Clinical Advances of siRNA-Based Nanotherapeutics for Cancer Treatment

Mechanistic intracellular PK/PD modeling to inform development strategies for small interfering RNA therapeutics

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) therapeutics provide a targeted approach to silence disease-related genes, with notable success in liver-targeting applications. However, the quantitative effects of siRNA properties, such as stability and affinity, as well as biological factors like cell proliferation, mRNA turnover, and abundance, on gene silencing, particularly for extrahepatic targets, remain poorly understood. To identify determinants influencing gene knockdown extent and duration, we developed a mechanistic intracellular pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) model for RNAiMAX-delivered siRNA, based on cytoplasmic siRNA disposition, RISC-loaded siRNA exposure, and mRNA knockdown across different targets in MCF7 and BT474 cells. The model highlighted the critical roles of cell proliferation in silencing duration and mRNA turnover rates on knockdown extent. In rapid-dividing cells, mRNA half-life drives knockdown profiles, whereas chemical siRNA stabilization extends silencing in slow-dividing cells. Targets with extremely low or high mRNA abundance pose silencing challenges. While sufficient RISC occupancy is essential, increasing RISC exposure has minimal impact on silencing extent; enhancing siRNA-mRNA target engagement is more effective. The model also defined a quantitative relationship for maximal mRNA knockdown, governed by cell proliferation, mRNA half-life, and RISC-mediated cleavage rates. This mechanistic PK/PD modeling provides insights into optimizing siRNA design and target selection in therapeutic development.

Mechanistic study of cancer drug delivery: Current techniques, limitations, and future prospects

Cancer drug delivery remains a critical challenge with systemic toxicity, poor drug bioavailability, and a lack of effective targeting. Overcoming these barriers is essential for improving treatment efficacy and patient outcomes. This review discusses current drug delivery techniques that reshape cancer therapy by offering precise, controlled-release tailored to tumor-specific features. Innovations in nanotechnology, immunotherapy, and gene therapy enable interventions at molecular and cellular levels. Radiomics and pathomics integrate high-dimensional data to optimize diagnostics and treatment planning. Combination therapy addresses the complexities of tumor heterogeneity by synergizing multiple agents within a single therapeutic framework, while peptide-drug conjugates enhance specificity and potency. Hydrogel-based systems and microneedle arrays offer localized, sustained release, significantly improving therapeutic outcomes. However, clinical translation of these advancements faces significant barriers such as drug resistance, off-target effects, scalability, cost, and ethical concerns. Moreover, regulatory complexities and the economic feasibility of these therapies highlight the need for innovative frameworks to make them accessible globally. Therefore, there is a need for innovation in gene and cell therapy, next-generation drug delivery platforms, and personalized medicine. This review focuses on recent advancements in drug delivery techniques over the past decade, evaluating their limitations and exploring potential future directions for transforming cancer treatment.

Exploring the promise of lipoplexes: From concept to clinical applications

Lipoplexes are non-viral lipid vectors that effectively form complexes with genetic material, positioning them as promising alternatives to viral vectors in gene therapy. Their advantages include lower toxicity, reduced immunogenicity, improved targetability, and ease of large-scale production. A typical lipoplex is composed of cationic lipids, neutral lipids, and anionic nucleic acids (e.g., DNA, mRNA, miRNA, siRNA, shRNA). Neutral lipids play an auxiliary role and are often used as transfection enhancers. Enhancing lipoplex efficiency often involves modifying the cationic lipid structure through functional groups like PEG polymers and targeting ligands. The assembly of lipoplexes occurs spontaneously. This process involves the binding of the positively charged polar head group of the cationic lipid to the negatively charged DNA spontaneously as a result of electrostatic interaction, then irreversible rearrangement and condensation of the lipoplex occurs to form either lamellar or hexagonal structures. The transfection process encompasses several steps: cellular entry, endosomal escape and cargo release, cytoplasmic trafficking, and nuclear entry. The physicochemical and biological properties of lipoplexes are influenced by factors such as lipid structure, charge ratio, and environmental conditions. Despite certain limitations like low gene transfer efficiency and rapid clearance by serum proteins, lipoplexes show promise for clinical applications. They can be administered through various routes, offering potential treatments for diseases such as cancer, bone damage, infection, and cystic fibrosis. The study aims to examine the potential of lipoplexes as a promising vehicle for delivering therapeutic agents and their progression from theoretical concepts to practical clinical applications.

Targeting Regulatory Noncoding RNAs in Human Cancer: The State of the Art in Clinical Trials

Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are a heterogeneous group of RNA molecules whose classification is mainly based on arbitrary criteria such as the molecule length, secondary structures, and cellular functions. A large fraction of these ncRNAs play a regulatory role regarding messenger RNAs (mRNAs) or other ncRNAs, creating an intracellular network of cross-interactions that allow the fine and complex regulation of gene expression. Altering the balance between these interactions may be sufficient to cause a transition from health to disease and vice versa. This leads to the possibility of intervening in these mechanisms to re-establish health in patients. The regulatory role of ncRNAs is associated with all cancer hallmarks, such as proliferation, apoptosis, invasion, metastasis, and genomic instability. Based on the function performed in carcinogenesis, ncRNAs may behave either as oncogenes or tumor suppressors. However, this distinction is not rigid; some ncRNAs can fall into both classes depending on the tissue considered or the target molecule. Furthermore, some of them are also involved in regulating the response to traditional cancer-therapeutic approaches. In general, the regulation of molecular mechanisms by ncRNAs is very complex and still largely unclear, but it has enormous potential both for the development of new therapies, especially in cases where traditional methods fail, and for their use as novel and more efficient biomarkers. Overall, this review will provide a brief overview of ncRNAs in human cancer biology, with a specific focus on describing the most recent ongoing clinical trials (CT) in which ncRNAs have been tested for their potential as therapeutic agents or evaluated as biomarkers.

Enhanced siRNA delivery with novel smart chitosan-based formulations

This study aims to develop an innovative multifunctional and dual responsive drug formulation for precise siRNA delivery to breast cancer sites, addressing the challenges posed by conventional cancer treatments which often result in adverse side effects due to their non-specific nature. The formulation made by incorporating gold coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (Au-SPIONs) into chitosan microspheres, which were subsequently loaded with siRNA. Comprehensive characterization, including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) confirmed the formulation's favourable morphology, particle size distribution, chemical composition, and stability, indicating its strong potential for effective siRNA drug delivery applications. The developed formulation demonstrated siRNA encapsulation efficiencies ranging from 27.4 % to 88.6 % and loading capacity from 0.291 % to 1.59 %, these values particularly higher for medium molecular weight chitosan. These results were compared across different formulations, showing that variations in chitosan type and crosslinker concentration significantly influenced encapsulation efficiency and drug release profiles. Additionally, our results were compared to previous studies on chitosan microspheres encapsulating organic drugs and siRNA, where the developed system demonstrated similar encapsulation and release properties.. The type of chitosan and the choice of crosslinker significantly influenced the drug release patterns. Diverse release profiles across batches highlighted the necessity for precise formulation control. Incorporating SPIONs into chitosan microspheres presents a promising strategy for magnetically driven, site-specific drug delivery. The dual pH-responsive and magnetic properties enable rapid and targeted siRNA release, leveraging the acidic tumor microenvironment as an internal stimulus in addition to external magnetic stimuli. This novel combination of SPIONs, chitosan microspheres, and siRNA encapsulation represents a new approach for targeted drug delivery. While further research is needed to refine and optimize this approach, our study provides a proof of concept for advancing targeted cancer therapies.

Synergistic therapeutic efficacy of Selective Anticancer Complex in triple-negative breast cancer

This study introduces an innovative approach to treating incurable cancers, particularly triple-negative breast cancer, by developing a Selective Anticancer Complex (SAC). The SAC combines Cancer-Growth Inhibiting (CGI) siRNA with a novel Selective Anticancer Peptide (SAP), forming spontaneously through electrostatic attraction. This innovative complex not only enhances the stability and delivery efficiency of CGI siRNA but also exhibits a synergistic anticancer effect. Unlike traditional approaches where peptides serve merely as carriers or separate therapeutic agents, SAC integrates both delivery and therapeutic functions. The complex demonstrates remarkable selectivity, significantly reducing the viability of specific cancer cell lines like MDA-MB-231 while sparing normal cells. Animal studies corroborated these findings, showing statistically significant tumor size reduction in MDA-MB-231 xenografts. This research represents a significant advancement in cancer therapeutics, offering a safe and promising treatment option for triple-negative breast cancer, for which selective treatments are currently lacking. By successfully combining the gene-silencing capabilities of CGI siRNA with the anticancer properties of SAP, this study opens new avenues for designing multifunctional, selective anticancer therapies, potentially revolutionizing the approach to treating aggressive and resistant cancers.

In vivo vectorization and delivery systems for gene therapies and RNA-based therapeutics in oncology

Gene and RNA-based therapeutics represent a promising frontier in oncology, enabling targeted modulation of tumor-associated genes and proteins. This review explores the latest advances in payload vectorization and delivery systems developed for in vivo cancer treatments. We discuss viral and non-viral organic particles, including lipid based nanoparticles and polymeric structures, for the effective transport of plasmids, siRNA, and self-amplifying RNA therapeutics. Their physicochemical properties, strategies to overcome intracellular barriers, and innovations in cell-based carriers and engineered extracellular vesicles are highlighted. Moreover, we consider oncolytic viruses, novel viral capsid modifications, and approaches that refine tumor targeting and immunomodulation. Ongoing clinical trials and regulatory frameworks guide future directions and emphasize the need for safe, scalable production. The potential convergence of these systems with combination therapies paves the way toward personalized cancer medicine.

siRNA-based knockdown of lncRNAs: A new modality to target tumor progression

This study examines the potential of small interfering RNA (siRNA) as a therapeutic agent for cancer targeting long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). The article begins with an analysis of the structure and biogenesis of lncRNA. It explains the diverse functions of lncRNAs in cancer, establishing a foundation for assessing approaches to inhibit these molecules. The analysis focuses on the consequences of lncRNA suppression through siRNA on signaling pathways associated with cancer, connecting theoretical understanding to practical applications. An evaluation of ongoing clinical trials and applications contributes to the discourse by revealing the potential for siRNA-mediated interventions to be practiced. Furthermore, an evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of this therapeutic approach offers a nuanced viewpoint. In conclusion, the paper synthesizes significant discoveries and outlines potential avenues for future research, contributing to the dialogue surrounding personalized cancer therapeutics and precision medicine. Future challenges in using siRNA to target lncRNAs in oncology include optimizing delivery systems for efficient tumor cell uptake, minimizing off-target effects, enhancing RNA stability for a longer therapeutic window, and overcoming barriers in the tumor microenvironment. Addressing these factors is essential for the practical application of siRNA-based cancer therapies.

Complexed hyaluronic acid-based nanoparticles in cancer therapy and diagnosis: Research trends by natural language processing

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a popular surface modifier in targeted cancer delivery due to its receptor-binding abilities. However, HA alone faces limitations in lipid solubility, biocompatibility, and cell internalization, making it less effective as a standalone delivery system. This comprehensive study aimed to explore a dynamic landscape of complexation in HA-based nanoparticles in cancer therapy, examining diverse aspects from influential modifiers to emerging trends in cancer diagnostics. We discovered that certain active substances, such as 5-aminolevulinic acid, adamantane, and protamine, have been on trend in terms of their usage over the past decade. Dextran, streptavidin, and catechol emerge as intriguing conjugates for HA, coupled with nanostar, quantum dots, and nanoprobe structures for optimal drug delivery and diagnostics. Strategies like hypoxic conditioning, dual responsiveness, and pulse laser activation enhance controlled release, targeted delivery, and real-time diagnostic techniques like ultrasound imaging and X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT). Based on our findings, conventional bibliometric tools fail to highlight relevant topics in this area, instead producing merely abstract and broad-meaning keywords. Extraction using Named Entity Recognition and topic search with Latent Dirichlet Allocation successfully revealed five representative topics with the ability to exclude irrelevant keywords. A shift in research focuses from optimizing chemical toxicity to particular targeting tactics and precise release mechanisms is evident. These findings reflect the dynamic landscape of HA-based nanoparticle research in cancer therapy, emphasizing advancements in targeted drug delivery, therapeutic efficacy, and multimodal diagnostic approaches to improve overall patient outcomes.

Enhancing precision in cancer treatment: the role of gene therapy and immune modulation in oncology

Gene therapy has long been a cornerstone in the treatment of rare diseases and genetic disorders, offering targeted solutions to conditions once considered untreatable. As the field advances, its transformative potential is now expanding into oncology, where personalized therapies address the genetic and immune-related complexities of cancer. This review highlights innovative therapeutic strategies, including gene replacement, gene silencing, oncolytic virotherapy, CAR-T cell therapy, and CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing, with a focus on their application in both hematologic malignancies and solid tumors. CRISPR-Cas9, a revolutionary tool in precision medicine, enables precise editing of cancer-driving mutations, enhancing immune responses and disrupting tumor growth mechanisms. Additionally, emerging approaches target ferroptosis-a regulated, iron-dependent form of cell death-offering new possibilities for selectively inducing tumor cell death in resistant cancers. Despite significant breakthroughs, challenges such as tumor heterogeneity, immune evasion, and the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) remain. To overcome these barriers, novel approaches like dual-targeting, armored CAR-T cells, and combination therapies with immune checkpoint inhibitors and ferroptosis inducers are being explored. Additionally, the rise of allogeneic "off-the-shelf" CAR-T therapies offers scalable and more accessible treatment options. The regulatory landscape is evolving to accommodate these advancements, with frameworks like RMAT (Regenerative Medicine Advanced Therapy) in the U.S. and ATMP (Advanced Therapy Medicinal Products) in Europe fast-tracking the approval of gene therapies. However, ethical considerations surrounding CRISPR-based gene editing-such as off-target effects, germline editing, and ensuring equitable access-remain at the forefront, requiring ongoing ethical oversight. Advances in non-viral delivery systems, such as lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) and exosomes, are improving the safety and efficacy of gene therapies. By integrating these innovations with combination therapies and addressing regulatory and ethical concerns, gene therapy is poised to revolutionize cancer treatment, providing durable, effective, and personalized solutions for both hematologic and solid tumors.

Enhancing photodynamic and radionuclide therapy by small interfering RNA (siRNA)-RAD51 transfection via self-emulsifying delivery systems (SNEDDS)

BACKGROUND AIMS

Gene-silencing by small interfering RNA (siRNA) is an attractive therapy to regulate cancer death, tumor recurrence or metastasis. Because siRNAs are easily degraded, it is necessary to develop transport and delivery systems to achieve efficient tumor targeting. Self-nanoemulsifying systems (SNEDDS) have been successfully used for pDNA transport and delivery, so they may be useful for siRNA. The aim of this work is to introduce siRNA-RAD51 into a SNEDDS prepared with Phospholipon-90G, Labrafil-M1944-CS and Cremophor-RH40 and evaluate its efficacy in preventing homologous recombination of DNA double-strand breaks caused by photodynamic therapy (PDT) and ionizing radiation (IR).

METHODS

The siRNA-RAD51 was loaded into SNEDDS using chitosan. Transfection capacity was estimated by comparison with Lipofectamine-2000.

RESULTS

SNEDDS(siRNA-RAD51) induced gene silencing effect on the therapies evaluated by cell viability and clonogenic assays using T47D breast cancer cells.

CONCLUSIONS

SNEDDS(siRNA-RAD51) shown to be an effective siRNA-delivery system to decrease cellular resistance in PDT or IR.

Anticancer Effects of MAPK6 siRNA-Loaded PLGA Nanoparticles in the Treatment of Breast Cancer

siRNA-loaded nanoparticles open new perspectives for cancer treatment. MAPK6 is upregulated in breast cancer and is involved in cell growth, differentiation and cell cycle regulation. Herein, we aimed to investigate the anticancer effects of MAPK6 knockdown by using MAPK6 siRNA-loaded PLGA nanoparticles (siMAPK6-PLGA-NPs) in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. After the synthesis and characterisation of nanoparticles, treatment concentrations were determined with cytotoxicity assay. Subsequently, MAPK6 knockdown and anticancer effects of siMAPK6-PLGA-NPs were evaluated by in vitro assays. siMAPK6-PLGA-NPs have been determined to suppress MAPK6 expression efficiently. In vitro studies revealed that siMAPK6-PLGA-NPs significantly reduced the migration, proliferation and colony-forming ability and enhanced the apoptosis in MCF-7 cells. Taken together, siMAPK6-PLGA-NPs exhibited robust and promising anticancer effects against MCF-7 cells. Our findings demonstrated that siRNA-loaded PLGA nanoparticles have great potential for breast cancer treatment and MAPK6 gene may be the therapeutic target in breast cancer.

Circular RNAs in laryngeal cancer

Laryngeal cancer remains a significant global health concern, with poor prognosis for advanced-stage disease highlighting the need for novel diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic approaches. Circular RNAs (circRNAs), a class of covalently closed non-coding RNAs, have emerged as important regulators of gene expression and cellular processes in various cancers, including laryngeal cancer. This review summarizes the current understanding of circRNAs in laryngeal cancer, covering their biogenesis, regulatory mechanisms, and potential clinical applications. We explore the diverse functions of circRNAs, including their roles as miRNA sponges, protein interactors, and direct mRNA regulators, and their influence on key cellular processes such as proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. The review highlights promising circRNAs as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, as well as potential therapeutic targets. We also outline current strategies for circRNA modulation, including suppression techniques like RNA interference and CRISPR/Cas systems, and overexpression methods using vectors and synthetic circRNAs.

Recent Insights into Nano-mediated siRNA Drug Delivery

Gene silencing is the characteristic that inhibits gene expression afforded by siRNA interference. The efficacy of the delivery system in terms of precision, efficacy, and stability can be enhanced by genebased drug delivery options. The delivery challenges and their associated side effects create a challenge for the delivery of gene-based drug delivery carriers. Nano-based delivery systems were reported to improve the efficacy of therapy. The absence of an efficient delivery mechanism that shields siRNA from nuclease degradation delivers it to cancer cells, and releases it into the cytoplasm of specific cancer cells without causing side effects is currently the greatest obstacle to the practical implementation of siRNA therapy. This article focuses on general aspects of siRNA and various siRNA nanocarrier-based formulations. In the near future, we will move towards the siRNA-based drug delivery approach.

RNA nanotherapeutics for hepatocellular carcinoma treatment

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains a leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide, particularly due to the limited effectiveness of current therapeutic options for advanced-stage disease. The efficacy of traditional treatments is often compromised by the intricate liver microenvironment and the inherent heterogeneity. RNA-based therapeutics offer a promising alternative, utilizing the innovative approach of targeting aberrant molecular pathways and modulating the tumor microenvironment. The integration of nanotechnology in this field, through the development of advanced nanocarrier delivery systems, especially lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), polymer nanoparticles (PNPs), and bioinspired vectors, enhances the precision and efficacy of RNA therapies. This review highlights the significant progress in RNA nanotherapeutics for HCC treatment, covering micro RNA (miRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), message RNA (mRNA), and small activating RNA (saRNA) mediated gene silencing, therapeutic protein restoration, gene activation, cancer vaccines, and concurrent therapy. It further comprehensively discusses the prevailing challenges within this therapeutic landscape and provides a forward-looking perspective on the potential of RNA nanotherapeutics to transform HCC treatment.

Comparison of Cell-Penetrating and Fusogenic TAT-HA2 Peptide Performance in Peptideplex, Multicomponent, and Conjugate siRNA Delivery Systems

In this study, the performance of the cell-penetrating and fusogenic peptide, TAT-HA2, which consists of a cell-permeable HIV trans-activator of transcription (TAT) protein transduction domain and a pH-responsive influenza A virus hemagglutinin protein (HA2) domain, was comparatively evaluated for the first time in peptideplex, multicomponent, and conjugate siRNA delivery systems. TAT-HA2 in all three systems protected siRNA from degradation, except in the conjugate system with a low Peptide/siRNA ratio. The synergistic effect of different peptide domains enhanced the transfection efficiency of multicomponent and conjugate systems compared to that of peptideplexes, which was attributed to the surface configuration of TAT-HA2 peptides depending on the nature of attachment. Particularly, the multicomponent system showed better cellular uptake and endosomal escape than the peptideplexes, resulting in enhanced siRNA delivery in the cytoplasm. In addition, the presence of cleavable disulfide bonds in multicomponent and conjugate systems promoted the effective siRNA delivery in the cytoplasm, resulting in improved gene silencing activity. The multicomponent system reduced the level of luciferase expression in SKOV3 cells to 45% (±4). In contrast, the conjugate system and the commercially available siRNA transfection agent, Lipofectamine RNAiMax, caused luciferase suppression down to 55% (±2) at a siRNA dose of 100 nM. For the same dose, the peptideplex system could only reduce the luciferase expression to 65% (±5). None of the developed systems showed significant toxicity at any dose. Overall, the TAT-HA2 peptide is promising as a siRNA delivery vector; however, its performance depends on the nature of attachment and, as a result, its surface configuration on the developed delivery system.

Polyethylene glycol-phospholipid functionalized single-walled carbon nanotubes for enhanced siRNA systemic delivery

Small interfering RNAs (siRNA) technology has emerged as a promising therapeutic tool for human health conditions like cancer due to its ability to regulate gene silencing. Despite FDA-approved, their delivery remains localized and limiting their systemic use. This study used single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) functionalized with polyethylene glycolated (PEGylated) phospholipids (PL-PEG) derivatives for systemic siRNA delivery. We developed an siRNA systemic delivery vehicle (SWNT-siRNA) by conjugating SWNT functionalized with PL-PEG containing either amine (PA) or maleimide (MA). The functionalized SWNT with a lower molecular weight of PA produced the SWNT-siRNA conjugate system with the highest stability and high siRNA loading quantity. The system delivered siRNA to a panel of tumour cell lines of different organs (i.e. HeLa, H1299 and MCF-7) and a non-cancerous human embryonic kidney 293 cells (HEK293T) with high biocompatibility and low toxicity. The cellular uptake of SWNT-siRNA conjugates by epithelial cells was found to be energy dependent. Importantly, the presence of P-glycoprotein, a marker for drug resistance, did not inhibit SWNT-mediated siRNA delivery. Mouse xenograft model further confirmed the potential of SWNT-siRNA conjugates with a significant gene knock-down without signs of acute toxicity. These findings pave the way for potential gene therapy applications using SWNTs as delivery vehicles.

Comprehensive analysis of lipid nanoparticle formulation and preparation for RNA delivery

Nucleic acid-based therapeutics are a common approach that is increasingly popular for a wide spectrum of diseases. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are promising delivery carriers that provide RNA stability, with strong transfection efficiency, favorable and tailorable pharmacokinetics, limited toxicity, and established translatability. In this review article, we describe the lipid-based delivery systems, focusing on lipid nanoparticles, the need of their use, provide a comprehensive analysis of each component, and highlight the advantages and disadvantages of the existing manufacturing processes. We further summarize the ongoing and completed clinical trials utilizing LNPs, indicating important aspects/questions worth of investigation, and analyze the future perspectives of this significant and promising therapeutic approach.

Nanomedicines modulate the tumor immune microenvironment for cancer therapy

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the evolution of immunotherapy as a means to trigger a robust antitumor immune response has revolutionized cancer treatment. Despite its potential, the effectiveness of cancer immunotherapy is hindered by low response rates and significant systemic side effects. Nanotechnology emerges as a promising frontier in shaping the future of cancer immunotherapy.

AREAS COVERED

This review elucidates the pivotal role of nanomedicine in reshaping the immune tumor microenvironment and explores innovative strategies pursued by diverse research groups to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. It discusses the hurdles encountered in cancer immunotherapy and the application of nanomedicine for small molecule immune modulators and nucleic acid therapeutics. It also highlights the advancements in DNA and mRNA vaccines facilitated by nanotechnology and outlines future trajectories in this evolving field.

EXPERT OPINION

Collectively, the integration of nanomedicine into cancer immunotherapy stands as a promising avenue to tackle the intricacies of the immune tumor microenvironment. Innovations such as immune checkpoint inhibitors and cancer vaccines have shown promise. Future developments will likely optimize nanoparticle design through artificial intelligence and create biocompatible, multifunctional nanoparticles, promising more effective, personalized, and durable cancer treatments, potentially transforming the field in the foreseeable future.

Nanolevel Immunomodulators in Sepsis: Novel Roles, Current Perspectives, and Future Directions

Sepsis represents a profound challenge in critical care, characterized by a severe systemic inflammatory response which can lead to multi-organ failure and death. The intricate pathophysiology of sepsis involves an overwhelming immune reaction that disrupts normal host defense mechanisms, necessitating innovative approaches to modulation. Nanoscale immunomodulators, with their precision targeting and controlled release capabilities, have emerged as a potent solution to recalibrate immune responses in sepsis. This review explores the recent advancements in nanotechnology for sepsis management, emphasizing the integration of nanoparticulate systems to modulate immune function and inflammatory pathways. Discussions detail the development of the immune system, the distinct inflammatory responses triggered by sepsis, and the scientific principles underpinning nanoscale immunomodulation, including specific targeting mechanisms and delivery systems. The review highlights nanoformulation designs aimed at enhancing bioavailability, stability, and therapeutic efficacy, which shows promise in clinical settings by modulating key inflammatory pathways. Ultimately, this review synthesizes the current state of knowledge and projects future directions for research, underscoring the transformative potential of nanolevel immunomodulators for sepsis treatment through innovative technologies and therapeutic strategies.

Advancements in Engineering Tetrahedral Framework Nucleic Acids for Biomedical Innovations

Tetrahedral framework nucleic acids (tFNAs) are renowned for their controllable self-assembly, exceptional programmability, and excellent biocompatibility, which have led to their widespread application in the biomedical field. Beyond these features, tFNAs demonstrate unique chemical and biological properties including high cellular uptake efficiency, structural bio-stability, and tissue permeability, which are derived from their distinctive 3D structure. To date, an extensive range of tFNA-based nanostructures are intelligently designed and developed for various biomedical applications such as drug delivery, gene therapy, biosensing, and tissue engineering, among other emerging fields. In addition to their role in drug delivery systems, tFNAs also possess intrinsic properties that render them highly effective as therapeutic agents in the treatment of complex diseases, including arthritis, neurodegenerative disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. This dual functionality significantly enhances the utility of tFNAs in biomedical research, presenting valuable opportunities for the development of next-generation medical technologies across diverse therapeutic and diagnostic platforms. Consequently, this review comprehensively introduces the latest advancements of tFNAs in the biomedical field, with a focus on their benefits and applications as drug delivery nanoplatforms, and their inherent capabilities as therapeutic agents. Furthermore, the current limitations, challenges, and future perspectives of tFNAs are explored.

CD56-targeted in vivo genetic engineering of natural killer cells mediates immunotherapy for acute myeloid leukemia

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a heterogeneous hematological malignancy that starts from bone marrow and spreads to other organs. At the time of diagnosis, both innate and defective natural killer (NK) cells are present in AML patients. The dysfunction of the NK cells is due to the absence of NK cell receptors such as NKG2D on tumor cells that help with tumor immune escape, and also the polycomb protein, EzH2, which plays an important role in the commitment and differentiation of NK cells. The inhibition of EzH2 activates NK cells towards enhanced lytic activity. However, the adoptive transfer of NK cells for cancer treatment is still under scrutiny due to limitations like production cost, vein-to-vein time, and complicated experimental procedures. In order to circumvent these issues, here, in vivo CD56+ NK cell genetic engineering is hypothesized through the CD56-directed delivery of the pSMP-EzH2 shRNA plasmid encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles (pEzH2@CSNPs@CD56). The pSMP-EzH2 shRNA plasmid was encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles followed by CD56 antibody conjugation through EDC-NHS chemistry. CD56 antibody-conjugated nanoparticles selectively target CD56+ NK cells and downregulate EzH2 expression in CD56+ NK cells of human PBMCs. The in vitro CD56+ CD3- NK cells were enriched and stably suppressed EzH2 expression to prepare adoptive CD56+ CD3- NK (EzH2-) cells for anti-AML immunotherapy. The in vitro NK (EzH2-) cells and pEzH2@CSNPs@CD56 reduced splenomegaly while immunophenotyping revealed in vivo downregulation of the c-Kit+ leukemia stem cell population along with upregulation of the differentiation markers CD11b and Gr-1 in the peripheral blood and bone marrow of AML1-ETO9a-induced xenograft nude mice. CD56+CD3- and CD56+CD38+ cell populations were significantly increased in the peripheral blood and bone marrow, which indicated NK cell-mediated AML cell killing took place suggesting that use of pEzH2@CSNPs@CD56 is a safe and viable strategy for NK cell-mediated anti-AML immunotherapy.

Engineered zwitterionic diblock copolymer-siRNA polyplexes provide highly effective treatment of triple-negative breast cancer in a 4T1 murine model

Self-assembly of siRNA with a block copolymer featuring guanidinium and zwitterion functionalized blocks generates core-shell-like nanovectors that provide cytosolic access to siRNA and efficiently evade phagocytic clearance. The guanidinium-functionalized inner block complexes siRNA in the nanovector interior and enables cytosolic delivery. The zwitterionic outer block provides a non-interacting shell on the nanovectors that reduces macrophage uptake in vitro and phagocytic clearance and enhances tumor localization in vivo. These nanovectors were used to treat a 4T1 (murine) model of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). The nanovectors deliver siRNA efficiently to 4T1 triple-negative breast cancer cells in vitro, with high selectivity relative to macrophages. This efficiency and selectivity translate into in vivo efficacy: diblock nanovectors evaded phagocytic clearance and efficiently localized in an aggressive murine 4T1 orthotopic model, with a ~3-fold increase of vector residing in the tumor compared to the homopolymer nanovectors. This increased localization efficiently knocked down STAT3 (~80%) and provided tumorostasis (100% growth inhibition) at a low dose of 0.14 mg/kg. The in vitro and in vivo efficacy of these nanovectors demonstrate the potential of engineered polymer architectures to generate effective self-assembled siRNA therapeutics that avoid phagocytic clearance for the treatment of diseases requiring systemic administration.

Recent advancements in small interfering RNA based therapeutic approach on breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common and malignant tumor diagnosed in women, with 2.9 million cases in 2023 and the fifth highest cancer-causing mortality worldwide. Recent developments in targeted therapy options for BC have demonstrated the promising potential of small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based cancer therapeutic approaches. As BC continues to be a global burden, siRNA therapy emerges as a potential treatment strategy to regulate disease-related genes in other types of cancers, including BC. siRNAs are tiny RNA molecules that, by preventing their expression, can specifically silence genes linked to the development of cancer. In order to increase the stability and effectiveness of siRNA delivery to BC cells, minimize off-target effects, and improve treatment efficacy, advanced delivery technologies such as lipid nanoparticles and nanocarriers have been created. Additionally, combination therapies, such as siRNAs that target multiple pathways are used in conjunction with conventional chemotherapy agents, have shown synergistic effects in various preclinical studies, opening up new treatment options for breast cancer that are personalized and precision medicine-oriented. Targeting important genes linked to BC growth, metastasis, and chemo-resistance has been reported in BC research using siRNA-based therapies. This study reviews recent reports on therapeutic approaches to siRNA for advanced treatment of BC. Furthermore, this review evaluates the role and mechanisms of siRNA in BC and demonstrates the potential of exploiting siRNA as a novel target for BC therapy.

Enhancing siRNA cancer therapy: Multifaceted strategies with lipid and polymer-based carrier systems

Cancers are increasing in prevalence and many challenges remain for their treatment, such as chemoresistance and toxicity. In this context, siRNA-based therapeutics have many potential advantages for cancer therapies as a result of their ability to reduce or prevent expression of specific cancer-related genes. However, the direct delivery of naked siRNA is hindered by issues like enzymatic degradation, insufficient cellular uptake, and poor pharmacokinetics. Hence, the discovery of a safe and efficient delivery vehicle is essential. This review explores various lipid and polymer-based delivery systems for siRNA in cancer treatment. Both polymers and lipids have garnered considerable attention as carriers for siRNA delivery. While all of these systems protect siRNA and enhance transfection efficacy, each exhibits its unique strengths. Lipid-based delivery systems, for instance, demonstrate high entrapment efficacy and utilize cost-effective materials. Conversely, polymeric-based delivery systems offer advantages through chemical modifications. Nonetheless, certain drawbacks still limit their usage. To address these limitations, combining different materials in formulations (lipid, polymer, or targeting agent) could enhance pharmaceutical properties, boost transfection efficacy, and reduce side effects. Furthermore, co-delivery of siRNA with other therapeutic agents presents a promising strategy to overcome cancer resistance. Lipid-based delivery systems have been demonstrated to encapsulate many therapeutic agents and with high efficiency, but most are limited in terms of the functionalities they display. In contrast, polymeric-based delivery systems can be chemically modified by a wide variety of routes to include multiple components, such as release or targeting elements, from the same materials backbone. Accordingly, by incorporating multiple materials such as lipids, polymers, and/or targeting agents in RNA formulations it is possible to improve the pharmaceutical properties and therapeutic efficacy while reducing side effects. This review focuses on strategies to improve siRNA cancer treatments and discusses future prospects in this important field.

Therapeutic delivery of siRNA for the management of breast cancer and triple-negative breast cancer

Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths among women globally. The difficulties with anticancer medications, such as ineffective targeting, larger doses, toxicity to healthy cells and side effects, have prompted attention to alternate approaches to address these difficulties. RNA interference by small interfering RNA (siRNA) is one such tactic. When compared with chemotherapy, siRNA has several advantages, including the ability to quickly modify and suppress the expression of the target gene and display superior efficacy and safety. However, there are known challenges and hurdles that limits their clinical translation. Decomposition by endonucleases, renal clearance, hydrophilicity, negative surface charge, short half-life and off-target effects of naked siRNA are obstacles that hinder the desired biological activity of naked siRNA. Nanoparticulate systems such as polymeric, lipid, lipid-polymeric, metallic, mesoporous silica nanoparticles and several other nanocarriers were used for effective delivery of siRNA and to knock down genes involved in breast cancer and triple-negative breast cancer. The focus of this review is to provide a comprehensive picture of various strategies utilized for delivering siRNA, such as combinatorial delivery, development of modified nanoparticles, smart nanocarriers and nanocarriers that target angiogenesis, cancer stem cells and metastasis of breast cancer.

The roles and mechanisms of coding and noncoding RNA variations in cancer

Functional variations in coding and noncoding RNAs are crucial in tumorigenesis, with cancer-specific alterations often resulting from chemical modifications and posttranscriptional processes mediated by enzymes. These RNA variations have been linked to tumor cell proliferation, growth, metastasis, and drug resistance and are valuable for identifying diagnostic or prognostic cancer biomarkers. The diversity of posttranscriptional RNA modifications, such as splicing, polyadenylation, methylation, and editing, is particularly significant due to their prevalence and impact on cancer progression. Additionally, other modifications, including RNA acetylation, circularization, miRNA isomerization, and pseudouridination, are recognized as key contributors to cancer development. Understanding the mechanisms underlying these RNA modifications in cancer can enhance our knowledge of cancer biology and facilitate the development of innovative therapeutic strategies. Targeting these RNA modifications and their regulatory enzymes may pave the way for novel RNA-based therapies, enabling tailored interventions for specific cancer subtypes. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the roles and mechanisms of various coding and noncoding RNA modifications in cancer progression and highlights recent advancements in RNA-based therapeutic applications.

Advances in siRNA Drug Delivery Strategies for Targeted TNBC Therapy

Among breast cancers, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) has been recognized as the most aggressive type with a poor prognosis and low survival rate. Targeted therapy for TNBC is challenging because it lacks estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). Chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgery are the common therapies for TNBC. Although TNBC is prone to chemotherapy, drug resistance and recurrence are commonly associated with treatment failure. Combination therapy approaches using chemotherapy, mAbs, ADC, and antibody-siRNA conjugates may be effective in TNBC. Recent advances with siRNA-based therapy approaches are promising for TNBC therapy with better prognosis and reduced mortality. This review discusses advances in nanomaterial- and nanobiomaterial-based siRNA delivery platforms for TNBC therapy exploring targeted therapy approaches for major genes, proteins, and TFs upregulated in TNBC tumors, which engage in molecular pathways associated with low TNBC prognosis. Bioengineered siRNA drugs targeting one or several genes simultaneously can downregulate desired genes, significantly reducing disease progression.

A systematic review of non-coding RNA therapeutics in early clinical trials: a new perspective against cancer

Targeting non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), has recently emerged as a promising strategy for treating malignancies and other diseases. In recent years, the development of ncRNA-based therapeutics for targeting protein-coding and non-coding genes has also gained momentum. This review systematically examines ongoing and completed clinical trials to provide a comprehensive overview of the emerging landscape of ncRNA-based therapeutics. Significant efforts have been made to advance ncRNA therapeutics to early clinical studies. The most advanced trials have been conducted with small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), miRNA replacement using nanovector-entrapped miRNA mimics, or miRNA silencing by antisense oligonucleotides. While siRNA-based therapeutics have already received FDA approval, miRNA mimics, inhibitors, and lncRNA-based therapeutics are still under evaluation in preclinical and early clinical studies. We critically discuss the rationale and methodologies of ncRNA targeting strategies to illustrate this rapidly evolving field.

Targeting pediatric solid tumors in the new era of RNA therapeutics

Despite substantial progress in pediatric cancer treatment, poor prognosis remained for patients with recurrent or metastatic disease, given the limitations of approved targeted treatments and immunotherapies. RNA therapeutics offer significant potential for addressing a broad spectrum of diseases, including cancer. Advances in manufacturing and delivery systems are paving the way for the rapid development of therapeutic RNAs for clinical applications. This review summarizes therapeutic RNA classifications and the mechanisms of action, highlighting their potential in manipulating major cancer-related pathways and biological effects. We also focus on the pre-clinical investigation of RNA molecules with efficient delivery systems for their therapeutic potential targeting pediatric solid tumors.

Biomimetic Nucleic Acid Drug Delivery Systems for Relieving Tumor Immunosuppressive Microenvironment

Immunotherapy combats tumors by enhancing the body's immune surveillance and clearance of tumor cells. Various nucleic acid drugs can be used in immunotherapy, such as DNA expressing cytokines, mRNA tumor vaccines, small interfering RNAs (siRNA) knocking down immunosuppressive molecules, and oligonucleotides that can be used as immune adjuvants. Nucleic acid drugs, which are prone to nuclease degradation in the circulation and find it difficult to enter the target cells, typically necessitate developing appropriate vectors for effective in vivo delivery. Biomimetic drug delivery systems, derived from viruses, bacteria, and cells, can protect the cargos from degradation and clearance, and deliver them to the target cells to ensure safety. Moreover, they can activate the immune system through their endogenous activities and active components, thereby improving the efficacy of antitumor immunotherapeutic nucleic acid drugs. In this review, biomimetic nucleic acid delivery systems for relieving a tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment are introduced. Their immune activation mechanisms, including upregulating the proinflammatory cytokines, serving as tumor vaccines, inhibiting immune checkpoints, and modulating intratumoral immune cells, are elaborated. The advantages and disadvantages, as well as possible directions for their clinical translation, are summarized at last.

Effect of a novel siRNA delivery system, siRNA ternary complex, on melanoma lung metastasis

In this study, we determined effects of an anionic siRNA delivery vector, siRNA ternary complex, which is constructed with biodegradable dendrigraft poly-L-lysine (DGL) and γ-polyglutamic acid (γ-PGA) on the melanoma cells and melanoma lung metastasis. The siRNA ternary complex showed high cellular uptake and silencing effect in melanoma cell line B16-F10/Luc cells. After intravenous administration of the siRNA ternary complex, high silencing effect was also observed in the lung of B16-F10/Luc melanoma metastasis model mice. Therefore, we applied vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-siRNA on the siRNA ternary complex and determined the effect on the melanoma lung metastasis. The siRNA ternary complex containing VEGF-siRNA reduced VEGF protein levels significantly in in vitro and in vivo, and the complex successfully inhibited melanoma lung metastasis. This biodegradable and effective siRNA delivery vector, siRNA ternary complex, could be available for clinical trials.

The Role of Inhaled Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles in Lung Cancer Therapy

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide, largely due to the limited efficacy of anticancer drugs, which is primarily attributed to insufficient doses reaching the lungs. Additionally, patients undergoing treatment experience severe systemic adverse effects due to the distribution of anticancer drugs to non-targeted sites. In light of these challenges, there has been a growing interest in pulmonary administration of drugs for the treatment of lung cancer. This route allows drugs to be delivered directly to the lungs, resulting in high local concentrations that can enhance antitumor efficacy while mitigating systemic toxic effects. However, pulmonary administration poses the challenge of overcoming the mechanical, chemical, and immunological defenses of the respiratory tract that prevent the inhaled drug from properly penetrating the lungs. To overcome these drawbacks, the use of nanoparticles in inhaler formulations may be a promising strategy. Nanoparticles can assist in minimizing drug clearance, increasing penetration into the lung epithelium, and enhancing cellular uptake. They can also facilitate increased drug stability, promote controlled drug release, and delivery to target sites, such as the tumor environment. Among them, chitosan-based nanoparticles demonstrate advantages over other polymeric nanocarriers due to their unique biological properties, including antitumor activity and mucoadhesive capacity. These properties have the potential to enhance the efficacy of the drug when administered via the pulmonary route. In view of the above, this paper provides an overview of the research conducted on the delivery of anticancer drug-loaded chitosan-based nanoparticles incorporated into inhaled drug delivery devices for the treatment of lung cancer. Furthermore, the article addresses the use of emerging technologies, such as siRNA (small interfering RNA), in the context of lung cancer therapy. Particularly, recent studies employing chitosan-based nanoparticles for siRNA delivery via the pulmonary route are described.

Emerging Applications of Nanoparticles in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer remains the most prevalent cancer among women worldwide, driving the urgent need for innovative approaches to diagnosis and treatment. This review highlights the pivotal role of nanoparticles in revolutionizing breast cancer management through advancements of interconnected approaches including targeted therapy, imaging, and personalized medicine. Nanoparticles, with their unique physicochemical properties, have shown significant promise in addressing current treatment limitations such as drug resistance and nonspecific systemic distribution. Applications range from enhancing drug delivery systems for targeted and sustained release to developing innovative diagnostic tools for early and precise detection of metastases. Moreover, the integration of nanoparticles into photothermal therapy and their synergistic use with existing treatments, such as immunotherapy, illustrate their transformative potential in cancer care. However, the journey towards clinical adoption is fraught with challenges, including the chemical feasibility, biodistribution, efficacy, safety concerns, scalability, and regulatory hurdles. This review delves into the current state of nanoparticle research, their applications in breast cancer therapy and diagnosis, and the obstacles that must be overcome for clinical integration.

Pharmaceutical Nanoplatforms Based on Self-nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery Systems for Optimal Transport and Co-delivery of siRNAs and Anticancer Drugs

Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) have the ability to induce selective gene silencing, although siRNAs are vulnerable to degradation in vivo. Various active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are currently used as effective therapeutics in the treatment of cancer. However, routes of administration are limited due to their physicochemical and biopharmaceutical properties. This research aimed to develop oral pharmaceutical formulations based on self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) for optimal transport and co-delivery of siRNAs related to cancer and APIs. Formulations were developed using optimal mixing design (Design-Expert 11 software) for SNEDDS loading with siRNA (water/oil emulsion), API (oil/water emulsion), and siRNA-API (multiphase water/oil/water emulsion). The final formulations were characterized physicochemically and biologically. The nanosystems less than 50 nm in size had a drug loading above 48 %. The highest drug release occurred at intestinal pH, allowing drug protection in physiological fluids. SNEDDS-siRNA-APIs showed a twofold toxicity effect than APIs in solution and higher transfection and internalization of siRNA in cancer cells with respect to free siRNAs. In the duodenum, higher permeability was observed with SNEDDS-API than with the API solution, as determined by ex-vivo fluorescence microscopy. The multifunctional formulation based on SNEDDS was successfully prepared, siRNA, hydrophobic chemotherapeutics (doxorubicin, valrubicin and methotrexate) and photosensitizers (rhodamine b and protoporphyrin IX) agents were loaded, using a chitosan-RNA core, and Labrafil® M 1944 CS, Cremophor® RH40, phosphatidylcholine shell, forming stable hybrid SNEDDS as multiphasic emulsion, suitable as co-delivery system with a potent anticancer activity.

RNA biomarkers in cancer therapeutics: The promise of personalized oncology

Cancer therapy is a rapidly evolving and constantly expanding field. Current approaches include surgery, conventional chemotherapy and novel biologic agents as in immunotherapy, that together compose a wide armamentarium. The plethora of choices can, however, be clinically challenging in prescribing the most suitable treatment for any given patient. Fortunately, biomarkers can greatly facilitate the most appropriate selection. In recent years, RNA-based biomarkers have proven most promising. These molecules that range from small noncoding RNAs to protein coding gene transcripts can be valuable in cancer management and especially in cancer therapeutics. Compared to their DNA counterparts which are stable throughout treatment, RNA-biomarkers are dynamic. This allows prediction of success prior to treatment start and can identify alterations in expression that could reflect response. Moreover, improved nucleic acid technology allows RNA to be extracted from practically every biofluid/matrix and evaluated with exceedingly high analytic sensitivity. In addition, samples are largely obtained by minimally invasive procedures and as such can be used serially to assess treatment response real-time. This chapter provides the reader insight on currently known RNA biomarkers, the latest research employing Artificial Intelligence in the identification of such molecules and in clinical decisions driving forward the era of personalized oncology.

Nucleic acid-based drugs for patients with solid tumours

The treatment of patients with advanced-stage solid tumours typically involves a multimodality approach (including surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, targeted therapy and/or immunotherapy), which is often ultimately ineffective. Nucleic acid-based drugs, either as monotherapies or in combination with standard-of-care therapies, are rapidly emerging as novel treatments capable of generating responses in otherwise refractory tumours. These therapies include those using viral vectors (also referred to as gene therapies), several of which have now been approved by regulatory agencies, and nanoparticles containing mRNAs and a range of other nucleotides. In this Review, we describe the development and clinical activity of viral and non-viral nucleic acid-based treatments, including their mechanisms of action, tolerability and available efficacy data from patients with solid tumours. We also describe the effects of the tumour microenvironment on drug delivery for both systemically administered and locally administered agents. Finally, we discuss important trends resulting from ongoing clinical trials and preclinical testing, and manufacturing and/or stability considerations that are expected to underpin the next generation of nucleic acid agents for patients with solid tumours.

Harnessing the potential of nanoengineered siRNAs carriers for target responsive glioma therapy: Recent progress and future opportunities

Past scientific testimonials in the field of glioma research, the deadliest tumor among all brain cancer types with the life span of 10-15 months after diagnosis is considered as glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). Even though the availability of treatment options such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery, are unable to completely cure GBM due to tumor microenvironment complexity, intrinsic cellular signalling, and genetic mutations which are involved in chemoresistance. The blood-brain barrier is accountable for restricting drugs entry at the tumor location and related biological challenges like endocytic degradation, short systemic circulation, and insufficient cellular penetration lead to tumor aggression and progression. The above stated challenges can be better mitigated by small interfering RNAs (siRNA) by knockdown genes responsible for tumor progression and resistance. However, siRNA encounters with challenges like inefficient cellular transfection, short circulation time, endogenous degradation, and off-target effects. The novel functionalized nanocarrier approach in conjunction with biological and chemical modification offers an intriguing potential to address challenges associated with the naked siRNA and efficiently silence STAT3, coffilin-1, EGFR, VEGF, SMO, MGMT, HAO-1, GPX-4, TfR, LDLR and galectin-1 genes in GBM tumor. This review highlights the nanoengineered siRNA carriers, their recent advancements, future perspectives, and strategies to overcome the systemic siRNA delivery challenges for glioma treatment.

Nanocarrier-mediated cancer therapy with cisplatin: A meta-analysis with a promising new paradigm

Aims

Cisplatin is a frontline chemotherapeutic utilized to attenuate multiple cancers in the clinic. Given its side-effects, a new cisplatin formulation which could prevent cytotoxicity, metabolic deficiencies and metastasis is much needed. This study investigates whether nanocarriers can provide a better mode of drug delivery in preclinical cancer models seeking a potent anticancer therapeutic agent.

Materials and methods

The PubMed database was searched, and 242 research articles were screened from which 94 articles qualified for selection from those published by December 31, 2023 and the data was synthesized using the Review Manager software.

Key findings

Cisplatin encapsulated as a nanomedicine confirmed the versatility of nanocarriers in significantly diminishing cancer cell viability, half maximal inhibitory concentration, tumour volume, biodistribution of platinum in tumours and kidney; at p < 0.00001 and a 95% confidence interval.

Significance

An estimated 19.3 million global cancer incidence is reported with 50% mortality worldwide for which nanocarrier-mediated cisplatin therapy is most promising. Our findings offer new vistas for future cancer treatment when combined with chemo-immunotherapy that utilizes the recently advanced nanozymes.

Patient-Derived Exosomes as siRNA Carriers in Ovarian Cancer Treatment

RNA interference is a powerful gene-silencing tool with potential clinical applications. However, its therapeutic use is challenging because suitable carriers are unavailable. Exosomes are stable small endogenous vesicles that can transport functional molecules to target cells, making them ideal small interfering RNA (siRNA) carriers. Herein, we elucidated the therapeutic potential of patient-derived exosomes as an siRNA carrier for ovarian cancer (OC) treatment. The exosomes were extracted from the culture medium of primary fibroblasts collected from the omentum of patients with OC during surgery. MET proto-oncogene, receptor tyrosine kinase (MET) was selected for gene silencing, c-Met siRNAs were synthesized and loaded into the exosomes (Met-siExosomes) via electroporation, and the treatment effect of the Met-siExosomes was assessed in vitro and in vivo. The Met-siExosomes downregulated the c-Met protein levels and inhibited OC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. In xenograft experiments using SKOV3-13 and ES-2 cells, Met-siExosomes were selectively extracted from peritoneally disseminated tumors. Intraperitoneal treatment suppressed the c-Met downstream targets in cancer cells and prolonged mouse survival. The synthesized siRNAs were successfully and selectively delivered via the exosomes to intraperitoneally disseminated tumors. As patients with OC routinely undergo omentectomy and abundant fibroblasts can be easily collected from the omentum, patient-derived exosomes may represent a promising therapeutic siRNA carrier to treat OC.

A drug delivery strategy emerges that has the potential to transform cancer therapy

The shortcomings of current approaches to treating cancer are driving the need for novel, innovative strategies that reduce the toxicity associated with chemotherapy and improve on the limited efficacy of immunotherapy. We believe that dual delivery of small interfering RNA (siRNA) via a suitable delivery system, with or without a relevant, additional, small-molecule therapeutic agent, will herald new era of treatment efficiency in cancer.

RNA therapeutics: Molecular mechanisms, and potential clinical translations

RNA therapies involve the utilization of natural and artificial RNA molecules to control the expression and function of cellular genes and proteins. Initializing from 1990s, RNA therapies now show the rapid growth in the development and application of RNA therapeutics for treating various conditions, especially for undruggable diseases. The outstanding success of recent mRNA vaccines against COVID-19 infection again highlighted the important role of RNA therapies in future medicine. In this review, we will first briefly provide the crucial investigations on RNA therapy, from the first pieces of discovery on RNA molecules to clinical applications of RNA therapeutics. We will then classify the mechanisms of RNA therapeutics from various classes in the treatment of diseases. To emphasize the huge potential of RNA therapies, we also provide the key RNA products that have been on clinical trials or already FDA-approved. With comprehensive knowledge on RNA biology, and the advances in analysis, technology and computer-aid science, RNA therapies can bring a promise to be more expanding to the market in the future.

Toward the Scalable, Rapid, Reproducible, and Cost-Effective Synthesis of Personalized Nanomedicines at the Point of Care

Organic nanoparticles are used in nanomedicine, including for cancer treatment and some types of COVID-19 vaccines. Here, we demonstrate the scalable, rapid, reproducible, and cost-effective synthesis of three model organic nanoparticle formulations relevant to nanomedicine applications. We employed a custom-made, low-cost fluid mixer device constructed from a commercially available three-dimensional printer. We investigated how systematically changing aqueous and organic volumetric flow rate ratios determined liposome, polymer nanoparticle, and solid lipid nanoparticle sizes, size distributions, and payload encapsulation efficiencies. By manipulating inlet volumes, we synthesized organic nanoparticles with encapsulation efficiencies approaching 100% for RNA-based payloads. The synthesized organic nanoparticles were safe and effective at the cell culture level, as demonstrated by various assays. Such cost-effective synthesis approaches could potentially increase the accessibility to clinically relevant organic nanoparticle formulations for personalized nanomedicine applications at the point of care, especially in nonhospital and low-resource settings.

Inorganic nanocarriers for siRNA delivery for cancer treatments

RNA interference is one of the emerging methodologies utilized in the treatment of a wide variety of diseases including cancer. This method specifically uses therapeutic RNAs (TpRNAs) like small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) to regulate/silence the cancer-linked genes, thereby minimizing the distinct activities of the cancer cells while aiding in their apoptosis. But, many complications arise during the transport/delivery of these TpRNAs that include poor systemic circulation, instability/degradation inside the body environment, no targeting capacity and also low cellular internalization. These difficulties can be overcome by using nanocarriers to deliver the TpRNAs inside the cancer cells. The following are the various categories of nanocarriers-viral vectors (e.g. lentivirus and adenovirus) and non-viral nanocarriers (self-assembling nanocarriers and inorganic nanocarriers). Viral vectors suffer from disadvantages like high immunogenicity compared to the non-viral nanocarriers. Among non-viral nanocarriers, inorganic nanocarriers gained significant attention as their inherent properties (like magnetic properties) can aid in the effective cellular delivery of the TpRNAs. Most of the prior reports have discussed about the delivery of TpRNAs through self-assembling nanocarriers; however very few have reviewed about their delivery using the inorganic nanoparticles. Therefore, in this review, we have mainly focussed on the delivery of TpRNAs-i.e. siRNA, especially programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1), survivin, B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), vascular endothelial growth factor and other siRNAs using the inorganic nanoparticles-mainly magnetic, metal and silica nanoparticles. Moreover, we have also discussed about the combined delivery of these TpRNAs along with chemotherapeutic drugs (mainly doxorubicin) andin vitroandin vivotherapeutic effectiveness.

The Effect of Silencing Fatty Acid Elongase 4 and 6 Genes on the Proliferation and Migration of Colorectal Cancer Cells

Colorectal cancer (CRC) cells show some alterations in lipid metabolism, including an increased fatty acid elongation. This study was focused on investigating the effect of a small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated decrease in fatty acid elongation on CRC cells' survival and migration. In our study, the elongase 4 (ELOVL4) and elongase 6 (ELOVL6) genes were observed to be highly overexpressed in both the CRC tissue obtained from patients and the CRC cells cultured in vitro (HT-29 and WiDr cell lines). The use of the siRNAs for ELOVL4 and ELOVL6 reduced cancer cell proliferation and migration rates. These findings indicate that the altered elongation process decreased the survival of CRC cells, and in the future, fatty acid elongases can be potentially good targets in novel CRC therapy.

Nano-scale delivery systems for siRNA delivery in cancer therapy: New era of gene therapy empowered by nanotechnology

RNA interference (RNAi) is a unique treatment approach used to decrease a disease's excessive gene expression, including cancer. SiRNAs may find and destroy homologous mRNA sequences within the cell thanks to RNAi processes. However, difficulties such poor cellular uptake, off-target effects, and susceptibility to destruction by serum nucleases in the bloodstream restrict the therapeutic potential of siRNAs. Since some years ago, siRNA-based therapies have been in the process of being translated into the clinic. Therefore, the primary emphasis of this work is on sophisticated nanocarriers that aid in the transport of siRNA payloads, their administration in combination with anticancer medications, and their use in the treatment of cancer. The research looks into molecular manifestations, difficulties with siRNA transport, the design and development of siRNA-based delivery methods, and the benefits and drawbacks of various nanocarriers. The trapping of siRNA in endosomes is a challenge for the majority of delivery methods, which affects the therapeutic effectiveness. Numerous techniques for siRNA release, including as pH-responsive release, membrane fusion, the proton sponge effect, and photochemical disruption, have been studied to overcome this problem. The present state of siRNA treatments in clinical trials is also looked at in order to give a thorough and systematic evaluation of siRNA-based medicines for efficient cancer therapy.

Oligonucleotide-Based Therapeutics for STAT3 Targeting in Cancer-Drug Carriers Matter

High expression and phosphorylation of signal transducer and transcription activator 3 (STAT3) are correlated with progression and poor prognosis in various types of cancer. The constitutive activation of STAT3 in cancer affects processes such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis, angiogenesis, and drug resistance. The importance of STAT3 in cancer makes it a potential therapeutic target. Various methods of directly and indirectly blocking STAT3 activity at different steps of the STAT3 pathway have been investigated. However, the outcome has been limited, mainly by the number of upstream proteins that can reactivate STAT3 or the relatively low specificity of the inhibitors. A new branch of molecules with significant therapeutic potential has emerged thanks to recent developments in the regulatory function of non-coding nucleic acids. Oligonucleotide-based therapeutics can silence target transcripts or edit genes, leading to the modification of gene expression profiles, causing cell death or restoring cell function. Moreover, they can reach untreatable targets, such as transcription factors. This review briefly describes oligonucleotide-based therapeutics that found application to target STAT3 activity in cancer. Additionally, this review comprehensively summarizes how the inhibition of STAT3 activity by nucleic acid-based therapeutics such as siRNA, shRNA, ASO, and ODN-decoy affected the therapy of different types of cancer in preclinical and clinical studies. Moreover, due to some limitations of oligonucleotide-based therapeutics, the importance of carriers that can deliver nucleic acid molecules to affect the STAT3 in cancer cells and cells of the tumor microenvironment (TME) was pointed out. Combining a high specificity of oligonucleotide-based therapeutics toward their targets and functionalized nanoparticles toward cell type can generate very efficient formulations.

Advances in siRNA delivery approaches in cancer therapy: challenges and opportunities

Advancements in the clinical applications of small interfering RNA (siRNA) in cancer therapy have opened up new possibilities for precision medicine. siRNAs, as powerful genetic tools, have shown potential in targeting and suppressing the expression of specific genes associated with cancer progression. Their effectiveness has been further enhanced by incorporating them into nanoparticles, which protect siRNAs from degradation and enable targeted delivery. However, despite these promising developments, several challenges persist in the clinical translation of siRNA-based cancer therapy. This comprehensive review explores the progress and challenges associated with the clinical applications of siRNA in cancer therapy. This review highlights the use of siRNA-loaded nanoparticles as an effective delivery system for optimizing siRNA efficacy in various types of carcinomas and the potential of siRNA-based therapy as a genetic approach to overcome limitations associated with conventional chemotherapeutic agents, including severe drug toxicities and organ damage. Moreover, it emphasizes on the key challenges, including off-target effects, enzymatic degradation of siRNAs in serum, low tumor localization, stability issues, and rapid clearance from circulation that need to be addressed for successful clinical development of siRNA-based cancer therapy. Despite these challenges, the review identifies significant avenues for advancing siRNA technology from the laboratory to clinical settings. The ongoing progress in siRNA-loaded nanoparticles for cancer treatment demonstrates potential antitumor activities and safety profiles. By understanding the current state of siRNA-based therapy and addressing the existing challenges, we aim to pave the way for translating siRNA technology into effective oncologic clinics as an improved treatment options for cancer patients.

Liposomal nanocarriers containing siRNA as small molecule-based drugs to overcome cancer drug resistance

This review discusses the application of nanoliposomes containing siRNA/drug to overcome multidrug resistance for all types of cancer treatments. As drug resistance-associated factors are overexpressed in many cancer cell types, pumping chemotherapy drugs out of the cytoplasm leads to an inadequate therapeutic response. The siRNA/drug-loaded nanoliposomes are a promising approach to treating multidrug-resistant cancer, as they can effectively transmit a small-molecule drug into the target cytoplasm, ensuring that the drug binds efficiently. Moreover, nanoliposome-based therapeutics with advances in nanotechnology can effectively deliver siRNA to cancer cells. Overall, nanoliposomes have the potential to effectively deliver siRNA and small-molecule drugs in a targeted manner and are thus a promising tool for the treatment of cancer and other diseases.