Impact of Interferon-Free Direct-Acting Antivirals on the Incidence of Extrahepatic Malignancies in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis C

BACKGROUND

The incidence of extrahepatic malignancies (EHMs) after hepatitis C virus (HCV) eradication by interferon (IFN)-based and IFN-free direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) treatment remains unclear.

AIMS

The aim was to evaluate the cumulative incidence of EHMs diagnosed for the first time after the antiviral treatments.

METHODS

We analyzed a total 527 patients with chronic HCV infection and without prior history of any malignancies who achieved sustained virological response by antiviral treatments, including IFN-based (n = 242) or IFN-free DAAs (n = 285). The baseline predictors for EHM occurrence were analyzed using Cox regression analysis.

RESULTS

Thirty-two patients were diagnosed with EHMs, 14 in IFN-based and 18 in IFN-free DAAs, respectively. The total duration of follow-up was 1,796 person-years in IFN-based and 823 person-years in IFN-free DAAs. The incidence of EHMs in IFN-based and IFN-free DAAs was 7.8 and 21.9 per 1,000 person-years, respectively. The cumulative incidence of EHMs was significantly higher in IFN-free DAAs than IFN-based (p = 0.002). IFN-free DAAs was a single independent predictor for incidence of EHMs (p = 0.012). As for gender, the incidence of EHMs was significantly higher in IFN-free DAAs only in the female cohort (p = 0.002). After propensity score matching, IFN-free DAAs was a single independent predictor for incidence of EHMs in the female patients (p = 0.045).

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of EHMs after HCV eradication is higher in IFN-free DAAs than IFN-based regimens, especially in female patients. We should carefully follow-up not only HCC but also EHMs after IFN-free DAAs regimens.

Hepatitis B or C viral infection and the risk of cervical cancer

BACKGROUND

The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection on the risk of cervical cancer.

METHODS

We conducted a case-control study including 838 cervical cancer cases and 838 benign disease controls matched for age, ethnicity, and place of birth. Venous blood was tested for HBV and HCV serological markers. Multiple odds ratios (OR) and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI) for cervical cancer were estimated using logistic regression. HBV antigens were examined using immunohistochemical staining.

RESULTS

Anti-HCV was positive in 10 cases (1.2%) and 0 controls (0%). Cases had higher percentage of chronic HBV infection (HBsAg-positive/anti-HBc-positive) and prior HBV infection (HBsAg-negative/anti-HBc-positive) than controls (6.3% vs 4.4%; 11.6% vs 7.3%). Both chronic HBV infection (OR 1.6; 95% CI 1.0-2.4) and prior HBV infection (OR 1.7; 95% CI 1.2-2.4) were associated with cervical cancer in univariate logistic regression analyses. In subgroup analysis among HPV-positive patients, the association between chronic HBV infection and cervical cancer disappeared (OR 1.2; 95% CI 0.4-3.4); while in subgroup among patients younger than 50 years, the association remained significant with adjustment for HPV infection and parity (adjusted OR 2.1; 95% CI 1.0-4.4). HBsAg and HBcAg were detected in 8% and 12% of cervical cancer cases who had seropositive HBsAg, respectively. Compared with the benign controls, individuals with both HBsAg and HPV positive had an increased risk of cervical cancer (adjusted OR 67.1; 95% CI 23.4-192.7).

CONCLUSIONS

HBV infection was associated with cervical cancer in patients with age younger than 50 years. Further prospective studies are needed to confirm this relationship.

Incidence and risk factors of extrahepatic manifestations in patients with chronic HCV and HCV/HIV infection

Purpose. To study the incidence and risk factors for the development of extrahepatic manifestations like arthralgias, cutaneous manifestations of vasculitis, polyneuropathy, xerophthalmia, Raynaud’s syndrome, chronic kidney disease (CKD) in patients with chronic HCV infection, and HCV/HIV co-infection.Materials and methods. The cohort study included 331 patients: 254 people with HCV, 77 — with HCV/HIV.Results. Extrahepatic manifestations were detected in 50% of HCV patients and 70% of HCV/HIV patients (p=0,002). Among patients with HCV and HCV/HIV the most common were joint lesions (42% vs 46%, p=0,563), skin rashes (20% vs 25%, p=0,345), polyneuropathy (13% vs 17%, p=0,441), CKD (11% vs 35%, p<0,001), less often Raynaud’s syndrome (3% vs 8%, p=0,076) and xerophthalmia (5% vs 4%, p=0,661). The logistic regression model revealed a significant relationship between the development of one or more extrahepatic manifestations in patients with chronic HCV infection with cryoglobulinemia (p<0,001), the presence of HIV infection (p<0,001), and age (p=0,007). However, logistic regression models tested for each of the studied manifestations revealed a significant effect of HIV infection only on the development of CKD (p<0,001), while cryoglobulinemia possessed significant risk factors for each of the manifestations, except xerophthalmia. Conclusion. The data obtained indicate a high incidence of extrahepatic manifestations in patients with chronic HCV and HCV/HIV infection, also a significant role of HIV co-infection for the development of CKD, and the role of cryoglobulinemia in the development of extrahepatic manifestations, except xerophthalmia.

Risk Factors for Pancreatic Cancer: Emerging Role of Viral Hepatitis

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most aggressive malignant neoplastic diseases. The incidence and mortality rates of this disease vary depending on geographical area, which might be explained by the different exposure to risk factors. To improve the prognosis of patients with pancreatic cancer, different approaches are needed for an earlier diagnosis. Identification of risk factors and implementation of screening strategies are essential for a better prognosis. Currently, the risk factors for pancreatic cancer fall into two broad categories, namely extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Extrinsic factors include alcohol consumption, smoking, a diet rich in saturated fats, and viral infections such as chronic infection with hepatitis B and C viruses. The pathophysiological mechanisms explaining how these hepatotropic viruses contribute to the development of pancreatic cancer are not fully elucidated. The common origin of hepatocytes and pancreatic cells in the multipotent endodermal cells, the common origin of the blood vessels and biliary ducts of the pancreas and the liver, or chronic inflammatory changes may be involved in this interaction. A careful monitoring of patients with viral liver infections may contribute to the early diagnosis of pancreatic cancer and improve the prognosis of these patients.

Hepatitis C Virus Core Protein Down-Regulates Expression of Src-Homology 2 Domain Containing Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase by Modulating Promoter DNA Methylation

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is the major causative pathogen associated with liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. The main virion component, the core (C) protein, has been implicated in several aspects of HCV pathology including oncogenesis and immune subversion. Here we show that expression of the C protein induced specific tyrosine phosphorylation of the TCR-related signaling proteins ZAP-70, LAT and PLC-γ in the T cells. Stable expression of the C protein specifically reduced Src homology domain 2-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase 1 (SHP-1) mRNA and protein accumulation. Quantitative CpG methylation analysis revealed a distinct CpG methylation pattern at the SHP-1 gene promoter in the C protein expressing cells that included specific hypermethylation of the binding site for Sp1 transcription factor. Collectively, our results suggest that HCV may suppress immune responses and facilitate its own persistence by deregulating phosphotyrosine signaling via repressive epigenetic CpG modification at the SHP-1 promoter in the T cells.

Protocol for Optimizing the Use of Kidneys From Donors With Seropositivity for Hepatitis C Virus in Seronegative Recipients

BACKGROUND

The rapid identification of the viral load from hepatitis C virus (HCV) in seropositive donors enables the determination of their infection capacity and the subsequent design of a strategy to optimize the use of direct-action antivirals (DAA) in seronegative recipients. In 2017, we designed an optimization protocol; this study aims to assess its efficacy and safety.

METHODS

This is a prospective, multicenter observational study that complies with the Declarations of Helsinki and Istanbul. Donors were HCV seropositive. The HCV and human immunodeficiency virus loads were immediately determined in the donors. For viremic donors, recipients were treated with DAA for 8 weeks. For nonviremic donors, DAA was started if a viral load was detected during the follow-up period. The minimum follow-up period was 6 months posttransplant.

RESULTS

This study recruited 28 donors. Just over half of the donors (n = 15; 53.5%) had a nonactive history of injection drug use. Eight (22.4%) donors were viremic, and 20 (87.6%) were nonviremic; 13 (65%) had been treated previously. Nine grafts were ineligible for the protocol. We performed a total of 47 transplants. Procedure I (viremic donors) was performed in 13 recipients (27.7%). Posttransplant viremia was observed in 6 participants. Posttransplant viremia was low (<100 IU/mL) in 4 participants but high (36,000 and 138,000 IU/mL) in 2 participants who had initiated DAA after the transplant; all these patients had a sustained viral response. Seroconversion was observed in 11 of 13 (84.6%) patients. Procedure II (nonviremic donors) was undertaken in 34 (82.3%) patients. No positive viral loads were observed. Seroconversion occurred in 7 of 34 (20.5%) recipients. All recipients maintained kidney function at 6 months posttransplant, except 1 patient with a graft that had never been functional and another patient who died of pancreatitis. Both patients had received kidneys from nonviremic donors.

CONCLUSIONS

Our experience supports the efficacy and safety of this protocol.

SARS-CoV-2: lessons from both the history of medicine and from the biological behavior of other well-known viruses

SARS-CoV-2 is the etiological agent of the current pandemic worldwide and its associated disease COVID-19. In this review, we have analyzed SARS-CoV-2 characteristics and those ones of other well-known RNA viruses viz. HIV, HCV and Influenza viruses, collecting their historical data, clinical manifestations and pathogenetic mechanisms. The aim of the work is obtaining useful insights and lessons for a better understanding of SARS-CoV-2. These pathogens present a distinct mode of transmission, as SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza viruses are airborne, whereas HIV and HCV are bloodborne. However, these viruses exhibit some potential similar clinical manifestations and pathogenetic mechanisms and their understanding may contribute to establishing preventive measures and new therapies against SARS-CoV-2.

Prevalence of comorbidity in chronic HCV‑infection

The effect of the comorbid background on the course of the infectious process in chronic HCV infection requires study due to the existence of a risk of progression of liver fibrosis even after the eradication of the virus against the background of concomitant diseases.Material and methods. The article analyzes the prevalence of various comorbid conditions in 700 patients with chronic HCV infection, who were observed in the hospital of the Botkin in St. Petersburg, an assessment of the mutual influence of the comorbid background and the progression of liver fibrosis in HCV infection was given. To determine the contribution of comorbidity to the course of HCV infection, the odds ratio (OR) parameters were calculated.Results. HCV-infected individuals have higher prevalence of comorbidity (63 %) and multimorbidity (50 %). In patients with severe fibrosis or cirrhosis, the presence of the comorbidity factor increased to 85 %. In the examined group of patients, diseases of the biliary tract and pancreas prevailed (30.0 %), occult Hepatitis B Infection was revealed in 19.0 %, in 15.4 % – cardiovascular diseases, in 13.7 % – diseases of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Diabetes mellitus was found in 4.6 % of patients, and obesity – in 5.9 %, kidney disease – 3.0 %. The remaining concomitant diseases occurred in less than 2.0 % of the observed patients. It has been established that diseases of the biliary tract and pancreas, gastrointestinal tract, diabetes mellitus, obesity, cardiovascular diseases are risk factors for the development of liver fibrosis in chronic HCV infection.Conclusions. The data obtained indicate the need for a more personalized approach to monitoring patients and the need to create integrated models of medical care for patients with chronic hepatitis C.

Association of hepatitis C infection and risk of kidney cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies

Although some epidemiological studies have investigated the association between Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and the development of kidney cancer, the results are far from consistent. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies to determine the association. PubMed, EMBASE and Cochrane database were searched from 1 January 1975 to 7 January 2020. Study selection, data extraction and bias assessment (using the Newcastle-Ottawa scale) were performed independently by 2 authors. Pooled odds ratios (ORs) with corresponding confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated using a random-effects model. In all, 16 studies (11 cohort studies and 5 case-control studies) involving a total of 391,071 HCV patients and 38,333,839 non-HCV controls were included. The overall analysis showed a 47% higher risk to develop kidney cancer among the patients with HCV infection (pooled OR 1.47; 95% CI 1.14-1.91), despite significant heterogeneity (I²  = 87.6%). The multivariable meta-regression showed that study design, age, sample size and HIV co-infection were significant sources of variance, and totally accounted for 82% of the I² . The risk of KC in HCV patients was further increased in studies without HCV/HBV- and HCV/HIV- co-infection (pooled OR 1.66; 95%CI 1.23-2.24). Multiple sensitivity analyses did not change the significant association. The present meta-analysis indicated that HCV-infected patients have a significantly higher risk of developing kidney cancer. Our results highlighted the rationale for improved renal surveillance in HCV patients for the early diagnosis of kidney cancer. Further investigations for the mechanisms underlying HCV-induced kidney cancer are warranted.

Patients With Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection Are at an Increased Risk of Colorectal Cancer: A Nationwide Population-Based Case-Control Study in Taiwan

Aim

Studies evaluating colorectal cancer (CRC) risk associated with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection are limited.

Methods

In this case-control study, we identify 67,670 CRC cases newly diagnosed from 2005 to 2011 and randomly selected 67,670 controls without HCV and CRC from the same database, frequency matched by age and sex of cases.

Results

Results of logistic regression analysis revealed that the adjusted odds ratio (aOR) of CRC was 1.16 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.08–1.24, p < 0.001) in association with chronic HCV. The CRC risk was slightly greater for women than for men. The risk decreased with age, with the aOR decreased from 2.26 (95% CI = 1.32–3.87, p = 0.003) in patients under 45 years old to 1.31 (95% CI = 1.10–1.55, p = 0.03) in patients aged 50–59, and 1.10 (95% CI = 1.00–1.22, p = 0.061) in patients aged over 70.

Conclusions

Our findings suggested that patients with chronic HCV infection are at an elevated risk of developing CRC. Our data also imply that the CRC prevention programs are needed to target younger HCV patients.

The role of viruses in adenocarcinoma development

Cancer is a leading public health issue that accounts for million deaths around the world every year. Human cancers contain over 100 types, which are categorized into different groups. Adenocarcinoma is one of those categories of cancer that begins from the glans and involves various tissues such as lung, esophagus, pancreas, prostate and colorectal. A range of risk factors has been identified for the development and progression of adenocarcinomas. One of these risk factors are viruses that serves special mechanisms to affect important host cell factors and tumorigenic pathways, contributing in development and promotion of adenocarcinomas. Here, we summarized the main viruses and their mechanisms implicated in the course of various adenocarcinomas development.

Pancreatitis Associated with Viral Hepatitis: Systematic Review

Background: We conducted a systematic review in order to summarize the available data on pancreatitis associated with viral hepatitis. Methods: A comprehensive literature search of Medline, Scopus and ISI Web of Science databases was conducted and papers eligible for the inclusion identified. Results: In total, 46 studies reporting data on 73 patients were included in the analysis. Most of the cases were diagnosed in Asia (57.53%), followed by North America (23.29%), and Europe (13.70%). Most of the patients were affected by hepatitis A virus (HAV) (42.47%), followed by hepatitis E virus (HEV) (28.77%), hepatitis B virus (HBV) (8.22%), and hepatitis C virus (HCV) (1.37%), while 17.81% at the time of diagnosis were classified as affected by “hepatitis virus”. Pancreatitis was severe in 32.88% of cases. The respiratory system was affected in 2.74% of patients, 6.85% experienced renal failure, while 5.48% experienced a multiorgan dysfunction syndrome (MODS). Four patients (5.48%) needed pancreatic surgery. Despite the treatment, 21.92% of patients died. We identified fulminant hepatitis (p < 0.0001), MODS (p < 0.0001) and severe pancreatitis (p < 0.0001) to be significantly more present in patients who died in comparison to cured ones. Conclusion: Increased awareness of pancreatic involvement in viral hepatitis is needed because it can have a substantial impact on therapeutic approaches and outcomes.

HCV infection and the risk of head and neck cancer: A meta-analysis

Recent evidence has consistently suggested a role for HCV in the etiology of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), but the conclusions of these studies have often been limited by small sample size. Therefore, a meta-analysis was performed to summarize present evidence on the association between HCV infection and HNSCC. After screening citations from literature search, eight observational studies investigating the association between HCV and cancer(s) of either oral cavity, oropharynx, hypopharynx or larynx were included. For each cancer site, risk ratios from individual studies were displayed in forest plots; pooled risk ratios (RR) and corresponding confidence intervals (CI) were calculated. A significant association was found between HCV infection and cancers of the oral cavity (RR = 2.13; 95%: 1.61-2.83), oropharynx (RR = 1.81; 95% CI: 1.21-2.72), and larynx (RR = 2.57; 95% CI: 1.11-5.94). A similar picture emerged for hypopharyngeal cancer, though this result did not fully reach statistical significance because of the small number of available studies (RR = 2.15; 95% CI: 0.73-6.31). These findings remained similar after exclusion of patients with HIV co-infection. Our results highlighted the importance of surveillance of the upper aerodigestive tract in patients with known chronic HCV infections in order to enable HNSCC early diagnosis. In addition, they could be a reminder of the possibility of undiagnosed HCV infection to the clinicians treating HNSCC.

Direct-acting antivirals ability to clear intestinal HCV-RNA in liver transplant patients

The hepatitis C virus mainly infects the liver but is also able to infect and replicate in other body compartments by creating an extra-hepatic reservoir that may influence the persistence of the infection after transplantation. It is unknown whether antiviral drugs affect the viral extra-hepatic sites. We evaluated the ability of pegylated/interferon + ribavirin and sofosbuvir + ribavirin to clear the virus from the gastrointestinal mucosa of liver-transplanted patients with HCV recurrence after transplantation. A total of 51 liver-transplanted patients, 30 treated with pegylated/interferon + ribavirin (ERA1) and 21 treated with sofosbuvir + ribavirin (ERA2), were enrolled, and blood serum and gastrointestinal tissues analyzed for the presence of HCV-RNA. In the ERA1 group, the 46.6% of patients had a sustained viral response to antiviral treatment, and gastrointestinal biopsies were positive for HCV in 73.3% of cases, 54.5% of responders, and 45.5% of non-responders. In the ERA2 group, the 66.6% had a sustained viral response, and gastrointestinal HCV-RNA was present in the 14.3% of patients, all relapsers. Sofosbuvir + ribavirin cleared the intestinal HCV in 85.7% of patients with recurrent HCV infection, while pegylated/interferon + ribavirin cleared it in 26.6% of treated patients, demonstrating the better effectiveness of new direct antiviral agents in clearing HCV intestinal reservoir.

Hepatitis C virus and risk of extrahepatic malignancies: a case-control study

Epidemiological studies have demonstrated an increased risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Therefore, we investigated the risk of extrahepatic malignancies associated with HCV infection. Inpatients diagnosed with lymphoma, breast, thyroid, kidney, or pancreatic cancer (research group, n = 17,925) as well as inpatients with no malignancies (control group, n = 16,580) matched by gender and age were enrolled from The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University between January 2008 and December 2016. A case-control study was conducted by retrospective analysis. The difference in HCV prevalence was analyzed between the research group and the control group. Also, the research group was compared to the 2006 National Hepatitis C sero-survey in China. A total of 86 cases were positive for anti-HCV in the research group. Compared with the control group (103 cases were anti-HCV positive), no significant associations between extrahepatic malignancies and HCV infection were observed. Meanwhile, compared to the 2006 National Hepatitis C sero-survey, we observed a significant association between the chronic lymphoma leukemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma (CLL/SLL) and HCV seropositivity in females in the research group aged 1–59 years old (OR = 14.69; 95% CI, 1.94–111.01). HCV infection had a potential association with CLL/SLL in females aged 1–59 years old. Our study did not confirm an association between HCV infection and the risk of extrahepatic malignancies. In regions with a low HCV prevalence, the association between HCV infection and extrahepatic malignancies needs further investigation.

Immune thrombocytopenic purpura increased risk of subsequent pancreatitis: A Nationwide population cohort study

Immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) is characterized by thrombocytopenia and bleeding diathesis. Pancreatitis is a very rare complication but may be fatal. We analyzed data of newly diagnosed ITP patients, excluding those with a history of splenectomy, unknown sex or date of birth, or preexisting pancreatitis at the time of ITP diagnosis, and compared these with selected age-, gender-, and index-year-matched controls, using the Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database from 1996 to 2013. The study enrolled 100,177 ITP patients and 100,177 controls. We found that pancreatitis risk was higher in secondary ITP patients, regardless of age group, gender, baseline Charlson comorbidity index (CCI) score, history of biliary stone, hyperlipidemia, or alcoholism, than in the control population. Primary ITP patients with CCI score 1 and without biliary tract stone history also showed a higher pancreatitis risk than the controls. The incidence rate and cumulative incidence of pancreatitis were increased in primary, secondary, and unspecified ITP cases. These phenomena may be related to the presence of autoantibodies against glycoprotein IIb/IIIa, or to IgG4, microparticle obstruction, or sclerosis. We noted a direct association between ITP and the development of pancreatitis in Taiwan population.

Fisiopatología de la hepatitis C y diabetes mellitus. Hacia la cura de dos epidemias en el siglo XXI

La infección crónica por virus de la hepatitis C (VHC) y la diabetes mellitus (DM) son dos problemas de salud pública que impactan los sistemas de salud, con una alta carga económica global. La infección por VHC produce manifestaciones hepáticas tales como hepatitis, cirrosis y carcinoma hepatocelular; asimismo, se ha involucrado en la patogénesis de manifestaciones extrahepáticas, entre las cuales se ha asociado con alteraciones metabólicas como la DM. Estudios longitudinales y transversales han reportado mayor incidencia y prevalencia de DM en pacientes con infección crónica por VHC. La DM acelera la progresión histológica y clínica en pacientes con infección crónica por VHC y las complicaciones cardiovasculares. Recientemente se ha avanzado en el tratamiento y la introducción de nuevos medicamentos como los antivirales de acción directa, que mejoran el control glucémico en estos pacientes.

Expert opinion on managing chronic HCV in patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma and other extrahepatic malignancies

HCV is a carcinogen that is well established as a major risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma. Evidence that HCV plays a role in the development of extrahepatic malignancies is less robust; however, epidemiological studies have consistently demonstrated an association between HCV infection and B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). The strongest evidence for a link between HCV and tumourigenesis is the clear association between viral eradication, as indicated by achievement of sustained virological response, and remission of B-cell NHL. All-oral direct-acting antiviral-based therapies are effective in patients with HCV-associated NHL and well tolerated. For this reason, it is important that clinicians assess HCV-infected patients for HCV-associated extrahepatic malignancies so patients can receive timely diagnosis and treatment.

Hepatitis C virus infection and non-hepatocellular malignancies in the DAA era: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Direct antiviral agents have greatly improved therapeutic options for chronic hepatitis C. Indeed, former "difficult-to-treat" patients can now be treated and can achieve sustained response. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is associated with hepatocellular carcinoma and with B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (B-NHL). Other malignancies have been reported to be associated with HCV infection albeit with various grades of evidence. Antineoplastic treatment is often reduced or suspended in HCV-positive cancer patients to avoid "HCV reactivation." In this setting, antiviral therapy combined with antineoplastic protocols may improve the outcome. For this reason, we conducted a systematic review and a meta-analysis to update the association between HCV infection and non-hepatocellular malignancies, and to shed light on the effects exerted by antiviral treatment on the natural history of oncological diseases.

METHODS

Relevant studies were identified by searching PUBMED, EMBASE and MEDLINE up to 1 August 2018. Pooled risk estimates were calculated with random-effects models according to PRISMA guidelines.

RESULTS

A total of 58 studies were included in the analysis: 27 studies of the association between HCV and B-NHL(OR 3.36; 95% CI 2.40-4.72;P < 0.00001);13 studies of the association between sustained virological response and progression-free survival (PFS) in B-NHL patients(OR 9.34; 95% CI 4.90-17.79; P < 0.00001); 13 studies of the association between HCV and intrahepatic-cholangio-carcinoma (OR 3.95;95% CI 2.25-6.94; P < 0.00001); and 5 studies of the association between HCV infection and pancreatic adeno-carcinoma(OR 1.60; 95% CI:1.25-2.04; P = 0.0002).

CONCLUSIONS

This study updates the strong association between B-NHL and HCV infection, confirms the association between HCV and non-hepatocellular tumours, and demonstrates a very strong association between viral eradication and a better outcome of HCV-positive B-NHL.

Short-term effects of direct-acting antiviral agents on inflammation and gut microbiota in hepatitis C-infected patients.Eur J Intern Med. 2019;67:47-58. [PMID: 31221551 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejim.2019.06.005] [Cited by in Crossref: 19] Liver damage is associated with gut dysbiosis. New direct-acting antiviral agents (DAAs) are able to eradicate hepatitis C virus (HCV) from the body. However, the short and medium-term effects of DAAs at gut level before advanced liver damage occurs have not been evaluated yet. Thus, we investigated the impact of HCV and DAAs on gut microbiota composition (GM) and systemic inflammation. To achieve this objective, twenty-three non HCV-infected controls and 22 HCV-infected patients were recruited. Only non-cirrhotic patients (fibrosis stage 0-3) were included to avoid the direct impact of cirrhosis and portal hypertension on gut. The HCV-groups were evaluated before the treatment, after completing DAAs treatment and after 3 months. Fecal bacterial 16S rDNA was ultrasequenced and several biochemical/metabolic/inflammatory parameters were quantified. HCV infection was accompanied by a significant increase in TNFα plasma levels. DAAs were able to reduce this increase, especially in lower fibrosis grades. HCV infection was not accompanied by dramatic changes in α-diversity and was not recovered after HCV negativization, although a complete restoration was observed in lower fibrosis degrees. Six phyla, 15 genera and 9 bacterial species resulted differentially abundant among the groups. These differences were almost blunted with lower fibrosis. In summary, neither the usage of DAAs nor 3 months in sustained viral response were able to counteract the changes induced by HCV at gut level. The partial restoration observed in inflammation and α-diversity was only observed in low fibrosis degrees. Thus, it is urgent to begin treatment with DAAs as soon as possible

Liver damage is associated with gut dysbiosis. New direct-acting antiviral agents (DAAs) are able to eradicate hepatitis C virus (HCV) from the body. However, the short and medium-term effects of DAAs at gut level before advanced liver damage occurs have not been evaluated yet. Thus, we investigated the impact of HCV and DAAs on gut microbiota composition (GM) and systemic inflammation. To achieve this objective, twenty-three non HCV-infected controls and 22 HCV-infected patients were recruited. Only non-cirrhotic patients (fibrosis stage 0-3) were included to avoid the direct impact of cirrhosis and portal hypertension on gut. The HCV-groups were evaluated before the treatment, after completing DAAs treatment and after 3 months. Fecal bacterial 16S rDNA was ultrasequenced and several biochemical/metabolic/inflammatory parameters were quantified. HCV infection was accompanied by a significant increase in TNFα plasma levels. DAAs were able to reduce this increase, especially in lower fibrosis grades. HCV infection was not accompanied by dramatic changes in α-diversity and was not recovered after HCV negativization, although a complete restoration was observed in lower fibrosis degrees. Six phyla, 15 genera and 9 bacterial species resulted differentially abundant among the groups. These differences were almost blunted with lower fibrosis. In summary, neither the usage of DAAs nor 3 months in sustained viral response were able to counteract the changes induced by HCV at gut level. The partial restoration observed in inflammation and α-diversity was only observed in low fibrosis degrees. Thus, it is urgent to begin treatment with DAAs as soon as possible.

Extrahepatic cancers and chronic HCV infection

Infectious agents, such as HCV, account for ∼15% of human cancers. HCV infects not only hepatocytes but also extrahepatic cells. Chronic HCV infection can induce chronic inflammation with qualitative and quantitative alterations of the immune repertoire and tissue microenvironment, which could induce various neoplasias. Epidemiological studies and meta-analyses suggest an increased rate of extrahepatic cancers in patients with chronic HCV infection along with a higher risk of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma, pancreatic cancer and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), highlighting the need to screen for HCV infection in patients with these cancers. Development of B cell NHL has been associated with HCV infection, with a relative risk of ∼1.5. Direct transformation related to the presence of the virus and chronic antigenic stimulation are the two major non-exclusive mechanisms involved in HCV-related lymphomagenesis. HCV infection alters survival of patients with lymphoma, and sustained virologic response (SVR) substantially improves prognosis. Antiviral treatments might induce remission of indolent lymphoma when SVR is achieved even without chemotherapy, emphasizing the role of HCV in lymphomagenesis in this context. However, studies are needed to provide prospective evidence of a causal relationship between chronic HCV infection and other extrahepatic cancers and to determine whether the risk of extrahepatic cancers is reduced with SVR. In this Review, we report on recent studies analysing the risk of extrahepatic cancers associated with chronic HCV infection. Although there is no doubt regarding the direct and indirect causality between HCV and NHL, an increased risk of other cancers is less clear, with the exception of cholangiocarcinoma.

Is There a Relationship Between Treatment With Direct Antiviral Agents for HCV Infection and the Development of Malignancies?

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Direct antiviral agents (DAAs) have become the treatment of choice for patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. As these drugs are new, it is important to learn the adverse events of these drugs in the short and long terms. We report on 7 patients who developed malignancies during treatment with DAAs or a short time after finishing treatment.

METHODS

We treated 133 patients with DAAs in our unit between January 2015 and June 2016, 100 (75%) of whom were treated with the combination of paritaprevir/ritonavir/ombitasvir with/without dasabuvir (PrOD). The distribution of HCV genotypes was as follow: G1b 114 (85.7%), G1a 3 (2.2%), G2 3 (2.2%), G3 10 (7.5%), G4 2 (1.5%). One hundred ten (82.7%) patients finished treatment. Adverse events were recorded during treatment and after finishing treatment. Efficacy was determined by assessment of serum HCV RNA.

RESULTS

We observed malignancies in 7 patients: 1 developed laryngeal carcinoma, 1 developed pancreatic adenocarcinoma, 1 developed oropharyngeal lymphoma, 1 developed recurrent aggressive transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder, 1 developed recurrent aggressive hepatocellular carcinoma, and 2 patients developed de novo hepatocellular carcinoma. All of these patients had advanced liver disease.

CONCLUSIONS

This report raises questions about DAAs and the possible development of malignancies. It will be important to look at large clinical trial data and real-world experience to determine if this relationship is real.

Hepatitis C Virus Infection Increases Risk of Gallstone Disease in Elderly Chinese Patients with Chronic Liver Disease

We investigated possible links between the etiology of liver disease and gallstone risk in Chinese patients with chronic liver disease (CLD). We compared the outcomes of 267 Chinese CLD patients with gallstones and those of a control group of 1,015 CLD patients without gallstones. Logistic regression analyses adjusting for demographic features and other gallstone risk factors revealed that liver cirrhosis increased the risk of gallstone development twofold [adjusted odds ratio (AOR); 95% confidence interval (95% CI): 2.343 (1.710–3.211)]. HCV infection increased gallstone risk 1–2-fold [AOR; 95% CI: 1.582 (1.066–2.347)] higher than did HBV infection. Multivariate analyses of the risk of developing gallstones in patients with liver cirrhosis after an HCV or HBV infection yielded an estimated AOR (95% CI) of 1.601 (1.063–2.413) in patients with an HCV infection. In elderly patients with CLD (≥60 years of age), gallstone risk also increased significantly after an HCV infection [AOR (95% CI): 2.394 (1.066–5.375)]. HCV infection, older age, and liver cirrhosis significantly correlate with an increased risk of gallstone development in Chinese patients with CLD. HCV infection further increases this risk in both patients with liver cirrhosis and in elderly CLD patients (≥60 years of age).

HCV nonstructural protein 4 is associated with aggressiveness features of breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) has the lymphotropic feature that is supposed to be the reason of related extrahepatic manifestation. HCV viral oncoproteins may participate in the regulation of some gene expression that has been implicated in tumorigenesis. Our aim is to evaluate the HCV-NS4 circulating levels in breast cancer (BC) and to investigate its relation with BC tumor aggressiveness.

METHODS

This study was performed among 158 Egyptian women (120 with BC and 38 with benign breast diseases). ELISA was used for detection of anti-HCV antibodies, HCV-NS4, fibronectin, and CA 15-3.

RESULTS

No association between HCV detection in this group of BC patients (27.5% in BC vs. 23.7% in breast benign diseases, P = 0.687). Among HCV-infected patients, the mean HCV-NS4 serum level in BC was significantly higher than benign group (61.7 μg/mL vs. 33.9 μg/mL, P = 0.0005). Fibronectin levels were higher (P = 0.014) in patients infected with HCV than noninfected BC patients. Elevated HCV-NS4 levels were associated with tumor severity features like large size, late stages, high grades, and infiltrated lymph nodes. The elevated levels of HCV-NS4 (> 40 μg/mL) yielded an estimated odds ratio (95% confidence intervals) of 2.5 (0.98-6.36), 1.2 (0.44-3.33), 1.9 (0.53-7.00), and 2.5 (0.87-7.33) for developing large size, late stages, high grades, and infiltrated lymph nodes, respectively. Interestingly, HCV-NS4 levels significantly correlated with other BC tumor marker like CA15-3 (r = 0.535; P = 0.0009) and fibronectin (r = 0.432; P < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

HCV-NS4 appears to be associated with BC progression features. Oncologists treating such BC patients should consider HCV screening to enable the early identification and to prevent progression of the disease.

A preliminary analysis of hepatitis C virus in pancreatic islet cells

BACKGROUND

An association between hepatitis C virus (HCV) and type 2 diabetes (T2D) is supported by numerous epidemiologic studies. We hypothesized that HCV could infect human pancreatic islet cells in vitro.

METHODS

Measures of HCV RNA synthesis and protein production were used to evaluate HCV infection of pancreatic islets recovered from human donors.

RESULTS

Significant co-staining of insulin and the HCV entry factor CD81 was observed in pancreatic islets. Positive- and negative-sense HCV RNA were detected in HCV-exposed islets at days 1, 3, 7, and 14 post-infection. The HCV core and NS3 proteins were expressed and increased with time providing further evidence of viral replication. Interferon and an HCV polymerase inhibitor reduced viral replication in islet cells. In HCV-infected islets, TNFα levels were elevated at days 1, 3, and 7 post-infection, while IL-6 levels were elevated at day 1 but not days 3 or 7. Overall, the expression of miR-122 was low in islets compared to the Huh7.5 hepatocyte-derived cell line, although the relative expression of miR-122 increased in islet cells after viral infection (1, 6.63, and 5.83 at days 1, 3, and 7, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

In this pilot study, viral infection was demonstrated in pancreatic islet cells from multiple donors using complementary measures of viral replication, thus providing evidence of in vitro infection. Altered cytokine expression may contribute to the development of insulin deficiency, and understanding the etiology of diabetes in individuals with HCV infection may facilitate the development of novel treatment modalities and prevention strategies. This in vitro system provides an important model for mechanistic studies of HCV-pancreas interactions and facilitates future studies of the potential impact of viral infection on islet cell function.

Hepatitis C and Risk of Nonhepatic Malignancies

Epidemiologic studies show an increased risk of mortality among hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected individuals compared with uninfected individuals from hepatic and nonhepatic causes. This article reviews the biologic plausibility of and epidemiologic evidence for the association between HCV and five extrahepatic malignancies: cholangiocarcinoma (CCA), pancreatic adenocarcinoma, papillary thyroid cancer, oral squamous cell cancer, and renal/kidney cancer. There is sufficient evidence to suggest that HCV is associated with intrahepatic CCA. The evidence for the link between HCV and pancreatic adenocarcinoma, oral squamous cell cancer, and renal/kidney cancer is compelling but requires further study. Based on available studies, there is no significant association between HCV, extrahepatic CCA, and papillary thyroid cancer.

Other Extrahepatic Manifestations of Hepatitis C Virus Infection (Pulmonary, Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura, Nondiabetes Endocrine Disorders)

Extrahepatic manifestations of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection are a rare but serious condition. This article summarizes the current literature on the association between HCV and endocrine and pulmonary manifestations, as well as idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP). HCV may directly infect extrahepatic tissues and interact with the immune system predisposing for obstructive and interstitial lung disease, ITP, autoimmune thyroiditis, infertility, growth hormone and adrenal deficiencies, osteoporosis, and potentially lung and thyroid cancers. However, in many cases, the current evidence is divergent and cannot sufficiently confirm a true association, which emphasizes the need for future targeted projects in this field.

HCV replication in gastrointestinal mucosa: Potential extra-hepatic viral reservoir and possible role in HCV infection recurrence after liver transplantation

Purpose

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) predominantly infects hepatocytes, although it is known that receptors for viral entry are distributed on a wide array of target cells. Chronic HCV infection is indeed characterized by multiple non-liver manifestations, suggesting a more complex HCV tropism extended to extrahepatic tissues and remains to be fully elucidated. In this study, we investigated the gastrointestinal mucosa (GIM) as a potential extrahepatic viral replication site and its contribution to HCV recurrence.

Methods

We analyzed GIM biopsies from a cohort of 76 patients, 11 of which were HCV-negative and 65 HCV-positive. Of these, 54 biopsies were from liver-transplanted patients. In 29 cases, we were able to investigate gastrointestinal biopsies from the same patient before and after transplant. To evaluate the presence of HCV, we looked for viral antigens and genome RNA, whilst to assess viral replicative activity, we searched for the replicative intermediate minus-strand RNA. We studied the genetic diversity and the phylogenetic relationship of HCV quasispecies from plasma, liver and gastrointestinal mucosa of HCV-liver-transplanted patients in order to assess HCV compartmentalization and possible contribution of gastrointestinal variants to liver re-infection after transplantation.

Results

Here we show that HCV infects and replicates in the cells of the GIM and that the favorite hosts were mostly enteroendocrine cells. Interestingly, we observed compartmentalization of the HCV quasispecies present in the gastrointestinal mucosa compared to other tissues of the same patient. Moreover, the phylogenetic analysis revealed a high similarity between HCV variants detected in gastrointestinal mucosa and those present in the re-infected graft.

Conclusions

Our results demonstrated that the gastrointestinal mucosa might be considered as an extrahepatic reservoir of HCV and that could contribute to viral recurrence. Moreover, the finding that HCV infects and replicates in neuroendocrine cells opens new perspectives on the role of these cells in the natural history of HCV infection.

Extrahepatic manifestations of HCV: the role of direct acting antivirals. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2017;15:737-746. [PMID: 28696154 DOI: 10.1080/14787210.2017.1354697] [Cited by in Crossref: 16] INTRODUCTIONHepatitis C virus (HCV) represents a major health concern, as nearly 3 million people become newly infected by this pathogen annually. The majority of infected individuals fail to clear the virus, and chronicity is established. Chronic HCV patients are at high risk for liver disease, ranging from mild fibrosis to cirrhosis and severe hepatocellular carcinoma. Over the last few years, the development of multiple direct acting antivirals (DAA) have revolutionized the HCV infection treatment, demonstrating cure rates higher than 90%, and showing less side effects than previous interferon-based regimens. Areas covered: Besides liver, HCV infection affects a variety of organs, therefore inducing diverse extrahepatic manifestations. This review covers clinical, experimental, and epidemiological publications regarding systemic manifestations of HCV, as well as recent studies focused on the effect of DAA in such conditions. Expert commentary: Though further research is needed; available data suggest that HCV eradication is often associated with the improvement of extrahepatic symptoms. Therefore, the emergence of DAA would offer the opportunity to treat both HCV infection and its systemic manifestations, requiring shorter treatment duration and driving minor adverse effects

INTRODUCTION

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) represents a major health concern, as nearly 3 million people become newly infected by this pathogen annually. The majority of infected individuals fail to clear the virus, and chronicity is established. Chronic HCV patients are at high risk for liver disease, ranging from mild fibrosis to cirrhosis and severe hepatocellular carcinoma. Over the last few years, the development of multiple direct acting antivirals (DAA) have revolutionized the HCV infection treatment, demonstrating cure rates higher than 90%, and showing less side effects than previous interferon-based regimens. Areas covered: Besides liver, HCV infection affects a variety of organs, therefore inducing diverse extrahepatic manifestations. This review covers clinical, experimental, and epidemiological publications regarding systemic manifestations of HCV, as well as recent studies focused on the effect of DAA in such conditions. Expert commentary: Though further research is needed; available data suggest that HCV eradication is often associated with the improvement of extrahepatic symptoms. Therefore, the emergence of DAA would offer the opportunity to treat both HCV infection and its systemic manifestations, requiring shorter treatment duration and driving minor adverse effects.

Liver cirrhosis: a risk factor for gallstone disease in chronic hepatitis C patients in China

We investigated the possible link between liver cirrhosis and gallstone risk in chronic hepatitis C (CHC) patients in China.To analyze the association between liver cirrhosis and gallstone development, we compared outcomes of 133 Chinese CHC patients with gallstones and an age-, sex-, and hepatitis C virus RNA level-matched control group of 431 CHC patients without gallstones.We found that liver cirrhosis was more prevalent in gallstone patients (40.6%) than in the control group (24.4%). Logistic regression analyses adjusting for demographic features and other gallstone risk factors revealed that liver cirrhosis increased the risk of gallstone development 2-fold (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 2.122; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.408-3.198). Moreover, multivariate analyses comparing the risk of gallstone development in liver cirrhosis patients with decompensated or compensated liver cirrhosis yielded an estimated AOR (95% CI) of 2.869 (1.277-6.450) in patients with decompensated liver cirrhosis. Gallstone risk also increased significantly with older age (>60 years) (AOR: 2.019; 95% CI: 1.017-4.009).Liver cirrhosis significantly correlates with increased risk of gallstone development in CHC patients in China. Decompensated liver cirrhosis and older age further heighten this risk in patients diagnosed with hepatitis C-related cirrhosis.

Inducing Hepatitis C Virus Resistance After Pig Liver Transplantation-A Proof of Concept of Liver Graft Modification Using Warm Ex Vivo Perfusion

Normothermic ex vivo liver perfusion (NEVLP) offers the potential to optimize graft function prior to liver transplantation (LT). Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is dependent on the presence of miRNA(microRNA)-122. Miravirsen, a locked-nucleic acid oligonucleotide, sequesters miR-122 and inhibits HCV replication. The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of delivering miravirsen during NEVLP to inhibit miR-122 function in a pig LT model. Pig livers were treated with miravirsen during NEVLP or cold storage (CS). Miravirsen absorption, miR-122 sequestration, and miR-122 target gene derepression were determined before and after LT. The effect of miravirsen treatment on HCV infection of hepatoma cells was also assessed. NEVLP improved miravirsen uptake versus CS. Significant miR-122 sequestration and miR-122 target gene derepression were seen with NEVLP but not with CS. In vitro data confirmed miravirsen suppression of HCV replication after established infection and prevented HCV infection with pretreatment of cells, analogous to the pretreatment of grafts in the transplant setting. In conclusion, miravirsen delivery during NEVLP is a potential strategy to prevent HCV reinfection after LT. This is the first large-animal study to provide "proof of concept" for using NEVLP to modify and optimize liver grafts for transplantation.

Is it enough to eliminate hepatitis C virus to reverse the damage caused by the infection?

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection represents one of the major causes of chronic liver disease, hepatocellular carcinoma and morbidity/mortality worldwide. It is also a major burden to the healthcare systems. A complete elimination of the HCV from the body through treatment is now possible. However, HCV not only alters the hepatic function. Several extra-hepatic manifestations are present in HCV-infected patients, which increase the mortality rate. Liver and gut are closely associated in what is called the “gut-liver axis”. A disrupted gut barrier leads to an increase in bacterial translocation and an activation of the mucosal immune system and secretion of inflammatory mediators that plays a key role in the progression of liver disease towards decompensated cirrhosis in HCV-infected patients. In addition, both qualitative and quantitative changes in the composition of the gut microbiota (GM) and states of chronic inflammation have been observed in patients with cirrhosis. Thus, a successful treatment of HCV infection should be also accompanied by a complete restoration of GM composition in order to avoid activation of the mucosal immune system, persistent inflammation and the development of long-term complications. Evaluation of GM composition after treatment could be of interest as a reliable indicator of the total or partial cure of these patients. However, studies focused on microbiota composition after HCV eradication from the body are lacking, which opens unique opportunities to deeply explore and investigate this exciting field.

Gallstones in Patients with Chronic Liver Diseases

With prevalence of 10-20% in adults in developed countries, gallstone disease (GSD) is one of the most prevalent and costly gastrointestinal tract disorders in the world. In addition to gallstone disease, chronic liver disease (CLD) is also an important global public health problem. The reported frequency of gallstone in chronic liver disease tends to be higher. The prevalence of gallstone disease might be related to age, gender, etiology, and severity of liver disease in patients with chronic liver disease. In this review, the aim was to identify the epidemiology, mechanisms, and treatment strategies of gallstone disease in chronic liver disease patients.

Hepatitis C virus infection and the risk of cancer among elderly US adults: A registry-based case-control study. Cancer. 2017;123:1202-1211. [PMID: 28117886 DOI: 10.1002/cncr.30559] [Cited by in Crossref: 55] BACKGROUNDHepatitis C virus (HCV) infection causes hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and subtypes of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). Associations with other cancers are not established. The authors systematically assessed associations between HCV infection and cancers in the US elderly population.METHODSThis was a registry-based case-control study using Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER)-Medicare data in US adults aged ≥66 years. Cases (n = 1,623,538) were patients who had first cancers identified in SEER registries (1993-2011). Controls (n = 200,000) were randomly selected, cancer-free individuals who were frequency-matched to cases on age, sex, race, and calendar year. Associations with HCV (documented by Medicare claims) were determined using logistic regression.RESULTSHCV prevalence was higher in cases than in controls (0.7% vs 0.5%). HCV was positively associated with cancers of the liver (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 31.5; 95% confidence interval [CI], 29.0-34.3), intrahepatic bile duct (aOR, 3.40; 95% CI, 2.52-4.58), extrahepatic bile duct (aOR, 1.90; 95% CI, 1.41-2.57), pancreas (aOR, 1.23; 95% CI, 1.09-1.40), and anus (aOR, 1.97; 95% CI, 1.42-2.73); nonmelanoma nonepithelial skin cancer (aOR, 1.53; 95% CI, 1.15-2.04); myelodysplastic syndrome (aOR, 1.56; 95% CI, 1.33-1.83); and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (aOR, 1.57; 95% CI, 1.34-1.84). Specific skin cancers associated with HCV were Merkel cell carcinoma (aOR, 1.92; 95% CI, 1.30-2.85) and appendageal skin cancers (aOR, 2.02; 95% CI, 1.29-3.16). Inverse associations were observed with uterine cancer (aOR, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.51-0.80) and prostate cancer (aOR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.66-0.82). Associations were maintained in sensitivity analyses conducted among individuals without documented alcohol abuse, cirrhosis, or hepatitis B or human immunodeficiency virus infections and after adjustment for socioeconomic status. Associations of HCV with other cancers were not observed.CONCLUSIONSHCV is associated with increased risk of cancers other than HCC in the US elderly population, notably bile duct cancers and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. These results support a possible etiologic role for HCV in an expanded group of cancers. Cancer 2017;123:1202-1211. © 2016 American Cancer Society

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection causes hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and subtypes of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). Associations with other cancers are not established. The authors systematically assessed associations between HCV infection and cancers in the US elderly population.

METHODS

This was a registry-based case-control study using Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER)-Medicare data in US adults aged ≥66 years. Cases (n = 1,623,538) were patients who had first cancers identified in SEER registries (1993-2011). Controls (n = 200,000) were randomly selected, cancer-free individuals who were frequency-matched to cases on age, sex, race, and calendar year. Associations with HCV (documented by Medicare claims) were determined using logistic regression.

RESULTS

HCV prevalence was higher in cases than in controls (0.7% vs 0.5%). HCV was positively associated with cancers of the liver (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 31.5; 95% confidence interval [CI], 29.0-34.3), intrahepatic bile duct (aOR, 3.40; 95% CI, 2.52-4.58), extrahepatic bile duct (aOR, 1.90; 95% CI, 1.41-2.57), pancreas (aOR, 1.23; 95% CI, 1.09-1.40), and anus (aOR, 1.97; 95% CI, 1.42-2.73); nonmelanoma nonepithelial skin cancer (aOR, 1.53; 95% CI, 1.15-2.04); myelodysplastic syndrome (aOR, 1.56; 95% CI, 1.33-1.83); and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (aOR, 1.57; 95% CI, 1.34-1.84). Specific skin cancers associated with HCV were Merkel cell carcinoma (aOR, 1.92; 95% CI, 1.30-2.85) and appendageal skin cancers (aOR, 2.02; 95% CI, 1.29-3.16). Inverse associations were observed with uterine cancer (aOR, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.51-0.80) and prostate cancer (aOR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.66-0.82). Associations were maintained in sensitivity analyses conducted among individuals without documented alcohol abuse, cirrhosis, or hepatitis B or human immunodeficiency virus infections and after adjustment for socioeconomic status. Associations of HCV with other cancers were not observed.

CONCLUSIONS

HCV is associated with increased risk of cancers other than HCC in the US elderly population, notably bile duct cancers and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. These results support a possible etiologic role for HCV in an expanded group of cancers. Cancer 2017;123:1202-1211. © 2016 American Cancer Society.

Extra-hepatic infection of hepatitis C virus in the colon tissue and its relationship with hepatitis C virus pathogenesis

Extra-hepatic compartments might contribute to hepatitis C virus (HCV) persistence and extra-hepatic manifestations. Therefore, we investigated HCV infection in colonic tissue in patients with chronic hepatitis C (CHC) and its relationship with HCV pathogenesis. Colonic biopsies were collected from three groups with CHC infection: treatment naïve (TN; n=12), non-responders (NR; n=10) to anti-HCV therapy (pegylated interferon-α and ribavirin) and sustained virologic response (SVR; n=10) and from a fourth healthy control group (n=10). Liver biopsies were examined to assess inflammation and fibrosis. HCV infection and colonic T regulatory (Treg) frequency were detected by immunohistochemistry. HCV core and NS3 proteins were detected in B cells and macrophage/monocytes of 42 % and 25 % of TN and 50 % and 30 % of NR, respectively, but not in SVR or control group. The numbers of cells expressing HCV proteins were positively correlated with both HCV viral load and colonic Treg frequency. A significant negative correlation between HCV-expressing cells with both liver inflammation and fibrosis was identified. Our study provides evidence that HCV can infect B cells and macrophages of the colon. The correlations between HCV infection in colonic tissue and HCV viral load and liver pathology underline the significance of this extra-hepatic infection in HCV pathogenesis and response to therapy.

Possible association between hepatitis C virus and malignancies different from hepatocellular carcinoma: A systematic review

AIM: To summarize the current knowledge about the potential relationship between hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and the risk of several extra-liver cancers.

METHODS: We performed a systematic review of the literature, according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) Statement. We extracted the pertinent articles, published in MEDLINE and the Cochrane Library, using the following search terms: neoplasm/cancer/malignancy/tumor/carcinoma/adeno-carcinoma and non-Hodgkin lymphomas, kidney/renal-, cholangio-, pancreatic-, thyroid-, breast-,oral-, skin-, prostate-, lung-, colon-, stomach-, haematologic. Case series, case-series with control-group, case-control, cohort-studies as well as meta-analyses, written in English were collected. Some of the main characteristics of retrieved trials, which were designed to investigate the prevalence of HCV infection in each type of the above-mentioned human malignancies were summarised. A main table was defined and included a short description in the text for each of these tumours, whether at least five studies about a specific neoplasm, meeting inclusion criteria, were available in literature. According to these criteria, we created the following sections and the corresponding tables and we indicated the number of included or excluded articles, as well as of meta-analyses and reviews: (1) HCV and haematopoietic malignancies; (2) HCV and cholangiocarcinoma; (3) HCV and pancreatic cancer; (4) HCV and breast cancer; (5) HCV and kidney cancer; (6) HCV and skin or oral cancer; and (7) HCV and thyroid cancer.

RESULTS: According to available data, a clear correlation between regions of HCV prevalence and risk of extra-liver cancers has emerged only for a very small group of types and histological subtypes of malignancies. In particular, HCV infection has been associated with: (1) a higher incidence of some B-cell Non-Hodgkin-Lymphoma types, in countries, where an elevated prevalence of this pathogen is detectable, accounting to a percentage of about 10%; (2) an increased risk of intra-hepatic cholangiocarcinoma; and (3) a correlation between HCV prevalence and pancreatic cancer (PAC) incidence.

CONCLUSION: To date no definitive conclusions may be obtained from the analysis of relationship between HCV and extra-hepatic cancers. Further studies, recruiting an adequate number of patients are required to confirm or deny this association.

Diabetes and Hepatitis C: A Two-Way Association. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2015;6:134. [PMID: 26441826 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2015.00134] [Cited by in Crossref: 59] Diabetes and hepatitis C infection are both prevalent diseases worldwide, and are associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Most studies, but not all, have shown that patients with chronic hepatitis C are more prone to develop type 2 diabetes (T2D) compared to healthy controls, as well as when compared to patients with other liver diseases, including hepatitis B. Furthermore, epidemiological studies have revealed that patients with T2D may also be at higher risk for worse outcomes of their hepatitis C infection, including reduced rate of sustained virological response, progression to fibrosis and cirrhosis, and higher risk for development of hepatocellular carcinoma. Moreover, hepatitis C infection and mainly its treatment, interferon α, can trigger the development of type 1 diabetes. In this review, we discuss the existing data on this two-way association between diabetes and hepatitis C infection with emphasis on possible mechanisms. It remains to be determined whether the new curative therapies for chronic hepatitis C will improve outcomes in diabetic hepatitis C patients, and conversely whether treatment with Metformin will reduce complications from hepatitis C virus infection. We propose an algorithm for diabetes screening and follow-up in hepatitis C patients

Diabetes and hepatitis C infection are both prevalent diseases worldwide, and are associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Most studies, but not all, have shown that patients with chronic hepatitis C are more prone to develop type 2 diabetes (T2D) compared to healthy controls, as well as when compared to patients with other liver diseases, including hepatitis B. Furthermore, epidemiological studies have revealed that patients with T2D may also be at higher risk for worse outcomes of their hepatitis C infection, including reduced rate of sustained virological response, progression to fibrosis and cirrhosis, and higher risk for development of hepatocellular carcinoma. Moreover, hepatitis C infection and mainly its treatment, interferon α, can trigger the development of type 1 diabetes. In this review, we discuss the existing data on this two-way association between diabetes and hepatitis C infection with emphasis on possible mechanisms. It remains to be determined whether the new curative therapies for chronic hepatitis C will improve outcomes in diabetic hepatitis C patients, and conversely whether treatment with Metformin will reduce complications from hepatitis C virus infection. We propose an algorithm for diabetes screening and follow-up in hepatitis C patients.

Association between HBsAg positivity and pancreatic cancer: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Several studies have proposed an association between hepatitis B and pancreatic cancer. Although the spectrum of serological tests varied between studies, hepatitis B virus (HBV) surface antigen (HBsAg) test results were consistently reported. This meta-analysis evaluates the association between HBsAg positivity and pancreatic cancer.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was performed from inception through September 2013 for English language studies using the following terms: "hepatitis B," "HBsAg," "pancreatic cancer," and "pancreatic adenocarcinoma." Studies that have not reported cumulative odds ratio for the association of interest were excluded. Pooled odds ratios (ORs) and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated using a random-effects model. Statistical heterogeneity and publication bias were addressed using the I2 statistic and Egger's weighted regression statistics, respectively.

RESULTS

We included two case-control studies and one cohort study, involving 1,636 patients with pancreatic cancer. The OR of developing pancreatic cancer was 1.50 (95% CI 1.21 to 1.87) for individuals who were HBsAg-positive. The type of study, case-control versus cohort, did not appear to influence the results. Only two of the three studies reported the association between anti-HBc positivity and pancreatic cancer. Our analysis revealed a nonsignificant increased risk of cancer in patients with positive anti-HBc status (OR 1.23, 95% CI 0.95-1.59). No statistically significant heterogeneity or publication bias was noted.

CONCLUSION

HBsAg positivity is associated with an increased risk of pancreatic cancer. Additional studies are needed to clearly define the association between chronic hepatitis B infection and pancreatic cancer. This could have important implications for both primary prevention and treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Hepatitis C virus infection and type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and diabetes mellitus are two major public health problems that cause devastating health and financial burdens worldwide. Diabetes can be classified into two major types: type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and T2DM. T2DM is a common endocrine disorder that encompasses multifactorial mechanisms, and T1DM is an immunologically mediated disease. Many epidemiological studies have shown an association between T2DM and chronic hepatitis C (CHC) infection. The processes through which CHC is associated with T2DM seem to involve direct viral effects, insulin resistance, proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and other immune-mediated mechanisms. Few data have been reported on the association of CHC and T1DM and reports on the potential association between T1DM and acute HCV infection are even rarer. A small number of studies indicate that interferon-α therapy can stimulate pancreatic autoimmunity and in certain cases lead to the development of T1DM. Diabetes and CHC have important interactions. Diabetic CHC patients have an increased risk of developing cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma compared with non-diabetic CHC subjects. However, clinical trials on HCV-positive patients have reported improvements in glucose metabolism after antiviral treatment. Further studies are needed to improve prevention policies and to foster adequate and cost-effective programmes for the surveillance and treatment of diabetic CHC patients.

Chronic hepatitis virus infection increases the risk of pancreatic cancer: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Several reports have inconsistently demonstrated that there is an association between hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections and pancreatic cancer (PC). The aim of the present meta-analysis is to assess this possible relationship.

DATA SOURCES

Studies were identified by searching available database from January 2000 to July 2012. Possible associations between PC risk and hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and its antibody (HBsAb), hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) and its antibody (HBeAb), anti-HBcAg antibody (HBcAb), and HCV antibody (anti-HCV) were evaluated.

RESULTS

Eight case-control and two cohort studies were included, and their quality scores were assessed by the modified Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale (NOS). We found that HBsAg and anti-HCV seropositivity significantly increased risk of PC (OR=1.28, 95% CI: 1.11-1.48 and OR=1.21, 95% CI: 1.02-1.44). The presence of HBsAb was associated with a statistically significant decrease in the risk of PC (OR=0.40, 95% CI: 0.20-0.79) and HBeAb (OR=0.62, 95% CI: 0.39-0.99). HBsAg-/HBcAb+/HBsAb- or HBsAg-/HBcAb+/HBsAb+ profile was not related to PC risk (OR=1.57, 95% CI: 0.83-2.98 and OR=1.24, 95% CI: 0.72-2.14).

CONCLUSIONS

HBV/HCV infection increases the risk of PC. HBsAb and HBeAb seropositivity may be the protective factors against PC. It is still uncertain whether serological pattern of past exposure to HBV with or without natural immunity is associated with an enhanced probability of this malignancy.

Hepatitis B or C viral infection and risk of pancreatic cancer: A meta-analysis of observational studies

AIM: To investigate if there is an association between hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and the risk of pancreatic cancer.

METHODS: All relevant studies published before 11 October, 2012 were identified by a systematic search of MEDLINE, EMBASE, BIOSIS Previews and the Cochrane Library databases and with cross-referencing. The observational studies that reported RR or OR estimates with 95%CIs for the association between HBV or HCV and pancreatic cancer were included. A random-effects model was used to summarize meta-analytic estimates. The Newcastle-Ottawa quality assessment scale was applied to assess the quality of the methodology in the included studies.

RESULTS: A total of 8 eligible studies were selected for meta-analysis. Overall, chronic hepatitis B and inactive hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) carrier state (HBsAg positive) had a significantly increased risk of pancreatic cancer with OR of 1.20 (95%CI: 1.01-1.39), especially in the Chinese population (OR = 1.30, 95%CI: 1.05-1.56). Past exposure to HBV (possible occult HBV infection) had an increased OR of pancreatic cancer risk (OR = 1.24, 95%CI: 1.05-1.42), especially among those patients without natural immunity [anti hepatitis B core (HBc) positive/hepatitis B surface antibody (anti HBs) negative], with OR of 1.67 (95%CI: 1.13-2.22). However, past exposure to HBV with natural immunity (anti-HBc positive/anti-HBs positive) had no association with pancreatic cancer development, with OR 0.98 (95%CI: 0.80-1.16), nor did the HBV active replication (hepatitis B e antigen positive status), with OR 0.98 (95%CI: 0.27-1.68). The risk of pancreatic cancer among anti-HBs positive patients was significantly lower than among anti-HBs negative patients (OR = 0.54, 95%CI: 0.46-0.62). Past exposure to HCV also resulted in an increased risk of pancreatic cancer (OR = 1.26, 95%CI: 1.03-1.50). Significant between-study heterogeneity was observed. Evidence of publication bias for HBV/HCV infection-pancreatic cancer association was not found.

CONCLUSION: Chronic HBV and HCV infection increases pancreatic cancer risk. Our findings underscore the need for more studies to confirm this potential relationship.

Effects of HCV on basal and tat-induced HIV LTR activation

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) co-infection occurs in ∼30–40% of the HIV-infected population in the US. While a significant body of research suggests an adverse effect of HIV on HCV replication and disease progression, the impact of HCV on HIV infection has not been well studied. Increasing data suggest that hepatocytes and other liver cell populations can serve as reservoirs for HIV replication. Therefore, to gain insight into the impact of HCV on HIV, the effects of the HCV Core protein and infectious hepatitis C virions were evaluated on basal and Tat-induced activation of the HIV long terminal repeat (LTR) in hepatocytes. The HIV LTR was highly induced by the HIV transactivator protein Tat in hepatocytes. Activation varied according to the number of NF-kB binding sites present in the LTRs from different HIV subtypes. Involvement of the NF-kB binding pathway in LTR activation was demonstrated using an NF-kB inhibitor and deletion of the NF-kB binding sites. TNFα, a pro-inflammatory cytokine that plays an important role in HIV pathogenesis, also induced LTR activity in hepatocytes. However, HIV LTR activity was suppressed in hepatocytes in the presence of HCV Core protein, and the suppressive effect persisted in the presence of TNFα. In contrast, infectious hepatitis C virions upregulated HIV LTR activation and gene transcription. Core-mediated suppression remained unaltered in the presence of HCV NS3/4A protein, suggesting the involvement of other viral/cellular factors. These findings have significant clinical implications as they imply that HCV could accelerate HIV disease progression in HIV/HCV co-infected patients. Such analyses are important to elucidate the mechanisms by which these viruses interact and could facilitate the development of more effective therapies to treat HIV/HCV co-infection.

Hepatitis B and C virus infections as possible risk factor for pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Med Hypotheses. 2012;79:678-697. [PMID: 22959312 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2012.08.008] [Cited by in Crossref: 11] Pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAC) is a very aggressive and lethal cancer, with a very poor prognosis, because of absence of early symptoms, advanced stage at presentation, early metastatic dissemination and lack of both specific tests to detect its growth in the initial phases and effective systemic therapies. To date, the causes of PAC still remain largely unknown, but multiple lines of evidence from epidemiological and laboratory researches suggest that about 15-20% of all cancers are linked in some way to chronic infection, in particular it has been shown that several viruses have a role in human carcinogenesis. The purpose of this report is to discuss the hypothesis that two well-known oncogenic viruses, Human B hepatitis (HBV) and Human C hepatitis (HCV) are a possible risk factor for this cancer. Therefore, with the aim to examine the potential link between these viruses and PAC, we performed a selection of observational studies evaluating this association and we hypothesized that some pathogenetic mechanisms involved in liver carcinogenesis might be in common with pancreatic cancer development in patients with serum markers of present or past HBV and HCV infections. To date the available observational studies performed are few, heterogeneous in design as well as in end-points and with not univocal results, nevertheless they might represent the starting-point for future larger and better designed clinical trials to define this hypothesized relationship. Should these further studies confirm an association between HBV/HCV infection and PAC, screening programs might be justified in patients with active or previous hepatitis B and C viral infection

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAC) is a very aggressive and lethal cancer, with a very poor prognosis, because of absence of early symptoms, advanced stage at presentation, early metastatic dissemination and lack of both specific tests to detect its growth in the initial phases and effective systemic therapies. To date, the causes of PAC still remain largely unknown, but multiple lines of evidence from epidemiological and laboratory researches suggest that about 15-20% of all cancers are linked in some way to chronic infection, in particular it has been shown that several viruses have a role in human carcinogenesis. The purpose of this report is to discuss the hypothesis that two well-known oncogenic viruses, Human B hepatitis (HBV) and Human C hepatitis (HCV) are a possible risk factor for this cancer. Therefore, with the aim to examine the potential link between these viruses and PAC, we performed a selection of observational studies evaluating this association and we hypothesized that some pathogenetic mechanisms involved in liver carcinogenesis might be in common with pancreatic cancer development in patients with serum markers of present or past HBV and HCV infections. To date the available observational studies performed are few, heterogeneous in design as well as in end-points and with not univocal results, nevertheless they might represent the starting-point for future larger and better designed clinical trials to define this hypothesized relationship. Should these further studies confirm an association between HBV/HCV infection and PAC, screening programs might be justified in patients with active or previous hepatitis B and C viral infection.

Promising Candidate Urinary MicroRNA Biomarkers for the Early Detection of Hepatocellular Carcinoma among High-Risk Hepatitis C Virus Egyptian Patients. J Cancer. 2012;3:19-31. [PMID: 22211142 DOI: 10.7150/jca.3.19] [Cited by in Crossref: 86] MicroRNAs (miRNA) are small endogenously expressed non-coding RNAs that negatively regulate expression of protein-coding genes at the translational level. Accumulating evidence, such as aberrant expression of miRNAs, suggests that they play a role in the development of cancer. They have been identified in various tumor types, demonstrating that different sets of miRNAs are usually deregulated in different cancers. To identify the miRNA signatures specific for Hepatitis C virus (HCV)-associated Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), miRNA expression profiling of 32 HCC post-HCV infected, 74 HCV-positive and 12 control individuals was carried out using whole genome expression profiling. Differential expression of two individual miRNAs between control and high risk HCV patients was detected and found to possibly target genes related to HCC development and progression. The sensitivity and specificity of miR-618 for detecting HCC among HCV-positive individuals was found to be 64% and 68%, respectively. Whereas, the sensitivity and specificity of miR-650 were 72% and 58%, respectively. Additionally, the sensitivity and specificity for miR-618/650 in tandem were 58% and 75%, respectively. These predictive values are greatly improved compared to the traditional α-feto protein (AFP) level-based detection method. The proposed HCC miRNA signatures may therefore be of great value for the early diagnosis of HCC, before the onset of disease in HCV-positive patients. The significance of this approach is amplified by the use of urine as a sample source as it offers a non-invasive approach for developing screening methods that can reduce mortality rates

MicroRNAs (miRNA) are small endogenously expressed non-coding RNAs that negatively regulate expression of protein-coding genes at the translational level. Accumulating evidence, such as aberrant expression of miRNAs, suggests that they play a role in the development of cancer. They have been identified in various tumor types, demonstrating that different sets of miRNAs are usually deregulated in different cancers. To identify the miRNA signatures specific for Hepatitis C virus (HCV)-associated Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), miRNA expression profiling of 32 HCC post-HCV infected, 74 HCV-positive and 12 control individuals was carried out using whole genome expression profiling. Differential expression of two individual miRNAs between control and high risk HCV patients was detected and found to possibly target genes related to HCC development and progression. The sensitivity and specificity of miR-618 for detecting HCC among HCV-positive individuals was found to be 64% and 68%, respectively. Whereas, the sensitivity and specificity of miR-650 were 72% and 58%, respectively. Additionally, the sensitivity and specificity for miR-618/650 in tandem were 58% and 75%, respectively. These predictive values are greatly improved compared to the traditional α-feto protein (AFP) level-based detection method. The proposed HCC miRNA signatures may therefore be of great value for the early diagnosis of HCC, before the onset of disease in HCV-positive patients. The significance of this approach is amplified by the use of urine as a sample source as it offers a non-invasive approach for developing screening methods that can reduce mortality rates.

Tissue donation and virus safety: more nucleic acid amplification testing is needed. Transpl Infect Dis. 2010;12:375-386. [PMID: 20412535 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3062.2010.00505.x] [Cited by in Crossref: 36] In tissue and organ transplantation, it is of great importance to avoid the transmission of blood-borne viruses to the recipient. While serologic testing for anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 and -2, anti-hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), anti-hepatitis B core antigen (HBc), and Treponema pallidum infection is mandatory, there is until now in most countries no explicit demand for nucleic acid amplification testing (NAT) to detect HIV, hepatitis B virus (HBV), and HCV infection. After a review of reports in the literature on viral transmission events, tissue-specific issues, and manufacturing and inactivation procedures, we evaluated the significance of HIV, HCV, and HBV detection using NAT in donors of various types of tissues and compared our results with the experiences of blood banking organizations. There is a significant risk of HIV, HCV, and HBV transmission by musculoskeletal tissues because of their high blood content and the high donor-recipient ratio. If no effective virus inactivation procedure for musculoskeletal tissue is applied, donors should be screened using NAT for HIV, HCV, and HBV. Serologically screened cardiovascular tissue carries a very low risk of HIV, HCV, or HBV transmission. Nevertheless, because effective virus inactivation is impossible (retention of tissue morphology) and the donor-recipient ratio may be as high as 1:10, we concluded that NAT should be performed for HIV, HCV, and HBV as an additional safety measure. Although cornea allografts carry the lowest risk of transmitting HIV, HCV, and HBV owing to corneal physiology, morphology, and the epidemiology of corneal diseases, NAT for HCV should still be performed. If the NAT screening of a donor for HIV, HCV, and HBV is negative, quarantine storage of the donor tissue seems dispensable. In view of numerous synergistic effects with transfusion medicine, it would be advantageous for tissue banks to cooperate with blood bank laboratories in performing virological tests

In tissue and organ transplantation, it is of great importance to avoid the transmission of blood-borne viruses to the recipient. While serologic testing for anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 and -2, anti-hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), anti-hepatitis B core antigen (HBc), and Treponema pallidum infection is mandatory, there is until now in most countries no explicit demand for nucleic acid amplification testing (NAT) to detect HIV, hepatitis B virus (HBV), and HCV infection. After a review of reports in the literature on viral transmission events, tissue-specific issues, and manufacturing and inactivation procedures, we evaluated the significance of HIV, HCV, and HBV detection using NAT  in  donors of various types of tissues and compared our results with the experiences of blood banking organizations. There is a significant risk of HIV, HCV, and HBV transmission by musculoskeletal tissues because of their high blood content and the high donor-recipient ratio. If no effective virus inactivation procedure for musculoskeletal tissue is applied, donors should be screened using NAT  for  HIV, HCV, and HBV. Serologically screened cardiovascular tissue carries a very low risk of HIV, HCV, or HBV transmission. Nevertheless, because effective virus inactivation is impossible (retention of tissue morphology) and the donor-recipient ratio may be as high as 1:10, we concluded that NAT  should be performed for HIV, HCV, and HBV as an additional safety measure. Although cornea allografts carry the lowest risk of transmitting HIV, HCV, and HBV  owing to corneal physiology, morphology, and the epidemiology of corneal diseases, NAT  for  HCV should still be performed. If the NAT  screening of a donor for HIV, HCV, and HBV is negative, quarantine storage of the donor tissue seems dispensable. In view of numerous synergistic effects with transfusion medicine, it would be advantageous for tissue banks to cooperate with blood bank laboratories in performing virological tests.

Immunohistochemical detection of hepatitis C virus (genotype 4) in B-cell NHL in an Egyptian population: correlation with serum HCV-RNA

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Retrospective evaluation of hepatitis C virus (HCV) prevalence in lymphoma tissues has important applications in clarifying the contribution of viral factors to the pathogenesis. Trials for detection of HCV at the cellular level in lymphoma tissues are, so far, minimal with unsatisfactory results. We aimed to study the detection and localization of HCV in the tissues of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) patients.

DESIGN

We performed immunohistochemistry to detect the HCV nonstructural 3 protein in paraffin-embedded tissue specimens of B-cell NHL patients, in 39 serum HCV-RNA positive samples and 35 serum HCV-RNA negative samples as controls. The serum analysis was carried out for HCV antibodies using enzyme-linked immunoassay and for HCV-RNA using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction was used to detect the HCV-RNA in tissues in immunohistochemically positive cases. We correlated the results with the clinicopathologic characteristics of the patients.

RESULTS

A diffuse cytoplasmic immunohistochemical staining for HCV in the lymphoid cells was detected in 8 of 39 serum positive cases (20.5%), all of which were genotype 4, which is the most prevalent HCV genotype in Egypt. Only 2 out of 35 serum negative control samples showed positive staining and in 1 of them HCV-RNA was detected in tissue. No significant correlation was detected between HCV positive cases and the clinicopathologic features of the patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Immunohistochemical detection of HCV proteins in lymphoma tissues supports a potential role of viral replication in lymphomagenesis. The low number of cases showing expression of viral proteins may represent a low viral load in lymphoid tissue and/or restriction of HCV protein expression to certain subtypes of B-cell NHL. Immunohistochemistry can be used as a complementary tool for specific HCV detection in the paraffin-embedded material of lymphoma tissues not suitable for RNA analysis.