Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides protect fibroblasts against UVB-induced photoaging

Ganoderma lucidum extract attenuates corticotropin-releasing hormone-induced cellular senescence in human hair follicle cells

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is a key mediator in stress-induced hair growth inhibition. Here, we investigated the impact of stress-induced senescence and evaluated the potential of Ganoderma lucidum (GL) extract in mitigating CRH-induced senescence in human hair follicle cells (hHFCs). We show that CRH treatment increased the senescence-associated beta-galactosidase (SA-β-GAL) activity and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation in hHFCs and suppressed alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and anagen-inducing genes. However, GL extract restored ALP activity and decreased the expression levels of anagen-related genes in CRH-treated hHFCs. It decreased SA-β-GAL activity, reduced ROS production, and prevented the phosphorylation of MAPK signaling pathways in CRH-related stress response. Moreover, GL reversed the CRH-induced inhibition of two-cell assemblage (TCA) elongation and Ki67 expression. GL extract attenuates stress-induced hair follicular senescence by delaying catagen entry and scavenging ROS. Our findings suggest that GL extract could be used for treating stress-induced hair loss.

Alleviation of ultraviolet-B radiation-induced photoaging using Saussurea medusa Maxim polysaccharide

Saussurea medusa polysaccharide, the polysaccharide extract of Saussurea medusa Maxim, a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, is used to combat intense ultraviolet radiation, cold, and hypoxia in patients, as well as during drought. This polysaccharide has rich medicinal and ecological values. We aimed to determine whether saussurea medusa polysaccharides can reduce ultraviolet B (UVB)-induced skin photoaging. Seventy-five male Kunming mice were divided into five groups: control, UVB-only, UVB plus vitamin E (VE group), UVB plus saussurea medusa (2 g/kg), and UVB plus saussurea medusa (6 g/kg). The control group was irradiated with normal light, while the other four groups were subcutaneously administered 10 mL/kg/day D-galactose and irradiated with narrow-spectrum UVB for 40 min daily. From day 11, the VE group was administered 0.25 g/kg/day vitamin E, while the saussurea medusa intervention groups were administered 2 and 6 g/kg/day saussurea medusa polysaccharide. After 30 days of continuous administration, treatment with saussurea medusa polysaccharides was found to reduce UVB-induced skin photoaging in mice by elevating the levels of superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and hydroxyproline (HYP), while reducing the level of MDA, and inhibiting the EGFR/MEK/ERK/c-Fos pathway. Overall, our findings suggest that treatment with saussurea medusa polysaccharides positively influences skin photoaging.

Potentialities of Ganoderma lucidum extracts as functional ingredients in food formulation

Owing to the recognized therapeutic characteristics of G. lucidum, it is one of the most extensively researched mushrooms as a chemopreventive agent and as a functional food. It is a known wood-degrading basidiomycete possessing numerous pharmacological functions and is termed a natural pharmacy store due to its rich number of active compounds which have proved to portray numerous therapeutic properties. This current review highlights studies on the potentialities of G. lucidum extracts as functional ingredients on organoleptic and nutritional properties of food products (e.g., dairy, wine, beverage, bakery, meat, and other products). In addition, the study delved into various aspects of encapsulated G. lucidum extracts, their morphological and rheological characteristics, prebiotic and immunomodulatory importance, the effects on apoptosis, autophagy, cancer therapy, inflammatory responses, oxidative stress, antioxidant activities, and safety concerns. These findings have significant implications for the development of new products in the food and pharmaceutical industries. On the other hand, the various active compounds extracted from G. lucidum exhibited no toxic or adverse effects, and the appeal for it as a dietary food, natural remedy, and health-fortifying food is drastically increasing as well as attracting the interest of both the industrial and scientific communities. Furthermore, the formation of functional foods based on G. lucidum appears to have actual promise and exciting prospects in nutrition, food, and pharmaceutical sciences.

Efficient production and skincare activity evaluation of schizophyllan, a β-glucan derived from Schizophyllum commune NTU-1

Schizophyllan (SPG), a β-glucan produced by the fungus Schizophyllum commune, possesses a β-(1 → 3)-linked backbone with single β-(1 → 6)-linked glucose side chains at approximately every third residue. In this study, we screened SPG-producing strains of S. commune from different provinces in China. A candidate strain (NTU-1) with a high SPG yield was chosen, and the fermentation conditions were optimized. The optimal carbon and nitrogen sources were sucrose (40 g/L) and yeast extract (20 g/L), respectively. The optimal conditions for pH and temperature were 5.0 and 28 °C, respectively. Inclusion of 0.2 mg/L of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in the medium further increased the SPG concentration. In a 5-L bioreactor, the fermentation cycle was reduced from the initial seven days to five days, and the concentration of SPG obtained was 21.3 g/L, which is the highest reported to date. In addition, we evaluated the bioactivity of the SPG prepared using strain NTU-1. The results showed that SPG had certain characteristics of anti-oxidation, anti-photoaging, and inhibition of melanin production, making it a promising reagent for skin care.

Therapeutic potential and nutritional significance of Ganoderma lucidum - a comprehensive review from 2010 to 2022

With a long history in traditional Asian medicine, Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) is a mushroom species suggested to improve health and extend life. Its medicinal reputation has merited it with numerous attributes and titles, and it is evidenced to be effective in the prevention and treatment of various metabolic disorders owing to its unique source of bioactive metabolites, primarily polysaccharides, triterpenoids, and polyphenols, attributed with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic activities, etc. These unique potential pharmaceutical properties have led to its demand as an important resource of nutrient supplements in the food industry. It is reported that the variety of therapeutic/pharmacological properties was mainly due to its extensive prebiotic and immunomodulatory functions. All literature summarized in this study was collated based on a systematic review of electronic libraries (PubMed, Scopus databases, Web of Science Core Collection, and Google Scholar) from 2010-2022. This review presents an updated and comprehensive summary of the studies on the immunomodulatory therapies and nutritional significance of G. lucidum, with the focus on recent advances in defining its immunobiological mechanisms and the possible applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries for the prevention and management of chronic diseases. In addition, toxicological evidence and the adoption of standard pharmaceutical methods for the safety assessment, quality assurance, and efficacy testing of G. lucidum-derived compounds will be the gateway to bringing them into health establishments.

Molecular mechanisms of the chemical constituents from anti-inflammatory and antioxidant active fractions of Ganoderma neo-japonicum Imazeki

Ganoderma neo-japonicum Imazeki is a rare medicinal mushroom that has been reported to play a role in scavenging free radicals, protecting the liver, and inhibiting tumor cell activity. In this study, crude extracts were prepared, and 47 triterpenoids were identified by Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole time-of flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Triple TOF-MS/MS). Then, the crude extracts were subjected to column chromatography for the first time to obtain six fractions (Fr. (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) and (f)). Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory active tracking assays of all fractions found that Fr. (c) exhibited the strongest bioactivity. Subsequently, the chemical composition of Fr. (c) was clarified, and eight triterpenoids were determined in combination with the standard substances. In addition, this study demonstrated that Fr. (c) reduced the levels of inflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages. Further studies showed that Fr. (c) could down-regulate the expression level of proteins associated of NF-κB signaling pathway, and upregulated Nrf2 and HO-1 protein level. In conclusion, our study showed that Fr. (c) inhibited LPS-mediated inflammatory response and oxidative stress by activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and inactivating the NF-κB pathway. In the future, with the clearing of its composition and activity mechanism, Fr. (c) of G. neo-japonicum are expected to become a functional food for health and longevity.

Dendrobium nobile Lindl. Polysaccharides protect fibroblasts against UVA-induced photoaging via JNK/c-Jun/MMPs pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Dendrobium nobile Lindl. is an orchid species that is found throughout Asia, including Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and China. It has been used to treat tumors, hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, and neurological disorders caused by aging in recent decades.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the antagonistic effect of Dendrobium nobile Lindl. Polysaccharides (DNLP) on UVA-induced photoaging of Human foreskin fibroblasts (HFF-1) and explore its possible anti-aging mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An in vitro photoaging model of dermal fibroblasts was established with multiple UVA irradiations. Fibroblasts were treated with 0.06 mg/ml, 0.18 mg/ml, 0.54 mg/ml of DNLP one day before photodamage induction. The levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), Malondialdehyde (MDA), cell viability and longevity, Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), Catalase (CAT), and Glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) enzymatic activities were determined. We examined how DNLP ameliorates the effects of photoaging, the JNK/c-Fos/c-Jun pathway, senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-Gal), and MMP expression levels were measured.

RESULTS

UVA irradiation reduced the viability, lifespan, and proliferation of HFF-1 cells, increased ROS and lipid peroxidation and decreased the activities of free radical scavenging enzyme systems SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px. DNLP treatment can reverse UVA damage, reduce SA-β-Gal expression, reduce phosphorylation activation of the JNK/c-Fos/c-Jun pathway and inhibit MMP-1, MMP-2 MMP-3, and MMP-9 protein expression.

CONCLUSIONS

DNLP can effectively inhibit UVA damage to HFF-1 and prevent cell senescence. Its mechanism of action may increase antioxidant enzyme activity while inhibiting JNK pathway activation and MMPs expression.

GlPP2C1 Silencing Increases the Content of Ganodermalingzhi Polysaccharide (GL-PS) and Enhances Slt2 Phosphorylation

Polysaccharides have attracted much attention in the food industry due to their diverse biological activities. To date, research on the mechanism of polysaccharide synthesis has mainly focused on the role of crucial enzymes in the polysaccharide synthesis pathway, but other genes that regulate polysaccharide synthesis have not been well explored. In this study, the GlPP2C1 gene, encoding a phosphoprotein type 2C phosphatase, was cloned, and PP2C-silenced strains (PP2C1i-1 and PP2C1i-3) were screened. Measurements of the polysaccharide content and cell wall tolerance revealed that GlPP2C1 silencing increased the polysaccharide content and enhanced cell wall resistance in Ganoderma lingzhi. The contents of intracellular polysaccharides (IPS), extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) and β-1,3-D-glucan in PP2C-silenced strains were increased by 25%, 33% and 36%, respectively, compared with those in the WT strains and strains transformed with an empty vector. Further mechanistic studies showed that GlPP2C1 silencing increased the content of Ganoderma lingzhi polysaccharides (GL-PS) through Slt2. In summary, this study revealed the mechanism through which protein phosphatase regulates GL-PS biosynthesis for the first time.

Premna microphylla Turcz pectin protected UVB-induced skin aging in BALB/c-nu mice via Nrf2 pathway

Excessive exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) irradiation is one of the major risk factors for skin photoaging. The aim of this study was to investigate the protective effect of Premna microphylla Turcz pectin (PMTP) against UVB-induced skin aging in BALB/c-nu mice. PMTP was characteristic of a low methoxyl RG-I pectin with Mw was 26.60 kDa, mainly composed of galacturonic acid. PMTP-containing cream efficiently inhibited the water loss, epidermal hyperplasia, matrix metalloproteinases-1 (MMP-1), and collagen destruction in UVB-induced skin injury mice. Additionally, topical administration of PMTP-containing cream significantly increased protein levels of the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1), macrophage-activating factor (Maf), and heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), and the expression of antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px). In contrast, application of PMTP-containing cream on mice skin decreased the protein levels of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), inhibitor kappa B kinase β (IKKβ), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Taken togethmier, these findings suggest that PMTP might protect UVB-induced skin aging via activating Nrf2 pathway and suppressing NF-κB pathway.

Ganoderma lucidum: Unutilized natural medicine and promising future solution to emerging diseases in Africa

Ganoderma lucidum is a well-known medicinal mushroom that has been used for the prevention and treatment of different ailments to enhance longevity and health specifically in China, Japan, and Korea. It was known as “God’s herb” in ancient China as it was believed to prolong life, enhance the youthful spirit and sustain/preserve vitality. G. lucidum is seldom collected from nature and is substantially cultivated on wood logs and sawdust in plastic bags or bottles to meet the international market demand. Both in vitro and in vivo studies on the copious metabolic activities of G. lucidum have been carried out. Varied groups of chemical compounds including triterpenoids, polysaccharides, proteins, amino acids, nucleosides, alkaloids, steroids, lactones, lectins, fatty acids, and enzymes with potent pharmacological activities have been isolated from the mycelia and fruiting bodies of G. lucidum. Several researchers have reported the abundance and diversification of its biological actions triggered by these chemical compounds. Triterpenoids and polysaccharides of G. lucidum have been reported to possess cytotoxic, hepatoprotective, antihypertensive, hypocholesterolemic, antihistaminic effects, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic antiallergic, neuroprotective, antitumor, immunomodulatory and antiangiogenic activities. Various formulations have been developed, patented, and utilized as nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, and pharmaceuticals from G. lucidum extracts and active compounds. Thus, this review presents current updates on emerging infectious diseases and highlights the scope, dynamics, and advances in infectious disease management with a particular focus on Ganoderma lucidum, an unutilized natural medicine as a promising future solution to emerging diseases in Africa. However, details such as the chemical compound and mode of action of each bioactive against different emerging diseases were not discussed in this study.

Nutrition Interventions of Herbal Compounds on Cellular Senescence

When cells undergo large-scale senescence, organ aging ensues, resulting in irreversible organ pathology and organismal aging. The study of senescence in cells provides an important avenue to understand the factors that influence aging and can be used as one of the useful tools for examining age-related human diseases. At present, many herbal compounds have shown effects on delaying cell senescence. This review summarizes the main characteristics and mechanisms of cell senescence, age-related diseases, and the recent progress on the natural products targeting cellular senescence, with the aim of providing insights to aid the clinical management of age-related diseases.

Pholiota nameko Polysaccharides Protect against Ultraviolet A-Induced Photoaging by Regulating Matrix Metalloproteinases in Human Dermal Fibroblasts

Ultraviolet-A (UVA) exposure is a major cause of skin aging and can induce oxidative damage and accelerate skin wrinkling. Many natural polysaccharides exhibit a UV protective effect. In research on Pholiota nameko polysaccharides (PNPs), a natural macromolecular polysaccharide (4.4–333.487 kDa), studies have shown that PNPs can significantly decrease elastase activity to protect against UVA-induced aging in Hs68 human dermal fibroblasts. Cellular experiments in the present study indicated that PNPs can protect against UVA-induced oxidative damage in Hs68 cells by inhibiting the production of reactive oxygen species. Furthermore, PNPs significantly attenuated UVA-induced cell aging by decreasing the protein expression of matrix metalloproteinase 1, 3, and 9. Pretreatment of Hs68 cells with PNP-40, PNP-60, and PNP-80 before UVA irradiation increased protein expression of tissue inhibitor metalloproteinase 1 by 41%, 42%, and 56% relative to untreated cells. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that PNPs are a natural resource with potentially beneficial effects in protecting against UVA-induced skin aging.

Nutritional Profile and Health Benefits of Ganoderma lucidum “Lingzhi, Reishi, or Mannentake” as Functional Foods: Current Scenario and Future Perspectives

Ganoderma lucidum has a long history of medicinal uses in the Far East countries of more than 2000 years due to its healing properties. Recently, G. lucidum has come under scientific scrutiny to evaluate its content of bioactive components that affect human physiology, and has been exploited for potent components in the pharmacology, nutraceuticals, and cosmetics industries. For instance, evidence is accumulating on the potential of this mushroom species as a promising antiviral medicine for treating many viral diseases, such as dengue virus, enterovirus 71, and recently coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19). Still, more research studies on the biotherapeutic components of G. lucidum are needed to ensure the safety and efficiency of G. lucidum and promote the development of commercial functional foods. This paper provides an extensive overview of the nutraceutical value of Ganoderma lucidum and the development of commercial functional food. Moreover, the geo-origin tracing strategies of this mushroom and its products are discussed, a highly important parameter to ensure product quality and safety. The discussed features will open new avenues and reveal more secrets to widely utilizing this mushroom in many industrial fields; i.e., pharmaceutical and nutritional ones, which will positively reflect the global economy.

The Pharmacological Rationales and Molecular Mechanisms of Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharides for the Therapeutic Applications of Multiple Diseases

As a versatile Chinese herb, Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss. ex Fr.) Karst (G. lucidum) has been applied to treat multiple diseases in clinics and improve the quality of life of patients. Among all of its extracts, the main bioactive components are G. lucidum polysaccharides (GLPs), which possess many therapeutic effects, such as antitumor, immunoregulatory, anti-oxidant, antidiabetic, antibacterial, and antifungal effects and neuroprotection activities. This review briefly summarized the recent studies of the pharmacological rationales of GLPs and their underlying molecular signaling transmission mechanisms in treating diseases. Until now, the clear mechanisms of GLPs for treating diseases have not been reported. In this review, we used the keywords of "Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides" and "tumor" to search in PubMed (years of 1992-2020), then screened and obtained 160 targets of antitumor activities in the literatures. The network pharmacology and mechanism framework were employed in this study as powerful approaches to systematically analyze the complicated potential antitumor mechanisms and targets of GLPs in cancer. We then found that there are 69 targets and 21 network pathways in "Pathways in cancer". Besides, we summarized the effects of GLPs and the models and methods used in the research of GLPs. In conclusion, GLPs have been studied extensively, but more in-depth research is still needed to determine the exact mechanisms and pathways. Therefore, this review might provide new insights into the vital targets and pathways for researchers to study the pharmacological mechanisms of GLPs for the treatment of diseases.

Protective effects of GLHP from Gracilaria lemaneiformis against UVB-induced photodamage in human immortalized keratinocytes cells and BALB/c mice

Our previous study showed that the water-soluble heteropolysaccharide extracted from Gracilaria lemaneiformis (GLHP) has excellent anti-inflammation and anti-oxidant properties. This study explored the efficacy of GLHP against skin anti-photoaging in human immortalized keratinocytes (HaCaT) cells and BALB/c mice under UVB irradiation. Cell viability, antiapoptotic, reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging activity, mitochondrial membrane potential, and cell wound scratch assays were conducted, as well as assessment of inflammation markers and sun protection factors. The in vitro results showed that GLHP pretreatment significantly inhibited UVB-induced apoptosis, reversed the decrease of cell viability via downregulating the expression of apoptosis-related protein caspase-3, accelerated the migration of HaCaT cells, and promoted wound healing. Notably, the protective effect of GLHP may be associated with the scavenging of ROS and the decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential. Moreover, GLHP pretreatment significantly restrained the upregulation of iNOS (UVB-induced inflammation marker), suppressed the expression of P-ERK and NF-κB, and decreased the activity of MMPs, suggesting that it exerts the therapeutic effects by inhibiting the MAPK/NF-κB signal pathway. Results obtained after conducting the in vivo assay confirmed that GLHP could reverse the UVB-induced increase of epidermal thickness in BALB/c mice. In conclusion, this study shows that GLHP can be utilized as a safer resource in the manufacture of anti-aging cosmetics because it exerts excellent anti-photoaging effects.

Current trends in the anti-photoaging activities and mechanisms of dietary non-starch polysaccharides from natural resources

Photoaging is a complex and multistage process triggered mainly by ultraviolet (UV) radiation due to exposure to sunlight. Photoaging induces DNA damage and oxidative stress that initiate an inflammatory response and an increase of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) expression, which results in cumulative changes in skin appearance, structure, and functions, and eventually causes skin carcinogenesis. Dietary polysaccharides from bio-resources have been utilized as functional ingredients in healthy food, cosmetics, and drug due to their good bioactivities. However, a systematic introduction to their effects and underlying mechanisms in anti-photoaging is limited. This review discusses the damage and pathogenesis of UV-induced photoaging and summarizes the up-to-date advances in research on the anti-photoaging activity of non-starch polysaccharides from natural edible resources considering the influence of oxidative stress, DNA damage, MMPs regulation, inflammation, and melanogenesis, primarily focusing on the cellular and molecular mechanisms. This paper will help to understand the anti-photoaging functions of dietary non-starch polysaccharides from natural resources and further application in drug and functional food.

Photoprotective Activity of Buddleja cordata Cell Culture Methanolic Extract on UVB-irradiated 3T3-Swiss Albino Fibroblasts

The research on compounds exhibiting photoprotection against ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is a matter of increasing interest. The methanolic extract of a cell culture of Buddleja cordata has potential photoprotective effects as these cells produce phenolic secondary metabolites (SMs). These metabolites are attributed with biological activities capable of counteracting the harmful effects caused by UVR on skin. In the present work, the methanolic extract (310–2500 µg/mL) of B. cordata cell culture showed a photoprotective effect on UVB-irradiated 3T3-Swiss albino fibroblasts with a significant increase in cell viability. The greatest photoprotective effect (75%) of the extract was observed at 2500 µg/mL, which was statistically comparable with that of 250 µg/mL verbascoside, used as positive control. In addition, concentrations of the extract higher than 2500 µg/mL resulted in decreased cell viability (≤83%) after 24 h of exposure. Phytochemical analysis of the extract allowed us to determine that it was characterized by high concentrations of total phenol and total phenolic acid contents (138 ± 4.7 mg gallic acid equivalents and 44.01 ± 1.33 mg verbascoside equivalents per gram of extract, respectively) as well as absorption of UV light (first and second bands peaking at 294 and 330 nm, respectively). Some phenylethanoid glycosides were identified from the extract.

The water-soluble non-starch polysaccharides from natural resources against excessive oxidative stress: A potential health-promoting effect and its mechanisms

The water-soluble non-starch polysaccharides isolated from natural resources have become research hotpots in the field of food science and human health due to widely distributed in nature and low toxicity. It has indicated that the health-promoting effect of water-soluble non-starch polysaccharides were partly attributable to against excessive oxidative stress. Indeed, excessive oxidative stress in the body has been reported in occurrence of disease. The water-soluble non-starch polysaccharides from natural resources exhibit antioxidant activity to against oxidative stress via scavenging free radicals promoting antioxidant enzymes activity and/or regulating antioxidant signaling pathways. In this review, the water-soluble non-starch polysaccharides as medicine agent and the factor affecting antioxidant as well as the relationship between oxidative stress and disease are summarized, and the mechanisms of water-soluble non-starch polysaccharides therapy in disease are also discussed. It will provide a theoretical basis for natural polysaccharides used for the treatment of diseases.

Antioxidants as an Epidermal Stem Cell Activator

Antioxidants may modulate the microenvironment of epidermal stem cells by reducing the production of reactive oxygen species or by regulating the expression of extracellular matrix protein. The extracellular membrane is an important component of the stem cell niche, and microRNAs regulate extracellular membrane-mediated basal keratinocyte proliferation. In this narrative review, we will discuss several antioxidants such as ascorbic acid, plant extracts, peptides and hyaluronic acid, and their effect on the epidermal stem cell niche and the proliferative potential of interfollicular epidermal stem cells in 3D skin equivalent models.

Diet and Skin Aging-From the Perspective of Food Nutrition

We regularly face primary challenges in deciding what to eat to maintain young and healthy skin, defining a healthy diet and the role of diet in aging. The topic that currently attracts maximum attention is ways to maintain healthy skin and delay skin aging. Skin is the primary barrier that protects the body from external aggressions. Skin aging is a complex biological process, categorized as chronological aging and photo-aging, and is affected by internal factors and external factors. With the rapid breakthrough of medicine in prolonging human life and the rapid deterioration of environmental conditions, it has become urgent to find safe and effective methods to treat skin aging. For diet, as the main way for the body to obtain energy and nutrients, people have gradually realized its importance to the skin. Therefore, in this review, we discuss the skin structure, aging manifestations, and possible mechanisms, summarize the research progress, challenges, possible directions of diet management, and effects of foodborne antioxidants on skin aging from the perspective of food and nutrition.

Advances in research on the active constituents and physiological effects of Ganoderma lucidum

Background

Ganoderma lucidum, a double-walled basidiospore produced by porous basidiomycete fungi, has been used as a traditional medicine for thousands of years. It is considered a valuable Chinese medicine for strengthening body resistance, invigorating the spleen, and replenishing Qi. G. lucidum contains a variety of active ingredients, such as polysaccharides, triterpenoids, nucleosides, sterols, alkaloids, polypeptides, fatty acids, steroids, and inorganic elements, and has anticancer, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotection, hypoglycemic, anti-melanogenesis, anti-aging, and skin barrier-repairing activity.

Conclusions

The review summarizes the traditional usages, distribution, active constituents, structure, and biological effects of G. lucidum, with an aim to offer directions for further research and better usage of G. lucidum as a medicinal raw material.

Preventive and therapeutic effect of Ganoderma lucidum on kidney injuries and diseases

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum, Lingzhi) is a well-known Chinese traditional medicine to improve health and to treat numerous diseases for over 2000 years in Asian countries. G. lucidum has the abundant chemical components such as triterpenes and polysaccharides, which have various biological activities including anti-oxidation, anti-inflammation, anti-liver disorders, anti-tumor growth and metastasis, etc. Recently, many lines of studies have elucidated the therapeutic effects of G. lucidum and its extractions on various acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) pathogenesis, including autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease, diabetic nephropathy, renal proximal tubular cell oxidative damage and fibrotic process, renal ischemia reperfusion injury, cisplatin-induced renal injury, adriamycin-induced nephropathy, chronic proteinuric renal diseases, etc. Clinical researches also showed potent anti-renal disease bioactivities of G. lucidum. In this chapter, we review experimental and clinical researches and provide comprehensive insights into the renoprotective effects of G. lucidum. In recent years, renal diseases have gradually aroused attention on account of their booming prevalence worldwide and lack of effective therapies. Although the complicated pathogenesis of kidney diseases, such as acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney diseases (CKD) have been intensively studied. The morbidity and mortality of AKI and CKD still rise continuously. Thanks to the conventional experience and the multi-target characteristics, natural products have been increasingly recognized as an alternative source for treating renal diseases.

Protective effects of Ganoderma triterpenoids on cadmium-induced oxidative stress and inflammatory injury in chicken livers

Several studies have been conducted on liver damage caused by cadmium, but few on the protective effects of Ganoderma triterpenoids against liver damage due to cadmium. This experiment was designed to evaluate the protective effects of Ganoderma triterpenoids on the liver damage induced by cadmium in chickens. Eighty healthy seven-day-old Hyline male egg-laying chickens were randomly divided into four groups with 20 chickens in each group. All the experiments were carried out in triplicate. The control group (K group) was fed a basal diet, the Cadmium group (Cd group) was fed a basal diet with 140 mg/kg of CdCl₂, the Ganoderma triterpenoids treatment group (Cd + GT group) was fed with a full-fodder diet containing 140 mg/kg of CdCl₂ and 0.5 mL of Ganoderma triterpenoids solution (20 mg/mL), and the Ganoderma triterpenoids group (GT group) was fed a basal diet and 0.5 mL of Ganoderma triterpenoids solution (20 mg/mL). At the 20^th, 40^th, and 60^th days, fifteen chickens were randomly selected for euthanasia in each group. Livers were quickly removed and stored on ice. Some indicators, such as the cadmium content in the liver, antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px)) activities, malondialdehyde (MDA) content, and inflammatory factors(Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL-1β and IL-6)), heat shock protein (HSP27, 40, 60, 70, and 90) mRNA levels, and protein levels of heat shock proteins (HSP60, 70, and 90) were detected, and chicken liver pathology was taken for each group every 60 days. The results showed that cadmium exposure caused accumulation of cadmium in liver tissue, inhibited antioxidant enzyme activity, and increased MDA content, inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α IL-1β and IL-6), and heat shock protein (HSP27, 40, 60, 70, and 90) mRNA levels, and heat shock protein (HSP60, 70, and 90) levels, with severe tissue damage and inflammatory infiltrates. Ganoderma triterpenoids not only reduced the accumulation of cadmium in the chicken liver, but also significantly increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes which is inhibited by cadmium, reduced the content of MDA, mRNA expressions of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α IL-1β and IL-6), and heat shock proteins (HSP27, 40, 60, 70, and 90), and protein levels of heat shock proteins (HSP60, 70, and 90). Simultaneously, pathological tissue sections showed that the pathological damage of the liver tissue was significantly reduced. The results showed that Ganoderma triterpenoids can significantly reduce the accumulation of cadmium in the liver of chicken, thereby reducing oxidative stress and inflammation.

The role of lysophosphatidic acid in the physiology and pathology of the skin

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is the simplest phospholipid found in nature. LPA is mainly biosynthesized in tissues and cells by autotoxin and PA-PLA1α/PA-PLA1β and is degraded by lipid phosphate phosphatases (LPPs). It is an important component of biofilm, an extracellular signal transmitter and intracellular second messenger. After targeting to endothelial differentiation gene (Edg) family LPA receptors (LPA1, LPA2, LPA3) and non-Edg family LPA receptors (LPA4, LPA5, LPA6), LPA mediates physiological and pathological processes such as embryonic development, angiogenesis, tumor progression, fibrogenesis, wound healing, ischemia/reperfusion injury, and inflammatory reactions. These processes are induced through signaling pathways including mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt, protein kinase C (PKC)-GSK3β-β-catenin, Rho, Stat, and hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α). LPA is involved in multiple physiological and pathological processes in the skin. It not only regulates skin function but also plays an important role in hair follicle development, skin wound healing, pruritus, skin tumors, and scleroderma. Pharmacological inhibition of LPA synthesis or antagonization of LPA receptors is a new strategy for the treatment of various skin disorders. This review focuses on the current understanding of the pathophysiologic role of LPA in the skin.

Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide inhibits UVB-induced melanogenesis by antagonizing cAMP/PKA and ROS/MAPK signaling pathways

Ultraviolet (UV)-induced pigmentation is very common in clinical practice, but the current treatments are rarely effective, accompanied by some side effects. Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide (GLP) is a natural antioxidant with no toxic side effects, which can antagonize UVB-induced fibroblast photo aging. The study aims to explore the role of GLP in inhibiting UVB-induced melanogenesis and its possible mechanism. The expression of melanogenesis genes such as microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), tyrosine (TYR), tyrosinase related protein 1 (TYRP1), tyrosinase related protein 2 (TYRP2), ras-related protein Rab-27A (Rab27A), and Myosin shows an upward trend after exposure of B16F10 and PIG1 cells to UVB irradiation, but GLP can downregulate the expression of genes related to UVB-induced melanogenesis. GLP can inhibit UVB-activated protein kinase A (PKA) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways. Besides, GLP protects mitochondria from UVB damage and inhibits reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Also, UVB-induced cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) can be inhibited. It has been found in the experiments of UVB-induced skin pigmentation in zebrafish that GLP is capable of inhibiting UVB-induced skin pigmentation. Meanwhile, it can greatly relieve erythema reaction in guinea pig skin caused by high-dosage UVB irradiation. In conclusion, this study shows that GLP can inhibit UVB-induced melanogenesis by antagonizing cAMP/PKA and ROS/MAPK signaling pathways and is a potential natural safe whitening sunscreen additive.

Protective Effect of Sulfated Polysaccharides from Celluclast-Assisted Extract of Hizikia fusiforme Against Ultraviolet B-Induced Skin Damage by Regulating NF-κB, AP-1, and MAPKs Signaling Pathways In Vitro in Human Dermal Fibroblasts

Our previous study evaluated the antioxidant activities of sulfated polysaccharides from Celluclast-assisted extract of Hizikia fusiforme (HFPS) in vitro in Vero cells and in vivo in zebrafish. The results showed that HFPS possesses strong antioxidant activity and suggested the potential photo-protective activities of HFPS. Hence, in the present study, we investigated the protective effects of HFPS against ultraviolet (UV) B-induced skin damage in vitro in human dermal fibroblasts (HDF cells). The results indicate that HFPS significantly reduced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and improved the viability of UVB-irradiated HDF cells in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, HFPS significantly inhibited intracellular collagenase and elastase activities, remarkably protected collagen synthesis, and reduced matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) expression by regulating nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), activator protein 1 (AP-1), and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) signaling pathways in UVB-irradiated HDF cells. These results suggest that HFPS possesses strong UV protective effect, and can be a potential ingredient in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.

Gallotannin Improves the Photoaged-Related Proteins by Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinases/c-Jun N-Terminal Kinases Signaling Pathway in Human Epidermal Keratinocyte Cells

Tannins are a type of polyphenols found in several fruits such as grapes and berries, and nuts such as aronias and acorns. Both hydrolyzable tannins and condensed tannins are referred to as tannins. Among the hydrolyzable tannins, gallotannin has a strong antioxidative property and is known to protect the skin by inhibiting the precursors of elastolytic enzymes. However, its mechanism of protection against ultraviolet B (UVB) damage in human fibroblasts and keratinocytes has not yet been elucidated. In this study, we investigate the antioxidant and antiaging effect of gallotannin on UVB-irradiated human cells by studying its effect on extracellular signal-regulated kinases/c-Jun N-terminal kinases (EKRs/JNKs) signaling related to cell growth and differentiation/stress apoptosis. The results showed that gallotannin improved collagen synthesis, reduced metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) expression in a dose-dependent manner, and downregulated MMP-1 levels through the ERK/JNK signaling pathway in UVB-irradiated human cells. Gallotannin also increased glutathione but did not increase transforming growth factor beta 1, which induces fibrosis. We propose that gallotannin is a novel agent for protection against UVB, and acts as an antiaging agent that can be used in food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.

Protective effect of crocin on ultraviolet B‑induced dermal fibroblast photoaging

Ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation induces the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in the aging of dermal fibroblasts. Crocin, a bioactive constituent of Crocus sativus, possesses anti‑oxidation effects. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the protective effect of crocin on UVB‑induced dermal fibroblast photoaging. Human dermal fibroblasts were isolated and cultured with different concentrations of crocin prior to and following exposure to UVB irradiation. The senescent phenotypes of cells were evaluated, including cell proliferation, cell cycle, senescence‑associated β‑galactosidase (SA‑β‑gal) expression, intracellular ROS, expression of antioxidant protein glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPX‑1) and extracellular matrix protein collagen type 1 (Col‑1). Crocin rescued the cell proliferation inhibited by UVB irradiation, prevented cell cycle arrest and markedly decreased the number of SA‑β‑gal‑positive cells. In addition, crocin reduced UVB‑induced ROS by increasing GPX‑1 expression and other direct neutralization effects. Furthermore, crocin promoted the expression of the extracellular matrix protein Col‑1. Crocin could effectively prevent UVB‑induced cell damage via the reduction of intracellular ROS; thus, it could potentially be used in the prevention of skin photoaging.

A Critical Review on Health Promoting Benefits of Edible Mushrooms through Gut Microbiota

Mushrooms have long been used for medicinal and food purposes for over a thousand years, but a complete elucidation of the health-promoting properties of mushrooms through regulating gut microbiota has not yet been fully exploited. Mushrooms comprise a vast, and yet largely untapped, source of powerful new pharmaceutical substances. Mushrooms have been used in health care for treating simple and common diseases, like skin diseases and pandemic diseases like AIDS. This review is aimed at accumulating the health-promoting benefits of edible mushrooms through gut microbiota. Mushrooms are proven to possess anti-allergic, anti-cholesterol, anti-tumor, and anti-cancer properties. Mushrooms are rich in carbohydrates, like chitin, hemicellulose, β and α-glucans, mannans, xylans, and galactans, which make them the right choice for prebiotics. Mushrooms act as a prebiotics to stimulate the growth of gut microbiota, conferring health benefits to the host. In the present review, we have summarized the beneficial activities of various mushrooms on gut microbiota via the inhibition of exogenous pathogens and, thus, improving the host health.

Targeting of growth factors in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: The potentials of polysaccharides

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has become a leading cause of cancer-associated mortality worldwide and is thus of great concern. Although various chemotherapeutic drugs are currently used for the treatment of HCC, severe side effects associated with these treatments have prompted interest in novel therapies, including the use of certain biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides. Several studies have shown that polysaccharides have anticancer and antiproliferative effects on HCC. Vascular endothelial growth factor, transforming growth factor β, epidermal growth factor and fibroblast growth factor may be effective targets for polysaccharides and may modulate tumor growth and immunity through increasing the expression levels of cytokines. The present review focuses on the ways in which growth factors contribute to the development of HCC, and on the anti-growth factor activities of natural and synthetic polysaccharides, as well as their effect on proinflammatory cytokines.