A Comprehensive Overview on the Production of Vaccines in Plant-Based Expression Systems and the Scope of Plant Biotechnology to Combat against SARS-CoV-2 Virus Pandemics

The SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Receptor-Binding Domain Expressed in Rice Callus Features a Homogeneous Mix of Complex-Type Glycans

The spike protein receptor-binding domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 is required for the infection of human cells. It is the main target that elicits neutralizing antibodies and also a major component of diagnostic kits. The large demand for this protein has led to the use of plants as a production platform. However, it is necessary to determine the N-glycan structures of an RBD to investigate its efficacy and functionality as a vaccine candidate or diagnostic reagent. Here, we analyzed the N-glycan profile of the RBD produced in rice callus. Of the two potential N-glycan acceptor sites, we found that one was not utilized and the other contained a mixture of complex-type N-glycans. This differs from the heterogeneous mixture of N-glycans found when an RBD is expressed in other hosts, including Nicotiana benthamiana. By comparing the glycosylation profiles of different hosts, we can select platforms that produce RBDs with the most beneficial N-glycan structures for different applications.

High-quality chromosome-level genome assembly of Nicotiana benthamiana

Nicotiana benthamiana is a fundamental model organism in plant research. Recent advancements in genomic sequencing have revealed significant intraspecific genetic variations. This study addresses the pressing need for a precise genome sequence specific to its geographic origin by presenting a comprehensive genome assembly of the N. benthamiana LAB strain from the Republic of Korea (NbKLAB). We compare this assembly with the widely used NbLAB360 strain, shedding light on essential genomic differences between them. The outcome is a high-quality, chromosome-level genome assembly comprising 19 chromosomes, spanning 2,762 Mb, with an N50 of 142.6 Mb. Comparative analyses revealed notable variations, including 46,215 protein-coding genes, with an impressive 99.5% BUSCO completeness score. Furthermore, the NbKLAB assembly substantially improved the QV from 33% for NbLAB360 to 49%. This refined chromosomal genome assembly for N. benthamiana, in conjunction with comparative insights, provides a valuable resource for genomics research and molecular biology. This accomplishment forms a strong foundation for in-depth exploration into the intricacies of plant genetics and genomics, improved precision, and a comparative framework.

E and M SARS-CoV-2 membrane protein expression and enrichment with plant lipid droplets

Plants are gaining traction as a cost-effective and scalable platform for producing recombinant proteins. However, expressing integral membrane proteins in plants is challenging due to their hydrophobic nature. In our study, we used transient and stable expression systems in Nicotiana benthamiana and Camelina sativa respectively to express SARS-CoV-2 E and M integral proteins, and target them to lipid droplets (LDs). LDs offer an ideal environment for folding hydrophobic proteins and aid in their purification through flotation. We tested various protein fusions with different linkers and tags and used three dimensional structure predictions to assess their effects. E and M mostly localized in the ER in N. benthamiana leaves but E could be targeted to LDs in oil accumulating tobacco when fused with oleosin, a LD integral protein. In Camelina sativa seeds, E and M were however found associated with purified LDs. By enhancing the accumulation of E and M within LDs through oleosin, we enriched these proteins in the purified floating fraction. This strategy provides an alternative approach for efficiently producing and purifying hydrophobic pharmaceuticals and vaccines using plant systems.

Current Advances of Plant-Based Vaccines for Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are characterized by the progressive degeneration and/or loss of neurons belonging to the central nervous system, and represent one of the major global health issues. Therefore, a number of immunotherapeutic approaches targeting the non-functional or toxic proteins that induce neurodegeneration in NDDs have been designed in the last decades. In this context, due to unprecedented advances in genetic engineering techniques and molecular farming technology, pioneering plant-based immunogenic antigen expression systems have been developed aiming to offer reliable alternatives to deal with important NDDs, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and multiple sclerosis. Diverse reports have evidenced that plant-made vaccines trigger significant immune responses in model animals, supported by the production of antibodies against the aberrant proteins expressed in the aforementioned NDDs. Moreover, these immunogenic tools have various advantages that make them a viable alternative for preventing and treating NDDs, such as high scalability, no risk of contamination with human pathogens, cold chain free production, and lower production costs. Hence, this article presents an overview of the current progress on plant-manufactured vaccines for NDDs and discusses its future prospects.

Efficient expression of fusion human epidermal growth factor in tobacco chloroplasts

BACKGROUND

Chloroplast transformation is a robust technology for the expression of recombinant proteins. Various types of pharmaceutical proteins including growth factors have been reported in chloroplasts via chloroplast transformation approach at high expression levels. However, high expression of epidermal growth factor (EGF) in chloroplasts with the technology is still unavailable.

RESULTS

The present work explored the high-level expression of recombinant EGF, a protein widely applied in many clinical therapies, in tobacco chloroplasts. In this work, homoplastic transgenic plants expressing fusion protein GFP-EGF, which was composed of GFP and EGF via a linker, were generated. The expression of GFP-EGF was confirmed by the combination of green fluorescent observation and Western blotting. The achieved accumulation of the recombinant fusion GFP-EGF was 10.21 ± 0.27% of total soluble proteins (1.57 ± 0.05 g kg^- 1 of fresh leaf). The chloroplast-derived GFP-EGF was capable of increasing the cell viability of the NSLC cell line A549 and enhancing the phosphorylation level of the EGF receptor in the A549 cells.

CONCLUSION

The expression of recombinant EGF in tobacco chloroplasts via chloroplast transformation method was achieved at considerable accumulation level. The attempt gives a good example for the application of chloroplast transformation technology in recombinant pharmaceutical protein production.

Three Parts of the Plant Genome: On the Way to Success in the Production of Recombinant Proteins

Recombinant proteins are the most important product of current industrial biotechnology. They are indispensable in medicine (for diagnostics and treatment), food and chemical industries, and research. Plant cells combine advantages of the eukaryotic protein production system with simplicity and efficacy of the bacterial one. The use of plants for the production of recombinant proteins is an economically important and promising area that has emerged as an alternative to traditional approaches. This review discusses advantages of plant systems for the expression of recombinant proteins using nuclear, plastid, and mitochondrial genomes. Possibilities, problems, and prospects of modifications of the three parts of the genome in light of obtaining producer plants are examined. Examples of successful use of the nuclear expression platform for production of various biopharmaceuticals, veterinary drugs, and technologically important proteins are described, as are examples of a high yield of recombinant proteins upon modification of the chloroplast genome. Potential utility of plant mitochondria as an expression system for the production of recombinant proteins and its advantages over the nucleus and chloroplasts are substantiated. Although these opportunities have not yet been exploited, potential utility of plant mitochondria as an expression system for the production of recombinant proteins and its advantages over the nucleus and chloroplasts are substantiated.

Harnessing the Potential of Plant Expression System towards the Production of Vaccines for the Prevention of Human Papillomavirus and Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer is the most common gynecological malignant tumor worldwide, and it remains a major health problem among women, especially in developing countries. Despite the significant research efforts employed for tumor prevention, cervical cancer ranks as the leading cause of cancer death. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most important risk factor for cervical cancer. Cervical cancer is a preventable disease, for which early detection could increase survival rates. Immunotherapies represent a promising approach in the treatment of cancer, and several potential candidates are in clinical trials, while some are available in the market. However, equal access to available HPV vaccines is limited due to their high cost, which remains a global challenge for cervical cancer prevention. The implementation of screening programs, disease control systems, and medical advancement in developed countries reduce the serious complications associated with the disease somewhat; however, the incidence and prevalence of cervical cancer in low-income and middle-income countries continues to gradually increase, making it the leading cause of mortality, largely due to the unaffordable and inaccessible anti-cancer therapeutic options. In recent years, plants have been considered as a cost-effective production system for the development of vaccines, therapeutics, and other biopharmaceuticals. Several proof-of-concept studies showed the possibility of producing recombinant biopharmaceuticals for cancer immunotherapy in a plant platform. This review summarizes the current knowledge and therapeutic options for the prevention of cervical cancer and discusses the potential of the plant expression platform to produce affordable HPV vaccines.

A recombinant subunit vaccine candidate produced in plants elicits neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 variants in macaques

Since the outbreak of the coronavirus disease (COVID) pandemic in 2019, the development of effective vaccines to combat the infection has been accelerated. With the recent emergence of highly transmissible severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants of concern (VOC), there are concerns regarding the immune escape from vaccine-induced immunity. Hence an effective vaccine against VOC with a potent immune response is required. Our previous study confirmed that the two doses of the plant-produced receptor-binding domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 fused with the Fc region of human IgG1, namely Baiya SARS-CoV-2 Vax 1, showed high immunogenicity in mice and monkeys. Here, we aimed to evaluate the immunogenicity of a three-dose intramuscular injection of Baiya SARS-CoV-2 Vax 1 on days 0, 21, and 133 in cynomolgus monkeys. At 14 days after immunization, blood samples were collected to determine RBD-specific antibody titer, neutralizing antibody, and pseudovirus neutralizing antibody titers. Immunized monkeys developed significantly high levels of antigen-specific antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 compared to the control group. Interestingly, the sera collected from immunized monkeys also showed a neutralizing antibody response against the SARS-CoV-2 VOCs; Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron. These findings demonstrate that a three-dose regimen of Baiya SARS-CoV-2 Vax 1 vaccine elicits neutralizing immune response against SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Receptor binding domain proteins of SARS-CoV-2 variants produced in Nicotiana benthamiana elicit neutralizing antibodies against variants of concern

The constantly emerging severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants of concerns (VOCs) with mutations in the receptor-binding domain (RBD) spread rapidly and has become a severe public health problem worldwide. Effective vaccines and optimized booster vaccination strategies are thus highly required. Here, the gene encoding six different RBD (Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Kappa, Delta, and Epsilon variants) along with the Fc fragment of human IgG1 (RBD-Fc) was cloned into plant expression vector and produced in Nicotiana benthamiana by transient expression. Further, the immunogenicity of plant-produced variant RBD-Fc fusion proteins were tested in cynomolgus monkeys. Each group of cynomolgus monkeys was immunized three times intramuscularly with variant RBD-Fc vaccines at Day 0, 21, 42, and neutralizing antibody responses were evaluated against ancestral (Wuhan), Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta variants. The results showed that three doses of the RBD-Fc vaccine significantly enhanced the immune response against all tested SARS-CoV-2 variants. In particular, the vaccines based on Delta and Epsilon mutant RBD elicit broadly neutralizing antibodies against ancestral (Wuhan), Alpha, and Delta SARS-CoV-2 variants whereas Beta and Gamma RBD-Fc vaccines elicit neutralizing antibodies against their respective SARS-CoV-2 strains. The Delta and Epsilon RBD-Fc based vaccines displayed cross-reactive immunogenicity and might be applied as a booster vaccine to induce broadly neutralizing antibodies. These proof-of-concept results will be helpful for the development of plant-derived RBD-Fc-based vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 and its variants.

Algal Metabolites Can Be an Immune Booster against COVID-19 Pandemic

The world has faced the challenges of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) for the last two years, first diagnosed at the end of 2019 in Wuhan and widely distributed worldwide. As a result, the WHO has proclaimed the illness brought on by this virus to be a global pandemic. To combat COVID-19, researcher communities continuously develop and implement rapid diagnoses, safe and effective vaccinations and other alternative therapeutic procedures. However, synthetic drug-related side effects and high costs have piqued scientists’ interest in natural product-based therapies and medicines. In this regard, antiviral substances derived from natural resources and some medicines have seen a boom in popularity. For instance, algae are a rich source of compounds such as lectins and sulfated polysaccharides, which have potent antiviral and immunity-boosting properties. Moreover, Algae-derived compounds or metabolites can be used as antibodies and vaccine raw materials against COVID-19. Furthermore, some algal species can boost immunity, reduce viral activity in humans and be recommended for usage as a COVID-19 preventative measure. However, this field of study is still in its early stages of development. Therefore, this review addresses critical characteristics of algal metabolites, their antioxidant potential and therapeutic potential in COVID-19.

Biodegradable Nanohybrid Materials as Candidates for Self-Sanitizing Filters Aimed at Protection from SARS-CoV-2 in Public Areas

The COVID-19 pandemic has raised the problem of efficient, low-cost materials enabling the effective protection of people from viruses transmitted through the air or via surfaces. Nanofibers can be a great candidate for efficient air filtration due to their structure, although they cannot protect from viruses. In this work, we prepared a wide range of nanofibrous biodegradable samples containing Ag (up to 0.6 at.%) and Cu (up to 20.4 at.%) exhibiting various wettability. By adjusting the magnetron current (0.3 A) and implanter voltage (5 kV), the deposition of TiO2 and Ag+ implantation into PCL/PEO nanofibers was optimized in order to achieve implantation of Ag+ without damaging the nanofibrous structure of the PCL/PEO. The optimal conditions to implant silver were achieved for the PCL-Ti0.3-Ag-5kV sample. The coating of PCL nanofibers by a Cu layer was successfully realized by magnetron sputtering. The antiviral activity evaluated by widely used methodology involving the cultivation of VeroE6 cells was the highest for PCL-Cu and PCL-COOH, where the VeroE6 viability was 73.1 and 68.1%, respectively, which is significantly higher compared to SARS-CoV-2 samples without self-sanitizing (42.8%). Interestingly, the samples with implanted silver and TiO2 exhibited no antiviral effect. This difference between Cu and Ag containing nanofibers might be related to the different concentrations of ions released from the samples: 80 μg/L/day for Cu2+ versus 15 µg/L/day for Ag+. The high antiviral activity of PCL-Cu opens up an exciting opportunity to prepare low-cost self-sanitizing surfaces for anti-SARS-CoV-2 protection and can be essential for air filtration application and facemasks. The rough cost estimation for the production of a biodegradable nanohybrid PCL-Cu facemask revealed ~$0.28/piece, and the business case for the production of these facemasks would be highly positive, with an Internal Rate of Return of 34%.

Plant-Derived Recombinant Vaccines against Zoonotic Viruses

Emerging and re-emerging zoonotic diseases cause serious illness with billions of cases, and millions of deaths. The most effective way to restrict the spread of zoonotic viruses among humans and animals and prevent disease is vaccination. Recombinant proteins produced in plants offer an alternative approach for the development of safe, effective, inexpensive candidate vaccines. Current strategies are focused on the production of highly immunogenic structural proteins, which mimic the organizations of the native virion but lack the viral genetic material. These include chimeric viral peptides, subunit virus proteins, and virus-like particles (VLPs). The latter, with their ability to self-assemble and thus resemble the form of virus particles, are gaining traction among plant-based candidate vaccines against many infectious diseases. In this review, we summarized the main zoonotic diseases and followed the progress in using plant expression systems for the production of recombinant proteins and VLPs used in the development of plant-based vaccines against zoonotic viruses.

Global Innovation Trends for Plant-Based Vaccines Production: A Patent Analysis

The use of plants as biofactories for the production of medical products and vaccines has a long history, but the recent COVID-19 pandemic has caused this set of technologies, for their potential to contribute to the development of innovative solutions for tackling pandemic spread worldwide, to rise in prominence. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the global innovation scenario of plant-based vaccine production.

METHODS

Patent search using a specific set of technical classification codes and keywords was performed using the Questel-Orbit database, with a final output of 180 patent families, corresponding to 1397 single patents.

RESULTS

Plant-based vaccines production is an innovation sector with positive development especially in the last five-year period (30% growth). Fifty percent of the patents were registered in the United States, standing out as the most attractive patent system worldwide. The inventive activity was led by private firms owning the 49% of the patent families, and the key-players group includes the companies that successfully developed plant-based COVID-19 vaccine candidates, indicating a strong connection between the expertise in innovation production and the capacity to adapt inventions to the current pandemic vaccine demand. Virus-like particles technology has increased in importance over the past few years.

CONCLUSION

Patent data confirm their relevant role as indicators of innovation and technological evolution. Plant-based vaccines are expected to acquire an increasing role over the next few years as the current pandemic acts as an innovation catalyst.

COVID-19 Pandemic: Public Health Risk Assessment and Risk Mitigation Strategies

A newly emerged respiratory viral disease called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is also known as pandemic coronavirus disease (COVID-19). This pandemic has resulted an unprecedented global health crisis and devastating impact on several sectors of human lives and economies. Fortunately, the average case fatality ratio for SARS-CoV-2 is below 2%, much lower than that estimated for MERS (34%) and SARS (11%). However, COVID-19 has a much higher transmissibility rate, as evident from the constant increase in the count of infections worldwide. This article explores the reasons behind how COVID-19 was able to cause a global pandemic crisis. The current outbreak scenario and causes of rapid global spread are examined using recent developments in the literature, epidemiological features relevant to public health awareness, and critical perspective of risk assessment and mitigation strategies. Effective pandemic risk mitigation measures have been established and amended against COVID-19 diseases, but there is still much scope for upgrading execution and coordination among authorities in terms of organizational leadership's commitment and diverse range of safety measures, including administrative control measures, engineering control measures, and personal protective equipment (PPE). The significance of containment interventions against the COVID-19 pandemic is now well established; however, there is a need for its effective execution across the globe, and for the improvement of the performance of risk mitigation practices and suppression of future pandemic crises.

Insight of oral vaccines as an alternative approach to health and disease management: An innovative intuition and challenges

Vaccination is the most suitable and persuasive healthcare program for the prohibition of various deadly diseases. However, the higher production cost and purification strategies are out of reach for the developing nations. In this scenario, development of edible vaccine turns out to be the most promising alternative for remodeling the pharmaceutical industry with reduced production and purification costs. Generally, oral route of vaccination is mostly preferred due to its safety, compliance, low manufacturing cost and most importantly the ability to induce immunity in both systemic and mucosal sites. Genetically modified microorganisms and plants could efficiently be used as vehicles for edible vaccines. Edible vaccines are supposed to reduce the risk associated with traditional vaccines. Currently, oral vaccines are available in the market for several viral and bacterial diseases like cholera, hepatitis B, malaria, rabies etc. Herein, the review focuses on the breakthrough events in the area of edible vaccines associated with dietary microbes and plants for better control over diseases.

Development and Optimization of an Enzyme Immunoassay to Detect Serum Antibodies against the Hepatitis E Virus in Pigs, Using Plant-Derived ORF2 Recombinant Protein

Hepatitis E is an emerging global disease, mainly transmitted via the fecal-oral route in developing countries, and in a zoonotic manner in the developed world. Pigs and wild boar constitute the primary Hepatitis E virus (HEV) zoonotic reservoir. Consumption of undercooked animal meat or direct contact with infected animals is the most common source of HEV infection in European countries. The purpose of this study is to develop an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for the detection of anti-hepatitis E virus IgG in pig serum, using plant-produced recombinant HEV-3 ORF2 as an antigenic coating protein, and also to evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of this assay. A recombinant HEV-3 ORF2 110-610_6his capsid protein, transiently expressed by pEff vector in Nicotiana benthamiana plants was used to develop an in-house HEV EIA. The plant-derived HEV-3 ORF2 110-610_6his protein proved to be antigenically similar to the HEV ORF2 capsid protein and it can self-assemble into heterogeneous particulate structures. The optimal conditions for the in-house EIA (iEIA) were determined as follows: HEV-3 ORF2 110-610_6his antigen concentration (4 µg/mL), serum dilution (1:50), 3% BSA as a blocking agent, and secondary antibody dilution (1:20 000). The iEIA developed for this study showed a sensitivity of 97.1% (95% Cl: 89.9-99.65) and a specificity of 98.6% (95% Cl: 92.5-99.96) with a Youden index of 0.9571. A comparison between our iEIA and a commercial assay (PrioCHECK™ Porcine HEV Ab ELISA Kit, ThermoFisher Scientific, MA, USA) showed 97.8% agreement with a kappa index of 0.9399. The plant-based HEV-3 ORF2 iEIA assay was able to detect anti-HEV IgG in pig serum with a very good agreement compared to the commercially available kit.