to ensure product safety before use.

Corn distillers solubles as a novel bioresource of bioactive peptides with ACE and DPP IV inhibition activity: characterization, in silico evaluation, and molecular docking

This study aimed to investigate the biological potential of underutilized and low-value corn distillers solubles, containing a unique unexplored blend of heat-treated corn and yeast proteins, from the bioethanol industries, by bioinformatic and biochemical approaches. Protein hydrolysates were produced by applying four commercially accessible proteases, among which alcalase provided the best results in terms of yield, degree of hydrolysis, molecular weight, number of proteins, bioactive peptides, and deactivation against anti-angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) and anti-dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV). The optimal conditions to produce anti-ACE and anti-DPP IV peptides were using alcalase for 10.82 h and an enzyme : substrate ratio of 7.90 (%w/w), with inhibition values for ACE and DPP IV of 98.76 ± 1.28% and 34.99 ± 1.44%, respectively. Corn (α-zein) and yeast (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase) proteins were mainly suitable, upon enzymolysis, for the release of bioactive peptides. The peptides DPANLPWG, FDFFDNIN, WNGPPGVF, and TPPFHLPPP inhibited ACE more effectively as verified with binding energies of -11.3, -11.6, -10.5, and -11.6 kcal mol^-1, respectively, as compared to captopril (-6.38 kcal mol^-1). Compared with the binding energy of sitagliptin (-8.6 kcal mol^-1), WNGPPGVF (-9.6 kcal mol^-1), WPLPPFG (-9.8 kcal mol^-1), LPPYLPS (-9.7 kcal mol^-1), TPPFHLPPP (-10.1 kcal mol^-1), and DPANLPWG peptides (-10.1 kcal mol^-1) had greater inhibition potential against DPP IV. The peptides impeded ACE and DPP IV majorly via hydrophobic and hydrogen linkage interactions. The key amino acids TYR⁵²³, GLU³⁸⁴, and HIS³⁵³ were bound to the catalytic sites of ACE and GLN⁵⁵³, GLU²⁰⁶, PHE³⁶⁴, VAL³⁰³, and THR³⁰⁴ were bound to the DPP IV enzyme. The PHs can be used as ingredients in the feed or food industries with possible health advantages.

Exploration of ACE-Inhibiting Peptides Encrypted in Artemisia annua Using In Silico Approach

The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is involved in body fluid regulation, but one of its enzymes, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), indirectly causes hypertension by constricting blood vessels. Autoimmune illness is linked to the increased risk of hypertension and cardiovascular disease. In this study, ACE-inhibiting peptides were studied from Artemisia annua proteins. In silico hydrolysis of proteins was performed by BIOPEP-UWM using proteolytic enzymes from plant, microbial, and digestive sources. The physicochemical properties of 1160 peptides were determined using the peptide package of R studio. Di- and tripeptides were mostly released with a molecular weight of 170 to 350 Da. PeptideRanker was used to select 16 peptides from a pool of 1160 peptides based on their likelihood of being bioactive. Molecular docking was performed by DS 2020 and AutoDock Vina, which revealed that the stability of the ligand-receptor complex is due to hydrogen bonding and electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions. Their binding energies ranged from -31.81 to -20.09 kJ/mol. For drug-likeness evaluation, an online tool SwissADME was used that follows the ADME rule (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion) to check the pharmacokinetics and drug-likeness of the compound. In the future, the released peptides can be used to make functional nutraceutical foods against hypertension.

Production of Dual Inhibitory Hydrolysate by Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Squid Processing By-product

Squid processing by-product contains unutilized abundant proteins. In this study, 6 proteases (pepsin, protamex, trypsin, neutral protease, alkaline protease, and papain) were firstly employed to hydrolyze the squid processing by-product protein. The neutral protease-digested hydrolysate was found to have the most promising ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibitory activity. Based on Box-Behnken design, the optimal hydrolysis process was determined to be: 52.4 ℃ of temperature, 5.7 h of time, pH 7.1, and 8151 U/g of enzyme. Under these conditions, the ACE inhibition rate and polypeptide content of the hydrolysate were 84.26% and 229.09 mg/g, respectively. Subsequently, ultrafiltration was performed, and the ACE and renin inhibitory activities of the filtrate (< 1 kDa) were the highest, reaching 87.48 ± 1.76% and 69.72 ± 1.16%, with IC₅₀ values of 1.34 ± 0.12 mg/mL and 1.47 ± 0.06 mg/mL, respectively. However, these activities decreased to 35.15 ± 1.31% and 43.17% ± 1.42%, respectively, after digestion by simulated gastrointestinal juice. Nevertheless, this is the first report representing the neutral protease-digested hydrolysate of squid processing by-product as a potential source of both ACE and renin inhibitors.

In vitro digestion characteristics of cereal protein concentrates as assessed using a pepsin-pancreatin digestion model

An alkaline extraction method has been used in many studies to extract total protein from cereal samples. Wheat bran protein concentrate (WBPC), oat bran protein concentrate (OBPC), and barley protein concentrate (BPC) were prepared by alkaline extraction and isoelectric precipitation to study their functional and nutritional properties. The three protein concentrates were hydrolysed by an in vitro pepsin-pancreatin digestion model. Their digestibility (%) and degree of hydrolysis (DH%) were evaluated, and SDS-PAGE electrophoresis was used to illustrate the protein and peptides patterns. The change of the particle sizes and the release of the essential amino acids was followed during the digestion process. The in vitro digestibility of WBPC, OBPC and BPC was 87.4%, 96.1% and 76.9%, respectively. The DH% of protein concentrates were between 50 and 60%. The change of the particle size distribution values Dv(50) was assumed to be related to protein aggregations during the digestion. The protein fractions were identified and the degradation during the digestion and were analysed by SDS-PAGE; the gels of WBPC and OBPC digestion showed virtually complete degradation whereas the intensive bands of undigested protein were presented for BPC. The generation of the free amino acids and short chain peptides were significantly higher at the end of the intestinal digestion compared to the stages of before and after gastric digestion. Higher content of the deficient amino acids such as lysine and threonine were found comparing to the level of deficient amino acids in cereal grains but does not meet the daily recommended intake.

How Healthy Are Non-Traditional Dietary Proteins? The Effect of Diverse Protein Foods on Biomarkers of Human Health

Future food security for healthy populations requires the development of safe, sustainably-produced protein foods to complement traditional dietary protein sources. To meet this need, a broad range of non-traditional protein foods are under active investigation. The aim of this review was to evaluate their potential effects on human health and to identify knowledge gaps, potential risks, and research opportunities. Non-traditional protein sources included are algae, cereals/grains, fresh fruit and vegetables, insects, mycoprotein, nuts, oil seeds, and legumes. Human, animal, and in vitro data suggest that non-traditional protein foods have compelling beneficial effects on human health, complementing traditional proteins (meat/poultry, soy, eggs, dairy). Improvements in cardiovascular health, lipid metabolism, muscle synthesis, and glycaemic control were the most frequently reported improvements in health-related endpoints. The mechanisms of benefit may arise from their diverse range of minerals, macro- and micronutrients, dietary fibre, and bioactive factors. Many were also reported to have anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, and antioxidant activity. Across all protein sources examined, there is a strong need for quality human data from randomized controlled intervention studies. Opportunity lies in further understanding the potential effects of non-traditional proteins on the gut microbiome, immunity, inflammatory conditions, DNA damage, cognition, and cellular ageing. Safety, sustainability, and evidence-based health research will be vital to the development of high-quality complementary protein foods that enhance human health at all life stages.

Investigation of the intestinal trans-epithelial transport and antioxidant activity of two hempseed peptides WVSPLAGRT (H2) and IGFLIIWV (H3)

A preceding paper has shown that a hempseed peptic hydrolysate displays a cholesterol-lowering activity with a statin-like mechanism of action in HepG2 cells and a potential hypoglycemic activity by the inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase-IV in Caco-2 cells. In the framework of a research aimed at fostering the multifunctional behavior of hempseed peptides, we present here the identification and evaluation of some antioxidant peptides from the same hydrolysate. After evaluation of its diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, a trans-epithelial transport experiment was performed using differentiated Caco-2 cells that permitted the identification of five transported peptides that were synthesized and evaluated by measuring the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and the 2,2-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic) acid (ABTS), and diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical DPPH assays. The most active peptides, i.e. WVSPLAGRT (H2) and IGFLIIWV (H3), were then tested in cell assays. Both peptides were able to reduce the H₂O₂-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation, and nitric oxide (NO) production levels in HepG2 cells, via the modulation of Nrf-2 and iNOS pathways, respectively.

Production, Purification, and Potential Health Applications of Edible Seeds' Bioactive Peptides: A Concise Review

Edible seeds play a significant role in contributing essential nutritional needs and impart several health benefits to improve the quality of human life. Previous literature evidence has confirmed that edible seed proteins, their enzymatic hydrolysates, and bioactive peptides (BAPs) have proven and potential attributes to ameliorate numerous chronic disorders through the modulation of activities of several molecular markers. Edible seed-derived proteins and peptides have gained much interest from researchers worldwide as ingredients to formulate therapeutic functional foods and nutraceuticals. In this review, four main methods are discussed (enzymatic hydrolysis, gastrointestinal digestion, fermentation, and genetic engineering) that are used for the production of BAPs, including their purification and characterization. This article’s main aim is to provide current knowledge regarding several health-promoting properties of edible seed BAPs in terms of antihypertensive, anti-cancer, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and hypoglycemic activities.

The Effect of Hemp Cake (Cannabis sativa L.) on the Characteristics of Meatballs Stored in Refrigerated Conditions

Hemp cake, a by-product of cold pressing oil from hemp seeds, is a nutritious ingredient that could be used for the production of new or reformulated meat products. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of inclusion of 0.9%, 2.6%, 4.2%, and 7.4% (w/w) hemp cake (Cannabis sativa L.) on the physicochemical and textural properties, oxidation, and sensory acceptance of cooked and vacuum-packed meatballs during refrigerated storage. The addition of 7.4% hemp cake enhanced the amount of dry matter and reduced the content of water. Lightness (L*) and redness (a*) values reduced significantly with higher levels of hemp supplementation. Regardless of the amount of hemp additive, pH, color parameters did not differ significantly during the 12 days of storage. Hemp cake significantly decreased protein and lipid oxidation: the inhibitory effect of adding 7.4% hemp cake on protein carbonyl group formation and TBARS values reached 11.16% and 36.5%, respectively, after 10 days of storage. Sensory analysis revealed that meatballs prepared with 0.9% and 2.6% hemp cake gained higher overall scores. The results indicate that hemp cake, a material considered mainly as waste, may be destined for food purposes and be an alternative ingredient for the production of sustainable meat products.

Antioxidant and Angiotensin I-Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitory Peptides Obtained from Alcalase Protein Hydrolysate Fractions of Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Bran

Proteins from hemp bran (HPB), a byproduct of the hemp seed food-processing chain, were chemically extracted, hydrolyzed by Alcalase, and separated by membrane ultrafiltration into four fractions (MW <1, 1-3, 3-5, and >5 kDa). The antioxidant and antihypertensive properties of the initial extract and the fractions were evaluated by in vitro assays for their ability to scavenge radical species, bind with metal ions, reduce ferric ions, and inhibit angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) activity. Bioactive peptides were identified by high-resolution mass spectrometry and sequence comparison with BIOPEP and BioPep DB databases. The hydrolysate was strongly antioxidant and ACE-inhibiting; the most bioactive peptides were further concentrated by ultrafiltration. Of the 239 peptides identified, 47 (12 antioxidant and 35 ACE-inhibitory) exhibited structural features correlated with the specific bioactivity. These results highlight the promise of hydrolysate and size-based HPB fractions as natural functional ingredients for the food or pharmaceutical industry.

Identification and Characterization of the Seed Storage Proteins and Related Genes of Cannabis sativa L

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seed is emerging as a novel source of plant protein owing to its rich protein content and reasonable nutritional structure. In the current study, the storage proteins of hemp seed were extracted using different methods. The modified Osborne method yielded maximum extraction of the hemp seed storage proteins, while degreasing had little effect on the hemp seed protein (HSP) extraction. Protein identification results revealed that 11S globulin (edestin) was the most abundant protein in hemp seed, and the molecular weights of the two subunits of this protein were ~35 and 20 kDa, respectively. The second most abundant protein was 2S albumin (Cs2S), with a molecular weight of ~14–15 kDa. The least abundant protein was 7S vicilin-like protein (Cs7S), with a molecular weight of ~47 kDa. Subsequently, gene families encoding these three storage protein classes, including three genes for edestin, two for Cs2S, and one for Cs7S, were cloned and then analyzed for amino acid composition and structure. The three edestins were different in their amino acid sequences and calculated molecular weights. The analysis of coding sequences revealed a higher percentage of similarity (62.7%) between Edestin1 and Edestin3, while the similarity decreased significantly to ~57% between Edestin1 and Edestin2, and 58% between Edestin2 and Edestin3. The calculated protein molecular weight was the highest for the protein encoded by Edestin1 and the smallest for the protein encoded by Edestin2. All three edestins were rich in arginine, while Edestin3 had a higher methionine content relative to that in the other two, which proved that Edestin3 had a better nutritional value. Cs2S and Cs7S were different from those reported in previous studies. Therefore, it could be inferred that amino acid composition varies with different hemp cultivars. The current research brought significant theoretical advance in illuminating the understanding of hemp seed storage protein and would have significance for future research on improving the nutritional quality of hemp seed and developing bioactive peptides.

Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa's pharmacological properties and health effects: A scoping review of current evidence

INTRODUCTION

Hemp (Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa), commonly used for industrial purposes, is now being consumed by the public for various health promoting effects. As popularity of hemp research and claims of beneficial effects rises, a systematic collection of current scientific evidence on hemp's health effects and pharmacological properties is needed to guide future research, clinical, and policy decision making.

OBJECTIVE

To provide an overview and identify the present landscape of hemp research topics, trends, and gaps.

METHODS

A systematic search and analysis strategy according to the preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis-ScR (PRISMA-ScR) checklist on electronic databases including MEDLINE, OVID (OVFT, APC Journal Club, EBM Reviews), Cochrane Library Central and Clinicaltrials.gov was conducted to include and analyse hemp research articles from 2009 to 2019.

RESULTS

65 primary articles (18 clinical, 47 pre-clinical) were reviewed. Several randomised controlled trials showed hempseed pills (in Traditional Chinese Medicine formulation MaZiRenWan) improving spontaneous bowel movement in functional constipation. There was also evidence suggesting benefits in cannabis dependence, epilepsy, and anxiety disorders. Pre-clinically, hemp derivatives showed potential anti-oxidative, anti-hypertensive, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-neuroinflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-acne, and anti-microbial activities. Renal protective effects and estrogenic properties were also exhibited in vitro.

CONCLUSION

Current evidence on hemp-specific interventions are still preliminary, with limited high quality clinical evidence for any specific therapeutic indication. This is mainly due to the wide variation in test item formulation, as the multiple variants of this plant differ in their phytochemical and bioactive compounds. Future empirical research should focus on standardising the hemp plant for pharmaceutical use, and uniformity in experimental designs to strengthen the premise of using hemp in medicine.

Comparing the Effectiveness of Three Different Biorefinery Processes at Recovering Bioactive Products from Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Byproduct

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seeds are considered a nutritional powerhouse, rich in proteins and unsaturated fatty acids. The market for hemp seed food products is growing, due to the loosening of constraints in industrial cultivation. During the food processing chain, the external part of the seed is discarded, although it contains a significant amount of proteins. Converting this material into value-added products with a biorefinery approach could meet the ever-increasing need for sustainable protein sources while reducing food waste. In this study, creating value from hemp byproducts was pursued with three different approaches: (i) chemical extraction followed by enzymatic digestion, (ii) liquid fermentation by strains of Lactobacillus spp., and (iii) solid-state fermentation by Pleurotus ostreatus. The resulting products exhibited a range of in vitro antioxidant and antihypertensive activity, depending on the proteases used for enzymatic digestion, the bacterial strain, and the length of time of the two fermentation processes. These byproducts could be exploited as functional ingredients in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries; the suggested biorefinery processes thus represent potential solutions for the development of other protein-containing byproducts or wastes.

Use of Alcalase in the production of bioactive peptides: A review

This review aims to cover the uses of the commercially available protease Alcalase in the production of biologically active peptides since 2010. Immobilization of Alcalase has also been reviewed, as immobilization of the enzyme may improve the final reaction design enabling the use of more drastic conditions and the reuse of the biocatalyst. That way, this review presents the production, via Alcalase hydrolysis of different proteins, of peptides with antioxidant, angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory, metal binding, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities (among other bioactivities) and peptides that improve the functional, sensory and nutritional properties of foods. Alcalase has proved to be among the most efficient proteases for this goal, using different protein sources, being especially interesting the use of the protein residues from food industry as feedstock, as this also solves nature pollution problems. Very interestingly, the bioactivities of the protein hydrolysates further improved when Alcalase is used in a combined way with other proteases both in a sequential way or in a simultaneous hydrolysis (something that could be related to the concept of combi-enzymes), as the combination of proteases with different selectivities and specificities enable the production of a larger amount of peptides and of a smaller size.

Structure and Function of Mung Bean Protein-Derived Iron-Binding Antioxidant Peptides

An iron-binding mung bean protein hydrolysate (MBPH) was prepared using a continuous enzymatic membrane reactor followed by peptide separation on anion-exchange (AEC) and reverse-phase HPLC (RP-HPLC) columns. Amino acid sequences of peptides present in the RP-HPLC fraction with the strongest iron-binding capacity were identified using mass spectrometry, and ten peptides of 5-8 amino acids synthesized for antioxidant characterization. Five fractions (AF1- AF5) with higher iron-binding capacity (88.86 ± 6.43 to 153.59 ± 2.18 mg/g peptide) when compared to the MBPH (36.81 ± 0.93 mg/g peptide) were obtained from AEC. PAIDL had the significantly (p < 0.05) highest iron-binding capacity, but LLLLG and LLGIL showed the strongest metal chelating activity. However, PAIDL (46.63%) and LLGIL (81.27%) had significantly (p < 0.05) better DPPH radical scavenging activity than the other peptides. PAIDL and LLGIL were also the most effective (p < 0.05) hydroxyl radical neutralizers with an effective concentration that scavenged 50% (EC₅₀) values of 0.09 and 0.37 mM, respectively. PAIDL and AIVIL showed the lowest EC₅₀ values of 0.07 mM each for superoxide radical scavenging activity. We conclude that short chain length in combination with leucine as the C-terminal amino acid residue contributed to the strong antioxidant properties of peptides in this study.

The seed of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.): Nutritional Quality and Potential Functionality for Human Health and Nutrition

Hempseeds, the edible fruits of the Cannabis sativa L. plant, were initially considered a by-product of the hemp technical fibre industry. Nowadays, following the restorationing of the cultivation of C. sativa L. plants containing an amount of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) <0.3% or 0.2% (industrial hemp) there is a growing interest for the hempseeds production due to their high nutritional value and functional features. The goal of this review is to examine the scientific literature concerning the nutritional and functional properties of hempseeds. Furthermore, we revised the scientific literature regarding the potential use of hempseeds and their derivatives as a dietary supplement for the prevention and treatment of inflammatory and chronic-degenerative diseases on animal models and humans too. In the first part of the work, we provide information regarding the genetic, biochemical, and legislative aspects of this plant that are, in our opinion essential to understand the difference between “industrial” and “drug-type” hemp. In the final part of the review, the employment of hempseeds by the food industry as livestock feed supplement and as ingredient to enrich or fortify daily foods has also revised. Overall, this review intends to encourage further and comprehensive investigations about the adoption of hempseeds in the functional foods field.

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Protein Hydrolysates Promote Anti-Inflammatory Response in Primary Human Monocytes

Hemp seeds have a wide variety of chemical compounds which present biological activity. Specifically, the focus on proteins and bioactive peptides are increasing as alternative sources of nutraceutical uses. In the literature, hemp protein products (HPPs) have reported antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. This study aimed to determine the inflammation-related modulatory effects of HPPs on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated primary human monocytes. CD14⁺ cells were immunomagnetically isolated from buffy coats and the anti-inflammatory activity of hemp protein isolate (HPI) and hydrolysates (HPHs) was evaluated on LPS-stimulated human primary monocytes. The specific markers of inflammation, polarization, and chemoattraction were measured by RT-qPCR and ELISA assays. Our results showed that HPPs decreased the pro-inflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and increased the anti-inflammatory mediators (IL-10 and IL-4). In addition, M1 polarization marker gene expression (CCR7 and iNOS) was downregulated by HPPs and, M2 polarization marker gene expression (CD200R and MRC1) was upregulated. Finally, the mRNA expression of chemotaxis genes (CCR2 and CCL2) was downregulated by HPPs. In conclusion, this study suggests that HPPs may improve chronic inflammatory states and promote regenerative processes by reprogramming monocytes toward M2 polarization phenotype.

Neuroprotective protein hydrolysates from hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seeds

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seeds are well known for their potential use as a source of nutrients, fiber, and bioactive compounds. A hemp protein isolate, prepared from defatted hemp flour, was hydrolyzed by alcalase and flavourzyme under specific conditions. The resulting hydrolysates were evaluated for the selection of potentially bioactive hemp protein hydrolysates (HPHs) owing to their DPPH scavenging and ferric reducing antioxidant power activity. In vitro cell-free experiments led to the identification of two bioactive HPHs, HPH20A and HPH60A + 15AF, which were used at 50 and 100 μg mL-1 on BV-2 microglial cells in order to evaluate the anti-neuroinflammatory activities. Our results showed that HPH20A and HPH60A + 15AF down-regulated TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 mRNA transcriptional levels in LPS-stimulated BV-2 microglial cells. In addition, HPH20A and HPH60A + 15AF up-regulated the gene expression of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. This study suggests for the first time that HPHs may improve the neuroinflammatory and inflammatory states, supporting the nutraceutical value of hemp seeds.

Antihypertensive and antioxidant activities of enzymatic wheat bran protein hydrolysates

Bioactive peptides from plant protein sources have been continuously identified as nutrient supplements for low toxicity but multiple physiological activities such as antihypertensive, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory. In this study, wheat bran protein isolate was digested with alcalase to produce wheat bran protein hydrolysate (WPH) that was then separated into different peptide fractions (<1, 1-3, 3-5, and 5-10 kDa) by membrane ultrafiltration. WPH and the peptide fractions were evaluated for in vitro activities such as antioxidant, renin inhibition, and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibition. In addition, the blood pressure-lowering effects of WPH and the <1 kDa peptides were determined by oral administration to spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs). Results showed that the ACE and renin inhibitions were significantly (p < .05) higher for the <1 kDa fraction (84.25% ± 2.45%, 75.19% ± 1.75%, respectively) when compared to the WPH and >1 kDa fractions. The <1 kDa fraction also showed significantly (p < .05) higher oxygen radical antioxidant activity with 2044.73 ± 37.45 (μM TE/g protein) when compared to lower values obtained for the >1 kDa membrane fractions and WPH. Oral administration (100 mg/kg body weight) of the <1 kDa membrane fraction to SHRs resulted in a better decrease (-35 mmHg) in the systolic blood pressure when compared to the WPH (-20 mmHg) after 6 hr. And seven peptides (NL, QL, FL, HAL, AAVL, AKTVF, and TPLTR) were identified and amino acid sequence was determined by tandem mass spectrometry. We conclude that the WPH could be considered as a suitable natural antihypertensive and antioxidant resource. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The results of the present study indicate that WPH and its ultrafiltration fractions possess potential as a source of antihypertensive and strong antioxidant peptides. It has been proved that wheat bran has a good blood pressure lowering and antioxidation and other biological activities, and the <1 kDa fraction showing high oxygen radical absorbance capacity level also has better in vitro ACE inhibition and renin-inhibitory activity. The higher antihypertensive efficiency of the <1 kDa fraction may be because the peptides can be better absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract or an increased ability to interact with the enzyme (ACE or renin) protein structure to change the active conformation and lead to decreased catalysis. The results of this study indicate that WPH, especially <1 kDa peptide, can be used as a component in formulating antihypertensive functional foods and nutraceuticals, thus improving the industrial production efficiency and bioavailability of wheat bran.

Enzymolysis of walnut (Juglans regia L.) meal protein: Ultrasonication-assisted alkaline pretreatment impact on kinetics and thermodynamics

To improve the utility of walnut meal protein, influences of ultrasonication on the kinetic and thermodynamic constraints of enzyme (trypsin) hydrolysis were assessed using a multi-frequency counter current S-type ultrasound machine. Results revealed that both the ultrasonication treatment and control hydrolysis obeyed the first-order kinetics within the study constraints. After 90 min hydrolysis time, the uppermost percentage conversion rate (57.5%) of substrate to product and the percentage increase (25.42%) in hydrolyzed protein concentration were obtained at 323 K and 10% substrate concentration, respectively. The Michaelis constant (K_M ) in ultrasonic enzymolysis declined by 58.66% over the control. The reaction rate coefficient (k) for the proteolysis improved by 84.75%, 52.43%, 48.25%, and 37.79% at 219, 303, 313, and 323 K, correspondingly. Generally, the bond energy (E_a ), enthalpy change (ΔH), entropy change (ΔS), and Gibbs free energy (ΔG) were reduced by the ultrasound pretreatment with 36.61%, 28.05%, 18.22%, and 5.24%, respectively. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Walnut meal protein has a well-balanced amino acid profile and its economic utilization could be increased practicably as a food ingredient via production of hydrolysates/peptides for the production of improved food ingredients instead of being cast off as animal feed. This study demonstrated a positive bearing of ultrasonication-assisted alkaline pretreatment on proteolytic reaction characteristics and its energy efficiency for walnut meal protein, which makes this technique applicable to the enhancement of plant proteins for inclusion in food products, especially tree nut and oil seed waste products from the oil industry.