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Astrocytes and oligodendrocytes in grey and white matter regions of the brain metabolize fatty acids. Sci Rep 2017; 7:10779. [PMID: 28883484 PMCID: PMC5589817 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-11103-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2017] [Accepted: 08/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The grey and white matter regions of the mammalian brain consist of both neurons and neuroglial cells. Among the neuroglia, the two macroglia oligodendrocytes and astrocytes are the most abundant cell types. While the major function of oligodendrocytes is the formation of the lipid-rich myelin structure, the heterogeneous group of astrocytes fulfils a multitude of important roles in cerebral development and homeostasis. Brain lipid homeostasis involves the synthesis of a specific cerebral lipidome by local lipid metabolism. In this study we have investigated the fatty acid uptake and lipid biosynthesis in grey and white matter regions of the murine brain. Key findings were: (i) white matter oligodendrocytes and astrocytes take up saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, (ii) different grey matter regions show varying lipid labelling intensities, (iii) the medial habenula, an epithalamic grey matter structure, and the oligodendrocytes and astrocytes therein are targeted by fatty acids, and (iv) in the medial habenula, the neutral lipid containing lipid droplets are found in cells facing the ventricle but undetectable in the habenular parenchyma. Our data indicate a role for oligodendrocytes and astrocytes in local lipid metabolism of white and grey matter regions in the brain.
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Hofmann K, Lamberz C, Piotrowitz K, Offermann N, But D, Scheller A, Al-Amoudi A, Kuerschner L. Tanycytes and a differential fatty acid metabolism in the hypothalamus. Glia 2016; 65:231-249. [PMID: 27726181 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Revised: 08/31/2016] [Accepted: 09/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Although the brain controls all main metabolic pathways in the whole organism, its lipid metabolism is partially separated from the rest of the body. Circulating lipids and other metabolites are taken up into brain areas like the hypothalamus and are locally metabolized and sensed involving several hypothalamic cell types. In this study we show that saturated and unsaturated fatty acids are differentially processed in the murine hypothalamus. The observed differences involve both lipid distribution and metabolism. Key findings were: (i) hypothalamic astrocytes are targeted by unsaturated, but not saturated lipids in lean mice; (ii) in obese mice labeling of these astrocytes by unsaturated oleic acid cannot be detected unless β-oxidation or ketogenesis is inhibited; (iii) the hypothalamus of obese animals increases ketone body and neutral lipid synthesis while tanycytes, hypothalamic cells facing the ventricle, increase their lipid droplet content; and (iv) tanycytes show different labeling for saturated or unsaturated lipids. Our data support a metabolic connection between tanycytes and astrocytes likely to impact hypothalamic lipid sensing. GLIA 2017;65:231-249.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Hofmann
- Life and Medical Sciences Institute (LIMES), University of Bonn, Bonn, D-53115, Germany
| | - Christian Lamberz
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, D-53175, Germany
| | - Kira Piotrowitz
- Life and Medical Sciences Institute (LIMES), University of Bonn, Bonn, D-53115, Germany
| | - Nina Offermann
- Life and Medical Sciences Institute (LIMES), University of Bonn, Bonn, D-53115, Germany
| | - Diana But
- Life and Medical Sciences Institute (LIMES), University of Bonn, Bonn, D-53115, Germany
| | - Anja Scheller
- Department of Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine (CIPMM), University of Saarland, Homburg, D-66421, Germany
| | - Ashraf Al-Amoudi
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, D-53175, Germany
| | - Lars Kuerschner
- Life and Medical Sciences Institute (LIMES), University of Bonn, Bonn, D-53115, Germany
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3
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McClelland KS, Bowles J. Culturing murine embryonic organs: Pros, cons, tips and tricks. Differentiation 2016; 91:50-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2016.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2016] [Accepted: 01/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Albrecht O, Klug A. Laser-guided Neuronal Tracing In Brain Explants. J Vis Exp 2015:53333. [PMID: 26649948 PMCID: PMC4692760 DOI: 10.3791/53333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
We present a technique which combines an in vitro tracer injection protocol, which uses a series of electrical and pressure pulses to increase dye uptake through electroporation in brain explants with targeted laser illumination and matching filter goggles during the procedure. The described technique of in vitro electroporation by itself yields relatively good visual control for targetting certain areas of the brain. By combining it with laser excitation of fluorescent genetic markers and their read-out through band-passing filter goggles, which can pick up the emissions of the genetically labeled cells/nuclei and the fluorescent tracing dye, a researcher can substantially increase the accuracy of injections by finding the area of interest and controlling for the dye-spread/uptake in the injection area much more efficiently. In addition, the laser illumination technique allows to study the functionality of a given neurocircuit by providing information about the type of neurons projecting to a certain area in cases where the GFP expression is linked to the type of transmitter expressed by a subpopulation of neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Otto Albrecht
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Colorado School of Medicine;
| | - Achim Klug
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Colorado School of Medicine
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Hill RA, Medved J, Patel KD, Nishiyama A. Organotypic slice cultures to study oligodendrocyte dynamics and myelination. J Vis Exp 2014:e51835. [PMID: 25177825 DOI: 10.3791/51835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
NG2 expressing cells (polydendrocytes, oligodendrocyte precursor cells) are the fourth major glial cell population in the central nervous system. During embryonic and postnatal development they actively proliferate and generate myelinating oligodendrocytes. These cells have commonly been studied in primary dissociated cultures, neuron cocultures, and in fixed tissue. Using newly available transgenic mouse lines slice culture systems can be used to investigate proliferation and differentiation of oligodendrocyte lineage cells in both gray and white matter regions of the forebrain and cerebellum. Slice cultures are prepared from early postnatal mice and are kept in culture for up to 1 month. These slices can be imaged multiple times over the culture period to investigate cellular behavior and interactions. This method allows visualization of NG2 cell division and the steps leading to oligodendrocyte differentiation while enabling detailed analysis of region-dependent NG2 cell and oligodendrocyte functional heterogeneity. This is a powerful technique that can be used to investigate the intrinsic and extrinsic signals influencing these cells over time in a cellular environment that closely resembles that found in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Hill
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, University of Connecticut; Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine
| | - Jelena Medved
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, University of Connecticut
| | - Kiran D Patel
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, University of Connecticut
| | - Akiko Nishiyama
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, University of Connecticut; Stem Cell Institute, University of Connecticut;
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6
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Pilaz LJ, Silver DL. Live imaging of mitosis in the developing mouse embryonic cortex. J Vis Exp 2014. [PMID: 24961595 DOI: 10.3791/51298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Although of short duration, mitosis is a complex and dynamic multi-step process fundamental for development of organs including the brain. In the developing cerebral cortex, abnormal mitosis of neural progenitors can cause defects in brain size and function. Hence, there is a critical need for tools to understand the mechanisms of neural progenitor mitosis. Cortical development in rodents is an outstanding model for studying this process. Neural progenitor mitosis is commonly examined in fixed brain sections. This protocol will describe in detail an approach for live imaging of mitosis in ex vivo embryonic brain slices. We will describe the critical steps for this procedure, which include: brain extraction, brain embedding, vibratome sectioning of brain slices, staining and culturing of slices, and time-lapse imaging. We will then demonstrate and describe in detail how to perform post-acquisition analysis of mitosis. We include representative results from this assay using the vital dye Syto11, transgenic mice (histone H2B-EGFP and centrin-EGFP), and in utero electroporation (mCherry-α-tubulin). We will discuss how this procedure can be best optimized and how it can be modified for study of genetic regulation of mitosis. Live imaging of mitosis in brain slices is a flexible approach to assess the impact of age, anatomy, and genetic perturbation in a controlled environment, and to generate a large amount of data with high temporal and spatial resolution. Hence this protocol will complement existing tools for analysis of neural progenitor mitosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis-Jan Pilaz
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center
| | - Debra L Silver
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center; Departments of Neurobiology and Cell Biology, Duke Institute for Brain Sciences, Duke University Medical Center;
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Pakan JMP, McDermott KW. A method to investigate radial glia cell behavior using two-photon time-lapse microscopy in an ex vivo model of spinal cord development. Front Neuroanat 2014; 8:22. [PMID: 24782718 PMCID: PMC3989586 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2014.00022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammalian central nervous system (CNS) develops from multipotent progenitor cells, which proliferate and differentiate into the various cell types of the brain and spinal cord. Despite the wealth of knowledge from progenitor cell culture studies, there is a significant lack of understanding regarding dynamic progenitor cell behavior over the course of development. This is in part due to shortcomings in the techniques available to study these processes in living tissues as they are occurring. In order to investigate cell behavior under physiologically relevant conditions we established an ex vivo model of the developing rat spinal cord. This method allows us to directly observe specific populations of cells ex vivo in real time and over extended developmental periods as they undergo proliferation, migration, and differentiation in the CNS. Previous investigations of progenitor cell behavior have been limited in either spatial or temporal resolution (or both) due to the necessity of preserving tissue viability and avoiding phototoxic effects of fluorescent imaging. The method described here overcomes these obstacles. Using two-photon and confocal microscopy and transfected organotypic spinal cord slice cultures we have undertaken detailed imaging of a unique population of neural progenitors, radial glial cells. This method uniquely enables analysis of large populations as well as individual cells; ultimately resulting in a 4D dataset of progenitor cell behavior for up to 7 days during embryonic development. This approach can be adapted to study a variety of cell populations at different stages of development using appropriate promoter driven fluorescent protein expression. The ability to control the tissue micro-environment makes this ex vivo method a powerful tool to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms regulating cell behavior during embryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kieran W. McDermott
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College CorkCork, Ireland
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8
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Toda S, Uchihashi K, Aoki S, Sonoda E, Yamasaki F, Piao M, Ootani A, Yonemitsu N, Sugihara H. Adipose tissue-organotypic culture system as a promising model for studying adipose tissue biology and regeneration. Organogenesis 2012; 5:50-6. [PMID: 19794899 DOI: 10.4161/org.5.2.8347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2009] [Accepted: 03/05/2009] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Adipose tissue consists of mature adipocytes, preadipocytes and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), but a culture system for analyzing their cell types within the tissue has not been established. We have recently developed "adipose tissue-organotypic culture system" that maintains unilocular structure, proliferative ability and functions of mature adipocytes for a long term, using three-dimensional collagen gel culture of the tissue fragments. In this system, both preadipocytes and MSCs regenerate actively at the peripheral zone of the fragments. Our method will open up a new way for studying both multiple cell types within adipose tissue and the cell-based mechanisms of obesity and metabolic syndrome. Thus, it seems to be a promising model for investigating adipose tissue biology and regeneration. In this article, we introduce adipose tissue-organotypic culture, and propose two theories regarding the mechanism of tissue regeneration that occurs specifically at peripheral zone of tissue fragments in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuji Toda
- Department of Pathology and Biodefense University Hospital; Faculty of Medicine; Saga University; Nabeshima, Saga Japan
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9
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dal Maschio M, Ghezzi D, Bony G, Alabastri A, Deidda G, Brondi M, Sato SS, Zaccaria RP, Di Fabrizio E, Ratto GM, Cancedda L. High-performance and site-directed in utero electroporation by a triple-electrode probe. Nat Commun 2012; 3:960. [PMID: 22805567 PMCID: PMC5972006 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms1961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 06/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In utero electroporation is a powerful tool to transfect
and manipulate neural-precursor cells of the rodent parietal cortex and their
progeny in vivo. Although this technique can potentially target
numerous brain areas, reliability of transfection in some brain regions is low
or physical access is limited. Here, we present a new in
utero-electroporation configuration based on the use of three
electrodes, the relative position and polarities of which can be adjusted. The
technique allows easy access and exceedingly reliable monolateral or bilateral
transfection at brain locations that could only be sporadically targeted before.
By improvement in the efficiency of the electrical field distribution,
demonstrated here by a mathematical simulation, the multi-electrode
configuration also extends the developmental timeframe for reliable in
utero electroporation, allowing for the first time specific
transfection of Purkinje cells in the rat cerebellum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco dal Maschio
- Department of Neuroscience and Brain Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, via Morego 30, 16163 Genova, Italy
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Steinmeyer JD, Yanik MF. High-throughput single-cell manipulation in brain tissue. PLoS One 2012; 7:e35603. [PMID: 22536416 PMCID: PMC3334978 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2011] [Accepted: 03/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The complexity of neurons and neuronal circuits in brain tissue requires the genetic manipulation, labeling, and tracking of single cells. However, current methods for manipulating cells in brain tissue are limited to either bulk techniques, lacking single-cell accuracy, or manual methods that provide single-cell accuracy but at significantly lower throughputs and repeatability. Here, we demonstrate high-throughput, efficient, reliable, and combinatorial delivery of multiple genetic vectors and reagents into targeted cells within the same tissue sample with single-cell accuracy. Our system automatically loads nanoliter-scale volumes of reagents into a micropipette from multiwell plates, targets and transfects single cells in brain tissues using a robust electroporation technique, and finally preps the micropipette by automated cleaning for repeating the transfection cycle. We demonstrate multi-colored labeling of adjacent cells, both in organotypic and acute slices, and transfection of plasmids encoding different protein isoforms into neurons within the same brain tissue for analysis of their effects on linear dendritic spine density. Our platform could also be used to rapidly deliver, both ex vivo and in vivo, a variety of genetic vectors, including optogenetic and cell-type specific agents, as well as fast-acting reagents such as labeling dyes, calcium sensors, and voltage sensors to manipulate and track neuronal circuit activity at single-cell resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph D. Steinmeyer
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Mehmet Fatih Yanik
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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11
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Toda S, Aoki S, Uchihashi K, Matsunobu A, Yamamoto M, Ootani A, Yamasaki F, Koike E, Sugihara H. Culture models for studying thyroid biology and disorders. ISRN ENDOCRINOLOGY 2011; 2011:275782. [PMID: 22363871 PMCID: PMC3262635 DOI: 10.5402/2011/275782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2011] [Accepted: 05/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The thyroid is composed of thyroid follicles supported by extracellular matrix, capillary network, and stromal cell types such as fibroblasts. The follicles consist of thyrocytes and C cells. In this microenvironment, thyrocytes are highly integrated in their specific structural and functional polarization, but monolayer and floating cultures cannot allow thyrocytes to organize the follicles with such polarity. In contrast, three-dimensional (3-D) collagen gel culture enables thyrocytes to form 3-D follicles with normal polarity. However, these systems never reconstruct the follicles consisting of both thyrocytes and C cells. Thyroid tissue-organotypic culture retains 3-D follicles with both thyrocytes and C cells. To create more appropriate experimental models, we here characterize four culture systems above and then introduce the models for studying thyroid biology and disorders. Finally, we propose a new approach to the cell type-specific culture systems on the basis of in vivo microenvironments of various cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuji Toda
- Department of Pathology & Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Nabeshima 5-1-1, Saga 849-8501, Japan
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12
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Imai JH, Wang X, Shi SH. Kaede-centrin1 labeling of mother and daughter centrosomes in mammalian neocortical neural progenitors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; Chapter 5:Unit 5A.5. [PMID: 20938915 DOI: 10.1002/9780470151808.sc05a05s15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The importance of the centrosome in regulating basic cellular processes and cell fate decisions has become increasingly evident from recent studies tracing the etiology of developmental disorders to mutations in genes encoding centrosomal proteins. This unit details a protocol for a fluorescence-based pulse labeling of centrioles of neural progenitor cells in the developing neocortex of mice. In utero electroporation of Kaede-Centrin1 followed by in utero or ex vivo photoconversion allows a direct monitoring of the inheritance of centrosomes containing centrioles of different ages in dividing neocortical neural progenitors (i.e., radial glial cells). This is achieved by combining the irreversible photoconversion capacity of the Kaede protein from green to red fluorescence with the faithful duplication of the centrosome during each cell cycle. After two mitotic divisions following photoconversion, mother centrosomes containing the original labeled centriole appear in both red and green fluorescence, and can be distinguished from daughter centrosomes which appear in green fluorescence only. This facilitates the study of the inheritance and behavior of the mother and daughter centrosomes in asymmetric cell divisions in the developing mammalian neocortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janice H Imai
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, USA
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Connexin 43 mediates the tangential to radial migratory switch in ventrally derived cortical interneurons. J Neurosci 2010; 30:7072-7. [PMID: 20484649 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5728-09.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The adult cerebral cortex is composed of excitatory and inhibitory neurons that arise from progenitor cells in disparate proliferative regions in the developing brain and follow different migratory paths. Excitatory pyramidal neurons originate near the ventricle and migrate radially to their position in the cortical plate along radial glial fibers. On the other hand, inhibitory interneurons arise in the ventral telencephalon and migrate tangentially to enter the developing cortex before migrating radially to reach their correct laminar position. Gap junction adhesion has been shown to play an important mechanistic role in the radial migration of excitatory neurons. We asked whether a similar mechanism governs the tangential or radial migration of inhibitory interneurons. Using short hairpin RNA knockdown of Connexin 43 (Cx43) and Cx26 together with rescue experiments, we found that gap junctions are dispensable for the tangential migration of interneurons, but that Cx43 plays a role in the switch from tangential to radial migration that allows interneurons to enter the cortical plate and find their correct laminar position. Moreover this action is dependent on the adhesive properties and the C terminus of Cx43 but not the Cx43 channel. Thus, the radial phase of interneuron migration resembles that of excitatory neuron migration in terms of dependence on Cx43 adhesion. Furthermore, gap junctions between migrating interneurons and radial processes were observed by electron microscopy. These findings provide mechanistic and structural support for a gap junction-mediated interaction between migrating interneurons and radial glia during the switch from tangential to radial migration.
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Elias LAB, Wang DD, Kriegstein AR. Gap junction adhesion is necessary for radial migration in the neocortex. Nature 2007; 448:901-7. [PMID: 17713529 DOI: 10.1038/nature06063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 429] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2007] [Accepted: 07/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Radial glia, the neuronal stem cells of the embryonic cerebral cortex, reside deep within the developing brain and extend radial fibres to the pial surface, along which embryonic neurons migrate to reach the cortical plate. Here we show that the gap junction subunits connexin 26 (Cx26) and connexin 43 (Cx43) are expressed at the contact points between radial fibres and migrating neurons, and acute downregulation of Cx26 or Cx43 impairs the migration of neurons to the cortical plate. Unexpectedly, gap junctions do not mediate neuronal migration by acting in the classical manner to provide an aqueous channel for cell-cell communication. Instead, gap junctions provide dynamic adhesive contacts that interact with the internal cytoskeleton to enable leading process stabilization along radial fibres as well as the subsequent translocation of the nucleus. These results indicate that gap junction adhesions are necessary for glial-guided neuronal migration, raising the possibility that the adhesive properties of gap junctions may have an important role in other physiological processes and diseases associated with gap junction function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura A B Elias
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California San Francisco, 513 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, California 94143, USA.
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