Determination of Zinc, Cadmium, Lead, Copper and Silver Using a Carbon Paste Electrode and a Screen Printed Electrode Modified with Chromium(III) Oxide

Design and Evaluation of a Cloud Computing System for Real-Time Measurements in Polarization-Independent Long-Range DAS Based on Coherent Detection

CloudSim is a versatile simulation framework for modeling cloud infrastructure components that supports customizable and extensible application provisioning strategies, allowing for the simulation of cloud services. On the other hand, Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) is a ubiquitous technique used for measuring vibrations over an extended region. Data handling in DAS remains an open issue, as many applications need continuous monitoring of a volume of samples whose storage and processing in real time require high-capacity memory and computing resources. We employ the CloudSim tool to design and evaluate a cloud computing scheme for long-range, polarization-independent DAS using coherent detection of Rayleigh backscattering signals and uncover valuable insights on the evolution of the processing times for a diverse range of Virtual Machine (VM) capacities as well as sizes of blocks of processed data. Our analysis demonstrates that the choice of VM significantly impacts computational times in real-time measurements in long-range DAS and that achieving polarization independence introduces minimal processing overheads in the system. Additionally, the increase in the block size of processed samples per cycle results in diminishing increments in overall processing times per batch of new samples added, demonstrating the scalability of cloud computing schemes in long-range DAS and its capability to manage larger datasets efficiently.

Electropolymerization of poly(phenol red) on laser-induced graphene electrode enhanced adsorption of zinc for electrochemical detection

We present a highly sensitive and selective electrode of laser-induced graphene modified with poly(phenol red) (P(PhR)@LIG) for measuring zinc nutrition in rice grains using square wave anodic stripping voltammetry (SWASV). The physicochemical properties of P(PhR)@LIG were investigated with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), Fourier infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and Raman spectroscopy. The modified electrode demonstrated an amplified anodic stripping response of Zn2+ due to the electropolymerization of P(PhR), which enhanced analyte adsorption during the accumulation step of SWASV. Under optimized parameters, the developed sensor provided a linear range from 30 to 3000 μg L-1 with a detection limit of 14.5 μg L-1. The proposed electrode demonstrated good reproducibility and good anti-interference properties. The sensor detected zinc nutrition in rice grain samples with good accuracy and the results were consistent with the standard ICP-OES method.

Electrochemical Sensing of Cadmium and Lead Ions in Water by MOF-5/PANI Composites

For the first time, composites of metal-organic framework MOF-5 and conjugated polymer polyaniline (PANI), (MOF-5/PANI), prepared using PANI in its conducting (emeraldine salt, ES) or nonconducting form (emeraldine base, EB) at various MOF-5 and PANI mass ratios, were evaluated as electrode materials for the electrochemical detection of cadmium (Cd2+) and lead (Pb2+) ions in aqueous solutions. Testing of individual components of composites, PANI-ES, PANI-EB, and MOF-5, was also performed for comparison. Materials are characterized by Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS), and their electrochemical behavior was discussed in terms of their zeta potential, structural, morphology, and textural properties. All examined composites showed high electrocatalytic activity for the oxidation of Cd and Pb to Cd2+ and Pb2+, respectively. The MOF/EB-1 composite (71.0 wt.% MOF-5) gave the highest oxidation currents during both individual and simultaneous detection of two heavy metal ions. Current densities recorded with MOF/EB-1 were also higher than those of its individual components, reflecting the synergistic effect where MOF-5 offers high surface area for two heavy metals adsorption and PANI offers a network for electron transfer during metals' subsequent oxidation. Limits of detection using MOF/EB-1 electrode for Cd2+ and Pb2+ sensing were found to be as low as 0.077 ppm and 0.033 ppm, respectively. Moreover, the well-defined and intense peaks of Cd oxidation to Cd2+ and somewhat lower peaks of Pb oxidation to Pb2+ were observed at voltammograms obtained for the Danube River as a real sample with no pretreatment, which implies that herein tested MOF-5/PANI electrodes could be used as electrochemical sensors for the detection of heavy metal ions in the real water samples.

Emerging Trends in nanostructured materials-coated screen printed electrodes for the electrochemical detection of hazardous heavy metals in environmental matrices

Heavy metal ions (HMIs) have become a significant contaminant in recent years. The increase in heavy metal pollution is a serious situation, requiring progressively robust, fast sensing, highly sensitive, and suitable techniques for heavy metal detection. Compared to other classical analytical methods, electroanalytical techniques, especially stripping voltammetric techniques with modified screen-printed electrodes (SPEs), have several advantages, such as fast sensing, great sensitivity, specificity, and long-time stability. Therefore, these techniques are more suitable for HMI detection. In this review, the nanostructured materials used to coat SPEs for the electrochemical determination of HMI are summarized. Additionally, the electrode fabrication method, modification steps, and electroanalytical study of these materials are systematically discussed. Hence, this review will support the researchers in precisely evaluating the electrochemical HMIs detection through highly sensitive stripping voltammetric techniques using SPE modified with nanostructured carbon and their allotropes, metal, metal oxides and their nanocomposites as sensor materials. Moreover, modified electrodes real time detection of HMIs in different food and environmental samples were briefly discussed.

Electrochemical determination of zinc(II) using N1-hydroxy-N1,N2-diphenylbenzamidine and multi-walled carbon nanotubes modified carbon paste electrode

In this study, a new carbon paste electrode modified with a laboratory-synthesized ligand, N¹-hydroxy-N¹,N²-diphenylbenzamidine (HDPBA) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) (HDPBA‒MWCNTs/CPE) has been developed. The modified electrode was applied for preconcentration and voltammetric determination of zinc ions (Zn(II)) by square wave anodic stripping voltammetry (SWASV). The preconcentration of Zn(II) on the electrode surface was performed in 0.1 M Brinton Robinson (B-R) buffer solution (pH 6) at an applied potential of -1.30 V versus Ag/AgCl for 120 s, followed by stripping in the positive potential scan of the SWASV after a quit time of 10 s. Under optimized experimental conditions, the proposed electrode exhibited a wider linear dynamic response for Zn(II) in a concentration range of 0.02-10.00 μM with a detection limit of 2.48 nM. This is due to the excellent metal-chelation property of the ligand, and the good conductivity and large surface area of MWCNTs which significantly improved the sensing performance of the nanocomposite modified electrode. The selectivity of the electrode was studied by evaluating the interference effects of various foreign ions on the peak current of Zn(II). The method exhibited high reproducibility with a relative standard deviation (RSD) of 3.1%. The present method was applied for the determination of zinc ions in water samples. The recovery values in the tested samples were found to be 98.50-106.0%, indicating a good accuracy of the proposed electrode. Furthermore, the electrochemical behavior of HDPBA in acetonitrile and aqueous solutions has been studied.

Simultaneous voltammetric sensing of Zn2+, Cd2+, and Pb2+ using an electrodeposited Bi-Sb nanocomposite modified carbon paste electrode

A sensor for detecting Zn²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Pb²⁺ ions simultaneously based on the square wave anodic stripping response at a bismuth antimony (Bi-Sb) nanocomposite electrode was developed. The electrode was prepared in situ by electrodepositing bismuth and antimony on the surface of a carbon-paste electrode (CPE) while also reducing the analyte metal ions. The structure and performance of the Bi-Sb/CPE electrode were studied using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry. Operational conditions including the concentration of Sb and Bi, the type of electrolyte, pH, and preconcentration conditions were optimized. The linear ranges were determined to be 5-200 μg L^-1 for Zn²⁺, 1-200 μg L^-1 for Cd²⁺, and 1-150 μg L^-1 for Pb²⁺ with the optimized parameters. The limits of detection were 1.46 μg L^-1, 0.27 μg L^-1, and 0.29 μg L^-1 for Zn²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Pb²⁺, respectively. Furthermore, the Bi-Sb/CPE sensor is capable of selective determination of the target metals in the presence of the common cationic and anionic interfering species (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Fe³⁺, Mn²⁺, Co²⁺, Cl^-, SO₄ ^2- and HCO₃ ^-). Finally, the sensor was successfully applied to the simultaneous determination of Zn²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Pb²⁺ in a variety of real-world water samples.

Development of a new electrochemical method for the determination of copper(ii) at trace levels in environmental and food samples

This paper presents the fabrication of a new modified carbon paste electrode (CPE) with N 1-hydroxy-N 1,N 2-diphenylbenzamidine (HDPBA) and functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) (HDPBA-MWCNTs/CPE) for highly sensitive and selective determination of Cu(ii) using the square wave anodic stripping voltammetry (SWASV) technique. The fabricated electrode was characterized using various spectroscopic techniques to study its morphological, structural, and electrochemical properties. The accumulation of Cu(ii) on the surface of HDPBA-MWCNTs/CPE was done in 0.1 M ammonium chloride (NH4Cl, pH 5) solution at an applied potential of -0.70 V versus Ag/AgCl for 180 s, followed by electrochemical stripping in the positive scan of the voltammetry after a resting time of 10 s. The developed HDPBA-MWCNTs/CPE was found to be highly selective, sensitive and reproducible. At optimal conditions of the experiment, the proposed method exhibited a very low limit of detection (0.0048 nM Cu(ii)), a wide linear dynamic range (0.00007-1.5000 μM Cu(ii)), and good reproducibility with relative standard deviation (RSD) value of 3.7%. The effect of various foreign ions on the voltammetric response of Cu(ii) was investigated and the electrode was found to be highly selective to Cu(ii). The practical applicability of the proposed HDPBA-MWCNTs/CPE was studied by applying the electrode for the quantification of Cu(ii) contents in environmental water (wastewater and tap water), soft drink (Fanta and Sprite), and food supplement (commercially available multi-mineral/vitamin tablets) samples. The present method was validated with atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS). The results found from the two methods are in good agreement with a 95% confidence level.

Screen-printed electrochemical sensors for environmental monitoring of heavy metal ion detection

Heavy metal ions (HMIs) are known to cause severe damages to the human body and ecological environment. And considering the current alarming situation, it is crucial to develop a rapid, sensitive, robust, economical and convenient method for their detection. Screen printed electrochemical technology contributes greatly to this task, and has achieved global attention. It enabled the mass transmission rate and demonstrated ability to control the chemical nature of the measure media. Besides, the technique offers advantages like linear output, quick response, high selectivity, sensitivity and stability along with low power requirement and high signal-to-noise ratio. Recently, the performance of SPEs has been improved employing the most effective and promising method of the incorporation of different nanomaterials into SPEs. Especially, in electrochemical sensors, the incorporation of nanomaterials has gained extensive attention for HMIs detection as it exhibits outstanding features like broad electrochemical window, large surface area, high conductivity, selectivity and stability. The present review focuses on the recent progress in the field of screen-printed electrochemical sensors for HMIs detection using nanomaterials. Different fabrication methods of SPEs and their utilization for real sample analysis of HMIs using various nanomaterials have been extensively discussed. Additionally, advancement made in this field is also discussed taking help of the recent literature.

Electrochemical detection of selected heavy metals in water: a case study of African experiences

The safety of water resources throughout the globe has been compromised by various human activities and climate change over the last decades. Consequently, the world is currently confronted with a severe shortage of water supply and a water safety crisis, amidst a growing population. With poor environmental regulations, indiscriminate budding of urban slums, poverty, and a lack of basic knowledge of hygiene and sanitation, the African water supply has been critically threatened by different organic and inorganic contaminants, which results in several health issues. Inorganic pollutants such as heavy metals are particularly of interest because they are mostly stable and non-biodegradable. Therefore, they are not easily removed from water. In different parts of the continent, the concentration of heavy metals in drinking water far exceeds the permissible level recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). Worse still, this problem is expected to increase with growing population, industrialization, urbanization, and, of course, corruption of government and local officials. Most of the African population is ignorant of the standards of safe water. In addition, the populace lack access to affordable and reliable technologies and tools that could be used in the quantification of these pollutants. This problem is not only applicable to domestic, but also to commercial, communal, and industrial water sources. Hence, a global campaign has been launched to ensure constant assessment of the presence of these metals in the environment and to promote awareness of dangers associated with unsafe exposure to them. Various conventional spectroscopic heavy metal detection techniques have been used with great success across the world. However, such techniques suffer from some obvious setbacks, such as the cost of procurement and professionalism required to operate them, which have limited their applications. This paper, therefore, reviews the condition of African water sources, health implications of exposure to heavy metals, and the approaches explored by various indigenous electrochemists, to provide a fast, affordable, sensitive, selective, and stable electrochemical sensors for the quantification of the most significant heavy metals in our water bodies.

A Novel Carbon Paste Electrode Modified with N1-Hydroxy-N1,N2-Diphenylbenzamidine for the Electrochemical Determination of Cadmium(II) in Environmental Samples

The present study introduces a novel electrode for rapid, highly sensitive, and selective electrochemical sensor for cadmium(II) using 5% N¹-hydroxy-N¹,N²-diphenylbenzamidine (HDPBA) modified carbon paste electrode (CPE) (HDPBA‒CPE). Surface characterizations and structural analysis of the proposed HDPBA‒CPE were performed using several analytical techniques. The voltammetric measurements of Cd(II) were conducted by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and square wave anodic stripping voltammetry (SWASV). Several experimental conditions such as composition and pH of buffer solutions, HDPBA composition, accumulation potential and time, and other voltammetric conditions were optimized. Cd(II) was preconcentrated on the modified electrode surface for 270 s using Britton Robinson (B-R) buffer (0.1 M, pH 4) at -1.0 V versus Ag/AgCl, followed by electrochemical oxidation of the accumulated Cd(II) in the positive scan of SWASV after a quiet time of 10 s. Under optimized parameters, the proposed method showed a linear range of 0.3-100 nM Cd(II) with a detection limit of 0.032 nM. The fabricated HDPBA-modified carbon paste electrode exhibited excellent sensitivity, selectivity, stability, and reproducibility (with RSD of 3.8%). The developed HDPBA‒CPE was used for the quantification of Cd(II) in tobacco and environmental water samples, and it was found to be applicable for the determination of different types of real samples.

Design and construction of an electrochemical sensor for the determination of cerium(iii) ions in petroleum water samples based on a Schiff base-carbon nanotube as an ionophore

A carbon paste sensor (CPE) and screen-printed sensor (SPE) for Ce(iii)-selective determination were prepared using a 2,6-pyridine dicarbomethine-triethylene tetraamine macrocyclic Schiff base ligand (PDCTETA) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) as good sensing materials. With respect to most common cations, such as alkali, alkaline earth, transition, and heavy metal ions, the electrodes display high selectivity for the Ce(iii) ion. The sensors respond to Ce(iii) ions in a linear range of 1 × 10-7 to 1 × 10-1 and 1 × 10-8 to 1 × 10-1 mol L-1 with a slope of 18.96 ± 0.73 and 19.63 ± 0.51 mV per decade change in concentration with a detection limit of 1.10 × 10-8 and 5.24 × 10-9 mol L-1 for CPE (sensor IV) and SPE (sensor VIII), respectively. The sensors were found to have a lifetime of 102 and 200 days. The suggested electrodes performed well throughout the pH ranges of 3.5-8.0 and 3.0-8.5, with response times of 8 and 6 seconds for sensor IV and sensor VIII, respectively. The sensors have been used to measure Ce(iii) ions in water samples from several petroleum wells. They have also been utilized as indicator electrodes in Ce(iii) ion potentiometric titrations with EDTA. The results were quite similar to those obtained by employing atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS).

Recent Advancement in Disposable Electrode Modified with Nanomaterials for Electrochemical Heavy Metal Sensors

Heavy metal pollution has gained global attention due to its high toxicity and non-biodegradability, even at a low level of exposure. Therefore, the development of a disposable electrode that is sensitive, simple, portable, rapid, and cost-effective as the sensor platform in electrochemical heavy metal detection is vital. Disposable electrodes have been modified with nanomaterials so that excellent electrochemical properties can be obtained. This review highlights the recent progress in the development of numerous types of disposable electrodes modified with nanomaterials for electrochemical heavy metal detection. The disposable electrodes made from carbon-based, glass-based, and paper-based electrodes are reviewed. In particular, the analytical performance, fabrication technique, and integration design of disposable electrodes modified with metal (such as gold, tin and bismuth), carbon (such as carbon nanotube and graphene), and metal oxide (such as iron oxide and zinc oxide) nanomaterials are summarized. In addition, the role of the nanomaterials in improving the electrochemical performance of the modified disposable electrodes is discussed. Finally, the current challenges and future prospect of the disposable electrode modified with nanomaterials are summarized.

Electrochemical Characterization and Detection of Lead in Water Using SPCE Modified with BiONPs/PANI

The need for constant assessment of river water qualities for both aquatic and other biological survival has emerged a top priority, due to increasing exposure to industrial pollutants. A disposable screen print carbon electrode was modified with a conductive polymer (PANI) and Zn and/or Cu oxides NPs, obtained through bioreduction in citrus peel extracts (lemon and orange), for ultra-sensitive detection of PB2+, in the Crocodile River water sample. The synthesized materials were characterized with Fourier-transform infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR), ultra-violet visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The SPC-modified electrodes designated as SPCE/LPE/BiONPs/PANI and SPCE/OPE/BiONPs/PANI were characterized using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and eventually deployed in the electrochemical detection of PB2+ in water using square wave voltammetry (SWV) technique. The electrochemical responses of the modified electrodes for both CV and EIS in 0.1 M HCl demonstrated enhanced performance relative to the bare SPCE. A detection and quantification limit of 0.494 ppb and 1.647 were obtained at SPCE/LPE/BiONPs/PANI, respectively, while a detection and quantification limit of 2.79 ppb and 8.91 ppb, respectively, were derived from SPCE/OPE/BiONPs/PANI. The relative standard deviations (RSD) for SPC electrode at a 6.04 µM PB2+ analyte concentration was 4.76% and 0.98% at SPCE/LPE/BiONPs/PANI and SPCE/LPE/BiONPs/PANI, respectively. The effect of copper, zinc, iron, cobalt, nickel, and magnesium on the stripping peaks of PB2+ at SPCE/OPE/BiONPs/PANI, showed no significant change except for cobalt, with about 17.67% peak current drop. The sensors were assessed for possible determination of PB2+ in spiked river water samples. The average percentage recovery and RSD calculated were 94.25% and 3.74% (n = 3) at SPCE/LPE/BiONPs/PANI and, 96.70% and 3.71% (n = 3) at SPCE/OPE/BiONPs/PANI, respectively. Therefore, the fabricated sensor material could be used for environmental assessment of this highly toxic heavy metal in the aquatic system.

Voltammetric Determination of Lead and Copper in Wine by Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode

This paper describes the determination of Pb and Cu with a Nafion-modified glassy carbon electrode and MnCo₂O₄ nanoparticles as working electrode for anodic stripping voltammetry. Pb and Cu were accumulated in HCl/KCl (0.1 mol dm^-3) at a potential of -1.4 V (vs. Ag/AgCl electrode) for 480 s, followed by a linear sweep anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) scan from -1.0 to +0.5 V. Under optimum conditions, the calibration curves were linear in the range of 0.01 - 8 and 0.01 - 5 mg dm^-3 for Pb and Cu, respectively. Effect of sample dilution, accumulation time and potential were optimized. A study of interfering substances was performed. A significant increase in current was obtained at the modified electrode in comparison with the bare glassy carbon electrode. The modified electrode was successfully applied for determination of Pb and Cu in wine samples after a simple preparation procedure. Pb and Cu content in wine was used for estimation of the target hazard quotient (THQ) values for minimal and maximal levels of the metals.

Bi-metallic zeolite imidazole framework nanofibers for the selective determination of Cd2+ ions

Cobalt zinc-zeolite imidazole framework (Co/Zn-ZIF) nanofibers are made via an electrospinning (ES) approach and tested for the detection of heavy metal cadmium ions. Electrostatically attracted cobalt and zinc ions are bound regularly on the surface of the ZIF network. The cobalt and zinc ions are organized with the ZIF network, which provides the sturdily bonded tetrahedral structure of Co/Zn-ZIF, giving essential steadiness to the composite material. Cyclic voltammetry revealed that the observed profile is reversible, and the catalytic behavior of the electrodes provided evidence of interfacial electron transfer between the nanofiber-modified GCE surface and the metal ions. Interestingly, a careful determination of Cd2+ ions within the range of 100 nM to 1 mM with a low limit detection of 27.27 nM was undertaken. The established heavy metal ion detector shows excellent anti-interference abilities toward the observed electroactive species, and it was successfully employed using a tap water sample for Cd2+ ion detection, where good results were observed.

Surface and morphology analyses, and voltammetry studies for electrochemical determination of cerium(iii) using a graphene nanobud-modified-carbon felt electrode in acidic buffer solution (pH 4.0 ± 0.05)

Trace determination of radioactive waste, especially Ce3+, by electrochemical methods has rarely been attempted. Ce3+ is (i) a fluorescence quencher, (ii) an antiferromagnet, and (iii) a superconductor, and it has been incorporated into fast scintillators, LED phosphors, and fluorescent lamps. Although Ce3+ has been utilized in many industries due to its specific properties, it causes severe health problems to human beings because of its toxicity. Nanomaterials with fascinating electrical properties can play a vital role in the fabrication of a sensor device to detect the analyte of interest. In the present study, surfactant-free 1,8-diaminonaphthalene (DAN)-functionalized graphene quantum dots (DAN-GQDs) with nanobud (NB) morphology were utilized for the determination of Ce3+ through electrochemical studies. The working electrode, graphene nanobud (GNB)-modified-carbon felt (CF), was developed by a simple drop-coating method for the sensitive detection of Ce3+ in acetate buffer solution (ABS, pH 4.0 ± 0.05) at a scan rate of 50 mV s-1 using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) techniques. CV and DPV studies validated the existence of distinctive peaks at approximately +0.20 and +0.93 V (vs. SCE), respectively, with a limit of detection of approximately 2.60 μM. Furthermore, electrochemical studies revealed that the GNB-modified-CF electrode was (i) stable even after fifteen cycles, (ii) reproducible, (iii) selective towards Ce3+, (iv) strongly pH-dependent, and (v) favored Ce3+ sensing only at pH 4.0 ± 0.05. Impedance spectroscopy results indicated that the GNB-modified-CF electrode was more conductive (1.38 × 10-4 S m-1) and exhibited more rapid electron transfer than bare CF, which agrees with the attained Randles equivalent circuit. Microscopy (AFM, FE-SEM, and HR-TEM), spectroscopy (XPS and Raman), XRD, and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyses of the GNB-modified-CF electrode confirmed the adsorption of Ce3+ onto the electrode surface and the size of the electrode material. Ce3+ nanobuds increased from 35-40 to 50-55 nm without changing their morphology. The obtained results provide an insight into the determination of Ce3+ to develop an electrochemical device with low sensitivity.

Selective and simultaneous detection of cadmium, lead and copper by tapioca-derived carbon dot-modified electrode

The need for the sensing of environmental pollutants cannot be overemphasized in the twenty-first century. Herein, a sensor has been developed for the sensitive and selective detection of copper (Cu²⁺), lead (Pb²⁺) and cadmium (Cd²⁺) as major heavy metals polluting water environment. A screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) modified by fluorescent carbon dots (CDs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) was successfully fabricated for sensing Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺. Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) were deployed for the analysis of ternary analytes. CV was set at a potential range of - 0.8 to + 0.2 V at a scan rate of 100 mV/s, and DPV at a potential range of - 0.8 to + 0.1 V, scan rate of 50 mV/s, pulse rate of 0.2 V and pulse width of 50 ms. DPV technique was applied through the modified electrode for sensitive and selective determination of Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺ at a concentration range of 0.01 to 0.27 ppm for Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺. Tolerance for the highest possible concentration of foreign substances such as Mg²⁺, K⁺, Na⁺, NO₃^-, and SO₄^2- was observed with a relative error less than ± 3%. The sensitivity of the modified electrode was at 0.17, 0.42 and 0.18 ppm for Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Cu²⁺, respectively, while the limits of detection (LOD) achieved for cadmium, lead and copper were 0.0028, 0.0042 and 0.014 ppm, respectively. The quality of the modified electrode for sensing Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺ at trace levels is in accordance with the World Health Organization (WHO) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) water regulation standard. The modified SPCE provides a cost-effective, dependable and stable means of detecting heavy metal ions (Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺) in an aqueous solution. Graphical abstract .

Metal oxide QD based ultrasensitive microsphere fluorescent sensor for copper, chromium and iron ions in water

Herein we developed a rapid, cheap, and water-soluble ultra-sensitive ZnO quantum dot (QD) based metal sensor for detecting different hazardous metal ions up to the picomolar range in water. Various spectroscopic and microscopic techniques confirmed the formation of 2.15 ± 0.46 μm of ZnO QD conjugated CMC microspheres (ZCM microspheres) which contain 5.5 ± 0.5 nm fluorescent zinc oxide (ZnO) QDs. Our system, as a promising sensor, exhibited excellent photostability and affinity towards various heavy metal ions. The detection limits were calculated to be 16 pM for Cu²⁺ and 0.18 nM for Cr⁶⁺ ions which are better than previously reported values. The simple fluorescence 'turn off' property of our ZCM microsphere sensor system can serve a two-in-one purpose by not only detecting the heavy metals but also quantifying them. Nonetheless, pattern recognition for different heavy metals helped us to detect and identify multiple heavy metal ions. Finally, their practical applications on real samples also demonstrated that the ZCM sensor can be effectively utilized for detection of Cr⁶⁺, Fe³⁺, Cu²⁺ present in the real water samples. This study may inspire future research and design of target fluorescent metal oxide QDs with specific functions.

Synergetic Sensing Effect of Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose and Bismuth on Cadmium Detection by Differential Pulse Anodic Stripping Voltammetry

In the present work, a novel electrochemical sensor was developed for the detection of trace cadmium with high sensitivity and selectivity in an easy and eco-friendly way. Firstly, a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) was modified with nontoxic sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) by a simple drop-casting method, which was applied to detect cadmium by differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV) in a solution containing both target cadmium and eco-friendly bismuth ions, based on a quick electro-codeposition of these two metal ions on the surface of the modified electrode (CMC-GCE). Investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), both CMC (with good film-forming ability) and bismuth (with well-defined stripping signal) were found to be well complexed with target cadmium, leading to vital signal amplification for cadmium detection at a sub-nanomolar level. Under the optimal conditions, the proposed sensor exhibited a good linear stripping signal response to cadmium (Ⅱ) ion, in a concentration range of 0.001 μmol/L–1 μmol/L with a limit of detection of 0.75 nmol/L (S/N = 3). Meanwhile, the results demonstrate that this novel electrochemical sensor has excellent sensitivity and reproducibility, which can be used as a promising detection technique for testing natural samples such as tap water.

A Novel Bismuth-Chitosan Nanocomposite Sensor for Simultaneous Detection of Pb(II), Cd(II) and Zn(II) in Wastewater

A novel bismuth (Bi)-biopolymer (chitosan) nanocomposite screen-printed carbon electrode was developed using a Bi and chitosan co-electrodepositing technique for detecting multiple heavy metal ions. The developed sensor was fabricated with environmentally benign materials and processes. In real wastewater, heavy metal detection was evaluated by the developed sensor using square wave anodic stripping voltammetry (SWASV). The nanocomposite sensor showed the detection limit of 0.1 ppb Zn²⁺, 0.1 ppb Cd²⁺ and 0.2 ppb Pb²⁺ in stock solutions. The improved sensitivity of the Bi-chitosan nanocomposite sensor over previously reported Bi nanocomposite sensors was attributed to the role of chitosan. When used for real wastewater samples collected from a mining site and soil leachate, similar detection limit values with 0.4 ppb Cd²⁺ and 0.3 ppb Pb²⁺ were obtained with relative standard deviations (RSD) ranging from 1.3% to 5.6% (n = 8). Temperature changes (4 and 23 °C) showed no significant impact on sensor performance. Although Zn²⁺ in stock solutions was well measured by the sensor, the interference observed while detecting Zn²⁺ in the presence of Cu²⁺ was possibly due to the presence of Cu-Zn intermetallic species in mining wastewater. Overall, the developed sensor has the capability of monitoring multiple heavy metals in contaminated water samples without the need for complicated sample preparation or transportation of samples to a laboratory.

Synthesis of MnCo2O4 nanoparticles as modifiers for simultaneous determination of Pb(II) and Cd(II)

The porous spinel oxide nanoparticles, MnCo₂O₄, were synthesized by citrate gel combustion technique. Morphology, crystallinity and Co/Mn content of modified electrode was characterized and determined by Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS), X-ray diffraction pattern analysis (XRD), simultaneous thermogravimetry and differential thermal analysis (TG/DTA). Nanoparticles were used for modification of glassy carbon electrode (GCE) and new sensor was applied for simultaneous determination of Pb(II) and Cd(II) ions in water samples with the linear sweep anodic stripping voltammetry (LSASV).The factors such as pH, deposition potential and deposition time are optimized. Under optimal conditions the wide linear concentration range from 0.05 to 40 μmol/dm³was obtained for Pb(II), with limit of detection (LOD) of 8.06 nmol/dm³ and two linear concentration ranges were obtained for Cd(II), from 0.05 to 1.6 μmol/dm³ and from 1.6 to 40 μmol/dm³, with calculated LOD of 7.02 nmol/dm³. The selectivity of the new sensor was investigated in the presence of interfering ions. The sensor is stable and it gave reproducible results. The new sensor was succesfully applied on determination of heavy metals in natural waters.

Interaction between Diethyldithiocarbamate and Cu(II) on Gold in Non-Cyanide Wastewater

A surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) detection method for environmental copper ions (Cu2+) was developed according to the vibrational spectral change of diethyldithiocarbamate (DDTC) on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). The ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) absorption spectra indicated that DDTC formed a complex with Cu2+, showing a prominent peak at ~450 nm. We found Raman spectral changes in DDTC from ~1490 cm-1 to ~1504 cm-1 on AuNPs at a high concentration of Cu2+ above 1 μM. The other ions of Zn2+, Pb2+, Ni2+, NH₄⁺, Mn2+, Mg2+, K⁺, Hg2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cr3+, Co2+, Cd2+, and Ca2+ did not produce such spectral changes, even after they reacted with DDTC. The electroplating industrial wastewater samples were tested under the interference of highly concentrated ions of Fe3+, Ni2+, and Zn2+. The Raman spectroscopy-based quantification of Cu2+ ions was able to be achieved for the wastewater after treatment with alkaline chlorination, whereas the cyanide-containing water did not show any spectral changes, due to the complexation of the cyanide with the Cu2+ ions. A micromolar range detection limit of Cu2+ ions could be achieved by analyzing the Raman spectra of DDTC in the cyanide-removed water.