Flame Retardation of Natural Rubber: Strategy and Recent Progress

Recent Advances in Fire Safety of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy Composites for High-Pressure Hydrogen Storage Tanks

The increasing use of hydrogen as a clean energy carrier has underscored the necessity for advanced materials that can provide safe storage under extreme conditions. Carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy (CFRP) composites are increasingly utilized in various high-performance applications, including automotive, aerospace, and particularly hydrogen storage tanks, due to their exceptional strength-to-weight ratio, durability, excellent corrosion resistance, and low thermal conductivity. However, the inherent flammability of epoxy matrices poses significant safety concerns, particularly in hydrogen storage, where safety is paramount. This review paper provides a comprehensive overview of the recent progress in enhancing the fire safety of CFRP. The focus is on innovative strategies such as developing novel flame-retardant (FR) additives, intumescent coatings, and nanomaterial reinforcements. It analyzes the effectiveness of these strategies in improving the fire performance of CFRP composites, including their flame retardancy, smoke suppression, and heat release rate reduction. The review paper also explores the application of fire modeling tools to predict the fire behavior of CFRP composite hydrogen storage tanks under various fire scenarios. Additionally, the review discusses the implications of these advancements on the performance and safety of hydrogen storage tanks, highlighting both the progress made and the challenges that remain.

Evaluation of the temperature adaptation of three rubber tree pest mites based on their two-sex life table

To determine the optimal temperature range for the development and reproduction of three spider mites (Eotetranychus sexmaculatus, Eotetranychus orientalis, and Oligonychus biharensis), this study investigated their developmental period, survival rate, lifespan, and reproduction under five temperatures, 21, 24, 27, 30, and 33°C, to predict and control in the field. With the gathered data, a two-sex life table was constructed for each of them. The results revealed that as the temperature increased, both O. biharensis and E. orientalis displayed a gradual reduction in their generation period. Furthermore, an inverse relationship was observed between lifespan and temperature for all three spider mite species. When examining the survival rates at varying temperatures, E. sexmaculatus exhibited the highest rate (98%) at 33°C, while E. orientalis and O. biharensis demonstrated their highest survival rates at 24°C, reaching 90% and 100% respectively. Regarding reproduction, O. biharensis displayed the highest oviposition rates at 30°C with an average of 17.45 eggs per individual. Conversely, E. sexmaculatus and E. orientalis exhibited the highest oviposition rates at 33°C, averaging at 15.22 and 21.38 eggs per individual respectively. Significantly higher intrinsic growth rates were observed for O. biharensis and E. orientalis at 33°C, with rates of 0.22 and 0.26 respectively. In contrast, E. sexmaculatus demonstrated the highest intrinsic growth rate at 27°C. The temperature of 27°C was more suitable for the growth of the E. sexmaculatus, while 33°C was the optimal temperature for the E. orientalis and O. biharensis. The current findings provide valuable guidance for the control and prevention of these three spider mites.

Effects of Recycled Polyethylene on Natural Rubber Composite Blends Filled with Aluminum Trihydroxide and Polyurethane Waste: Mechanical and Dynamic Mechanical Properties, Flammability

This research studies natural rubber (NR) composite blends prepared with recycled polyethylene (PE), polyurethane waste (PU), silica (SiO2), and aluminum trihydroxide (ATH) under the proper mixing conditions using an internal mixer and a two-roll mill. The mechanical, impact, dynamic mechanical, and thermal properties, together with flammability, were investigated. NR/PU composites filled with a specific SiO2/ATH concentration resulted in excellent flame-retardant properties without using PE. Adding PE causes poor flammability, while using PU and SiO2 prevents flame extensibility of the composites. In addition, SiO2 and ATH synergistically improved both mechanical and dynamical mechanical properties. This is attributed to the reinforcement of SiO2 particles inside the matrix, whereas the ATH releases water as a flame retardant. The V-0 composites tested with UL-94 showed acceptable heat resistance, strength, and durability, making them suitable for interior and exterior applications in buildings without the lightweight requirement.

Study on flame retardancy of EPDM reinforced by ammonium polyphosphate

Currently, the most widely used material for solid rocket motor (SRM) insulation is ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) filled with flame-retardant and ablation-resistant fillers. Researchers have been working hard to find a flame-retardant filler that can simultaneously meet the complex requirements of mechanical strength, density, flame retardancy and ablative performance of the insulation layer. This requires research on the flame retardant properties of flame retardants in oxygen-poor environments. In this paper, ammonium polyphosphate (APP) is used as a flame retardant filler, which is filled into an EPDM premix (p-EPDM) containing fumed silica and aluminum hydroxide to prepare composite materials. By creating an anoxic environment, the flame retardant behavior of APP under anoxic conditions on EPDM was studied. The results show that composites prepared with APP show better flame retardant properties in tests such as limiting oxygen index and UL-94, with less impact on mechanical strength and density. The surface morphology and elemental composition of the composite combustion residues were studied using Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersion spectroscopy (EDS). In an oxygen-depleted environment, APP will thermally decompose to form ammonia, water vapor and phosphorus-containing acidic substances. These gases dilute the flammable gas and reduce the thermal conductivity. The acidic substances containing phosphorus are concentrated on the surface of the pyrolysis layer to promote the formation of the carbon layer. This provides guidance for us to design insulation layer materials with properties that are more in line with actual use requirements.

Recent advancement in synthesizing bio-epoxy nanocomposites using lignin, plant oils, saccharides, polyphenols, and natural rubbers: A review

Due to environmental issues, production costs, and the low recycling capability of conventional epoxy polymers and their composites, many science groups have tried to develop a new type of epoxy polymers, which are compatible with the environment. Considering the precursors, these polymers can be produced from plant oils, saccharides, lignin, polyphenol, and natural resins. The appearance of these bio-polymers caused to introduce a new type of composites, namely bio-epoxy nanocomposites, which can be classified according to the synthesized bio-epoxy, the used nanomaterials, or both. Hence, in this work, various bio-epoxy resins, which have the proper potential for application as a matrix, are completely introduced with the synthesis viewpoint, and their characterized chemical structures are drawn. In the next steps, the bio-epoxy nanocomposites are classified based on the used nanomaterials, which are carbon nanoparticles (carbon nanotubes, graphene nanoplatelets, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, etc.), nano-silica (mesoporous and spherical), cellulose (nanofibers and whiskers), nanoclay and so on. Also, the features of these bio-nanocomposites and their applications are introduced. This review study can be a proper guide for developing a new type of green nanocomposites in the near future.

Effects of Processing Conditions on the Properties of Monoammonium Phosphate Microcapsules with Melamine-Formaldehyde Resin Shell

To develop monoammonium phosphate (MAP) as a novel acid source for durable intumescent fire retardants (IFR), MAP microcapsules (MCMAPs) containing MAP as the internal core and melamine-formaldehyde (MF) as the external shell were prepared by in situ polymerization in this study. The influences of synthesis conditions (including reaction temperature, polymerization time, and reaction pH value) on the properties of obtained MCMAPs (MAP content, yield, morphologies, and thermal properties) were then investigated systematically. The morphologies, chemical structures, and thermal properties were characterized by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and thermogravimetry analyzer (TGA). The results show that MAP was well encapsulated by MF resin. No microcapsules are obtained at <55 °C or with polymerization times <1 h. Optimal preparation conditions of reaction temperature, polymerization time, and reaction pH value are 75 °C, 3 h, and 5.5, respectively. Those results provide process reference and theoretical basis for preparing MCMAPs and could promote the application of MAP microcapsules in wood flame-retardant materials.

Flame Retardant Coatings: Additives, Binders, and Fillers

This review provides an intensive overview of flame retardant coating systems. The occurrence of flame due to thermal degradation of the polymer substrate as a result of overheating is one of the major concerns. Hence, coating is the best solution to this problem as it prevents the substrate from igniting the flame. In this review, the descriptions of several classifications of coating and their relation to thermal degradation and flammability were discussed. The details of flame retardants and flame retardant coatings in terms of principles, types, mechanisms, and properties were explained as well. This overview imparted the importance of intumescent flame retardant coatings in preventing the spread of flame via the formation of a multicellular charred layer. Thus, the intended intumescence can reduce the risk of flame from inherently flammable materials used to maintain a high standard of living.

Lacerda T. Monomers and Macromolecular Materials from Renewable Resources: State of the Art and Perspectives

A progressively increasing concern about the environmental impacts of the whole polymer industry has boosted the design of less aggressive technologies that allow for the maximum use of carbon atoms, and reduced dependence on the fossil platform. Progresses related to the former approach are mostly based on the concept of the circular economy, which aims at a thorough use of raw materials, from production to disposal. The latter, however, has been considered a priority nowadays, as short-term biological processes can efficiently provide a myriad of chemicals for the polymer industry. Polymers from renewable resources are widely established in research and technology facilities from all over the world, and a broader consolidation of such materials is expected in a near future. Herein, an up-to-date overview of the most recent and relevant contributions dedicated to the production of monomers and polymers from biomass is presented. We provide some basic issues related to the preparation of polymers from renewable resources to discuss ongoing strategies that can be used to achieve original polymers and systems thereof.

Modification of Glass/Polyester Laminates with Flame Retardants

This paper presents a review of flame retardants used for glass/polyester laminates. It concerns flame retardants withdrawn from use such as compounds containing halogen atoms and flame retardants currently used in the industry, such as inorganic hydroxides, phosphorus and nitrogen-containing compounds, antimony, and boron compounds, as well as tin–zinc compounds. Attention is also drawn to the use of nanoclays and the production of nanocomposites, intumescent flame retardant systems, and mats, as well as polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes. The paper discusses the action mechanism of particular flame retardants and presents their advantages and disadvantages.

The Flame Retardancy of Polyethylene Composites: From Fundamental Concepts to Nanocomposites

Polyethylene (PE) is one the most used plastics worldwide for a wide range of applications due to its good mechanical and chemical resistance, low density, cost efficiency, ease of processability, non-reactivity, low toxicity, good electric insulation, and good functionality. However, its high flammability and rapid flame spread pose dangers for certain applications. Therefore, different flame-retardant (FR) additives are incorporated into PE to increase its flame retardancy. In this review article, research papers from the past 10 years on the flame retardancy of PE systems are comprehensively reviewed and classified based on the additive sources. The FR additives are classified in well-known FR families, including phosphorous, melamine, nitrogen, inorganic hydroxides, boron, and silicon. The mechanism of fire retardance in each family is pinpointed. In addition to the efficiency of each FR in increasing the flame retardancy, its impact on the mechanical properties of the PE system is also discussed. Most of the FRs can decrease the heat release rate (HRR) of the PE products and simultaneously maintains the mechanical properties in appropriate ratios. Based on the literature, inorganic hydroxide seems to be used more in PE systems compared to other families. Finally, the role of nanotechnology for more efficient FR-PE systems is discussed and recommendations are given on implementing strategies that could help incorporate flame retardancy in the circular economy model.

A Review on the Flammability Properties of Carbon-Based Polymeric Composites: State-of-the-Art and Future Trends

Carbon based fillers have attracted a great deal of interest in polymer composites because of their ability to beneficially alter properties at low filler concentration, good interfacial bonding with polymer, availability in different forms, etc. The property alteration of polymer composites makes them versatile for applications in various fields, such as constructions, microelectronics, biomedical, and so on. Devastations due to building fire stress the importance of flame-retardant polymer composites, since they are directly related to human life conservation and safety. Thus, in this review, the significance of carbon-based flame-retardants for polymers is introduced. The effects of a wide variety of carbon-based material addition (such as fullerene, CNTs, graphene, graphite, and so on) on reaction-to-fire of the polymer composites are reviewed and the focus is dedicated to biochar-based reinforcements for use in flame retardant polymer composites. Additionally, the most widely used flammability measuring techniques for polymeric composites are presented. Finally, the key factors and different methods that are used for property enhancement are concluded and the scope for future work is discussed.