Change of Ginsenoside Profiles in Processed Ginseng by Drying, Steaming, and Puffing

Pharmacokinetic Profiling of Ginsenosides, Rb1, Rd, and Rg3, in Mice with Antibiotic-Induced Gut Microbiota Alterations: Implications for Variability in the Therapeutic Efficacy of Red Ginseng Extracts

Ginsenoside Rg3 is reported to contribute to the traditionally known diverse effects of red ginseng extracts. Significant individual variations in the therapeutic efficacy of red ginseng extracts have been reported. This study aimed to investigate the effect of amoxicillin on the pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides Rb1, Rd, and Rg3 in mice following the oral administration of red ginseng extracts. We examined the α-diversity and β-diversity of gut microbiota and conducted pharmacokinetic studies to measure systemic exposure to ginsenoside Rg3. We also analyzed the microbiome abundance and microbial metabolic activity involved in the biotransformation of ginsenoside Rb1. Amoxicillin treatment reduced both the α-diversity and β-diversity of the gut microbiota and decreased systemic exposure to ginsenoside Rg3 in mice. The area under the curve (AUC) values for Rg3 in control and amoxicillin-treated groups were 247.7 ± 96.6 ng·h/mL and 139.2 ± 32.9 ng·h/mL, respectively. The microbiome abundance and microbial metabolic activity involved in the biotransformation of ginsenoside Rb1 were also altered by amoxicillin treatment. The metabolizing activity was reduced from 0.13 to 0.05 pmol/min/mg on average. Our findings indicate that amoxicillin treatment potentially reduces the gut-microbiota-mediated metabolism of ginsenoside Rg3 in mice given red ginseng extracts, altering its pharmacokinetics. Gut microbiome variations may thus influence individual ginsenoside pharmacokinetics, impacting red ginseng extract's efficacy. Our results suggest that modulating the microbiome could enhance the efficacy of red ginseng.

Application of Coating Chitosan Derivatives (N,O-Carboxymethyl Chitosan/Chitosan Oligomer Saccharide) in Combination with Polyvinyl Alcohol Solutions to Preserve Fresh Ngoc Linh Ginseng Quality

The postharvest preservation of Ngoc Linh ginseng (NL ginseng) is essential to retain its quality and sensory values for prolonged storage. In this study, the efficacy of NL ginseng preservation by coating chitosan derivatives in combination with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) solutions was investigated under refrigeration conditions (~3 °C; ~40% RH) for 56 days. The effect of the chitosan-based solutions, including N,O-carboxymethyl chitosan (NOCC), chitosan oligomer saccharide (COS), or chitosan (CS), and the blend solutions (NOCC-PVA or COS-PVA) on the coated NL ginsengs was observed during storage. The pH values, viscosity, and film-forming capability of the coating solutions were determined, while the visual appearance, morphology, and mechanical properties of the films formed on glass substrates as a ginseng model for coating were also observed. The appearance, skin lightness, weight loss, sensory evaluation, total saponin content (TSC), total polyphenol content (TPC), and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) of the coated NL ginsengs were evaluated. The findings showed that the observed values of the coated NL ginsengs were better than those of the non-coated samples, with the exception of the COS-coated samples, which had completely negative results. Furthermore, the NOCC-PVA solution exhibited a better preservation effect compared with the COS-PVA one based on the observed indices, except for TPC and TAC, which were not impacted by the coating. Notably, the optimal preservation time was determined to be 35 days. This study presents promising preservation technology using the coating solution of NOCC-PVA, harnessing the synergistic effect of pH 7.4 and the form-firming capacity, to maintain the shelf life, medicinal content, and sensory attributes of NL ginseng.

Improvement of Cognitive Function by Fermented Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer Berries Extracts in an AF64A-Induced Memory Deficit Model

This study investigated the potential therapeutic properties of fermented ginseng berry extract (GBE) for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Fermented GBE was examined for its ginsenoside content and physiological properties, which have been suggested to have neuroprotective effects and improve cognitive function. The results showed that fermented GBE contains high levels of major active ginsenosides and exhibits antioxidant and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activities. Post-fermented GBE demonstrated therapeutic potential in AF64A-induced damaged neural stem cells and an animal model of AD. These findings suggest that fermented GBE may hold promise as a candidate for developing new therapeutic interventions for memory deficits and cognitive disorders associated with AD and other neurodegenerative conditions. However, further studies are needed to evaluate the safety, tolerability, and efficacy of fermented GBE in human subjects and to determine its clinical applications. In conclusion, our study provides evidence that fermented GBE has potential as a natural product for the prevention and treatment of AD. The high levels of active ginsenosides and antioxidant and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activities of fermented GBE suggest that it may be a promising therapeutic agent for improving cognitive function and reducing neurodegeneration.

Saponins of ginseng products: a review of their transformation in processing

The primary processed product of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer (P. ginseng) is red ginseng. As technology advances, new products of red ginseng have arisen. Red ginseng products, e.g., traditional red ginseng, sun ginseng, black ginseng, fermented red ginseng, and puffed red ginseng, are commonly used in herbal medicine. Ginsenosides are the major secondary metabolites of P. ginseng. The constituents of P. ginseng are significantly changed during processing, and several pharmacological activities of red ginseng products are dramatically increased compared to white ginseng. In this paper, we aimed to review the ginsenosides and pharmacological activities of various red ginseng products, the transformation law of ginsenosides in processing, and some clinical trials of red ginseng products. This article will help to highlight the diverse pharmacological properties of red ginseng products and aid in the future development of red ginseng industrialization.

Transcriptome expression profile of compound-K-enriched red ginseng extract (DDK-401) in Korean volunteers and its apoptotic properties

Ginseng and ginsenosides have been reported to have various pharmacological effects, but their efficacies depend on intestinal absorption. Compound K (CK) is gaining prominence for its biological and pharmaceutical properties. In this study, CK-enriched fermented red ginseng extract (DDK-401) was prepared by enzymatic reactions. To examine its pharmacokinetics, a randomized, single-dose, two-sequence, crossover study was performed with eleven healthy Korean male and female volunteers. The volunteers were assigned to take a single oral dose of one of two extracts, DDK-401 or common red ginseng extract (DDK-204), during the initial period. After a 7-day washout, they received the other extract. The pharmacokinetics of DDK-401 showed that its maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) occurred at 184.8 ± 39.64 ng/mL, Tmax was at 2.4 h, and AUC0-12h was 920.3 ± 194.70 ng h/mL, which were all better than those of DDK-204. The maximum CK absorption in the female volunteers was higher than that in the male volunteers. The differentially expressed genes from the male and female groups were subjected to a KEGG pathway analysis, which showed results in the cell death pathway, such as apoptosis and necroptosis. In cytotoxicity tests, DDK-401 and DDK-204 were not particularly toxic to normal (HaCaT) cells, but at a concentration of 250 μg/mL, DDK-401 had a much higher toxicity to human lung cancer (A549) cells than DDK-204. DDK-401 also showed a stronger antioxidant capacity than DDK-204 in both the DPPH and potassium ferricyanide reducing power assays. DDK-401 reduced the reactive oxygen species production in HaCaT cells with induced oxidative stress and led to apoptosis in the A549 cells. In the mRNA sequence analysis, a signaling pathway with selected marker genes was assessed by RT-PCR. In the HaCaT cells, DDK-401 and DDK-204 did not regulate FOXO3, TLR4, MMP-9, or p38 expression; however, in the A549 cells, DDK-401 downregulated the expressions of MMP9 and TLR4 as well as upregulated the expressions of the p38 and caspase-8 genes compared to DDK-204. These results suggest that DDK-401 could act as a molecular switch for these two cellular processes in response to cell damage signaling and that it could be a potential candidate for further evaluations in health promotion studies.

Production of Minor Ginsenoside CK from Major Ginsenosides by Biotransformation and Its Advances in Targeted Delivery to Tumor Tissues Using Nanoformulations

For over 2000 years, ginseng (roots of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) has been used as a traditional herbal medicine. Ginsenosides are bioactive compounds present in ginseng responsible for the pharmacological effects and curing various acute diseases as well as chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease, cancer and diabetes. Structurally, ginsenosides consist of a hydrophobic aglycone moiety fused with one to four hydrophilic glycoside moieties. Based on the position of sugar units and their abundance, ginsenosides are classified into major and minor ginsenosides. Despite the great potential of ginsenosides, major ginsenosides are poorly absorbed in the blood circulation, resulting in poor bioavailability. Interestingly, owing to their small molecular weight, minor ginsenosides exhibit good permeability across cell membranes and bioavailability. However, extremely small quantities of minor ginsenosides extracted from ginseng plants cannot fulfill the requirement of scientific and clinical studies. Therefore, the production of minor ginsenosides in mass production is a topic of interest. In addition, their poor solubility and lack of targetability to tumor tissues limits their application in cancer therapy. In this review, various methods used for the transformation of major ginsenosides to minor ginsenoside compound K (CK) are summarized. For the production of CK, various transformation methods apply to major ginsenosides. The challenges present in these transformations and future research directions for producing bulk quantities of minor ginsenosides are discussed. Furthermore, attention is also paid to the utilization of nanoformulation technology to improve the bioavailability of minor ginsenoside CK.

Thermal Control Using Far-Infrared Irradiation for Producing Deglycosylated Bioactive Compounds from Korean Ginseng Leaves

Although ginseng leaf is a good source of health-beneficial phytochemicals, such as polyphenols and ginsenosides, few studies have focused on the variation in compounds and bioactivities during leaf thermal processing. The efficiency of far-infrared irradiation (FIR) between 160 °C and 200 °C on the deglycosylation of bioactive compounds in ginseng leaves was analyzed. FIR treatment significantly increased the total polyphenol content (TPC) and kaempferol production from panasenoside conversion. The highest content or conversion ratio was observed at 180 °C (FIR-180). Major ginsenoside contents gradually decreased as the FIR temperature increased, while minor ginsenoside contents significantly increased. FIR exhibited high efficiency to produce dehydrated minor ginsenosides, of which F4, Rg6, Rh4, Rk3, Rk1, and Rg5 increased to their highest levels at FIR-190, by 278-, 149-, 176-, 275-, 64-, and 81-fold, respectively. Moreover, significantly increased antioxidant activities were also observed in FIR-treated leaves, particularly FIR-180, mainly due to the breakage of phenolic polymers to release antioxidants. These results suggest that FIR treatment is a rapid and efficient processing method for producing various health-beneficial bioactive compounds from ginseng leaves. After 30 min of treatment without leaf burning, FIR-190 was the optimum temperature for producing minor ginsenosides, whereas FIR-180 was the optimum temperature for producing polyphenols and kaempferol. In addition, the results suggested that the antioxidant benefits of ginseng leaves are mainly due to polyphenols rather than ginsenosides.

Comparison of the Saponins in Three Processed American Ginseng Products by Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole Orbitrap Tandem Mass Spectrometry and Multivariate Statistical Analysis

A method with ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography Quadrupole-Orbitrap tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-MS/MS) was applied for the quality evaluation of different processing and drying of American ginseng, including natural drying (ND), steam drying (SD), and vacuum freeze-drying (VFD). A total of 51 saponins were successfully identified in three processed products. Three processed American ginseng products were well-differentiated in orthogonal partial least-squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). The S-plot also identified the marker compounds in each product, while the major ginsenosides of ND (malonyl (M)-Rd, M-Rb₁, Rg₁), SD (20 (S)-Rg₃, 20 (S)-Rg₂), and VFD (M-Rd, M-Rb₁) were found. The results indicate that the method by vacuum freeze-drying can retain the content of rare ginsenosides and malonyl-ginsenosides. The marker compounds selected will benefit the holistic evaluation of related American ginseng products.

Plant metabolomics: a new strategy and tool for quality evaluation of Chinese medicinal materials

The present quality control method of Chinese medicinal materials (CMM) has obvious deficiency, which cannot be compatible with the multi-target and multi-component characteristics and production process of CMM. Plant metabolomics with a huge impetus to comprehensively characterize the metabolites and clarify the complexity and integrity of CMM, has been widely used in the research of CMM. This article comprehensively reviewed the application of plant metabolomics in the quality control of CMM. It introduced the concept, technique, and application examples, discussed the prospects, limitations, improvements of plant metabolomics. MS and NMR, as important techniques for plant metabolomics, are mainly highlighted in the case references. The purpose of this article is to clarify the advantage of plants metabolomics for promoting the optimization of the CMM quality control system and proposing a system approach to realize the overall quality control of CMM based on plant metabolomics combined with multidisciplinary method.

Effect of steam-processing of the Panax ginseng root on its inducible activity on granulocyte-colony stimulating factor secretion in intestinal epithelial cells in vitro

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax ginseng root has been used as tonic in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and traditional Japanese Kampo medicine. Steam processing of Panax ginseng root is carried out to enhance its nourishing effects on qi.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In order to explore the mechanism of these beneficial effects behind the steam processing of the P. ginseng root, we evaluated effectiveness of processing on the granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) secretion in intestinal epithelial cell-like MCE301 cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We collected P. ginseng root samples in the markets of China and Japan. Fresh or dried samples were steamed for different time lengths and subsequently dried and extracted. MCE301 cells were incubated with the medium containing various P. ginseng root extracts, while the concentration of G-CSF in the medium was measured. We also investigated the active ingredients by size exclusion HPLC.

RESULTS

The extracts of fresh P. ginseng hairy root samples steamed for more than 6 h significantly induced G-CSF secretion, and the maximum activity was recorded at a 9-h steaming. The same activity was noted when already dried P. ginseng hairy root samples were steamed. The extracts of fresh P. ginseng hairy root without steam processing and those of fresh P. ginseng root body samples with steam processing exhibited no activities. The active ingredients of steamed P. ginseng hairy root samples were high-molecular-weight compounds with an average molecular weight of 758 kDa, and the activity was mediated by the toll-like receptor (TLR) 9.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results shed on more light on the mechanism underlying the appearance of immunostimulatory activity of the P. ginseng hairy root induced by steam processing.

Black Ginseng Extract Suppresses Airway Inflammation Induced by Cigarette Smoke and Lipopolysaccharides In Vivo

Cigarette smoke (CS) is a risk factor that can induce airway enlargement, airway obstruction, and airway mucus hypersecretion. Although studies have shown that Korean black ginseng extract (BGE) has potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, the CS-induced inflammatory responses and molecular mechanisms are yet to be examined. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of BGE on the airway inflammatory response and its molecular mechanisms, using CS/lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-exposed animals and PMA-stimulated human airway epithelial NCI-H292 cells. The results show that BGE inhibited the recruitment of immune cells and the release of inflammatory mediators, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, elastase, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the airways of CS/LPS-exposed animals. BGE inhibited mucus secretion and the expression of Mucin 5AC (MUC5AC). Furthermore, BGE exhibited an anti-inflammatory effect by downregulating a signaling pathway mediated by transforming growth factor-β-activated kinase (TAK) 1, an important protein that accelerates inflammation by cigarette smoke (CS). Overall, the findings show that BGE inhibits lung inflammation and mucus secretion by decreasing the activation of TAK1 both in human epithelial cells and in CS/LPS-exposed animals, and could be a potential adjuvant in the treatment and prevention of airway inflammatory diseases caused by airway irritants such as CS.

Efficacy and safety evaluation of black ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Mey.) extract (CJ EnerG): broad spectrum cytotoxic activity in human cancer cell lines and 28-day repeated oral toxicity study in Sprague-Dawley rats

Background

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Mey.) has been used as a valuable ingredient in traditional medicine for thousands of years mostly in Asian countries due to its therapeutic effects in various diseases. Among the processed ginseng products, black ginseng is produced by a repeated steaming and drying process of ginseng roots and has been known for its superior efficacy based on high accumulation of minor ginsenosides as recently discovered. Despite its popularity and increasing use, the toxicity information on black ginseng still remained largely lacking, raising safety concerns. This study was therefore carried out to determine the repeated oral toxicity of black ginseng extract (BGE; CJ EnerG) with evaluation of cytotoxic activity as validation of its pharmacological activity for toxicity testing.

Methods

Prior to the toxicity test, we examined the cytotoxicity of BGE in six cancer cell lines derived from distinct human tissues in comparison with red ginseng extract (RGE), ginsenosides Rg5 and 20(S)-Rg3, and then assessed 28-day repeated oral toxicity in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats using daily administration of up to 2000 mg/kg BGE.

Results

BGE showed higher cytotoxicity than RGE in all the cell lines used in this study. Interestingly, the efficacy of BGE closely resembled the cytotoxic pattern of Rg5, suggesting Rg5 as the main effector in the cytotoxic activity of BGE. During the toxicity study, BGE-treated groups showed no noticeable abnormality in clinical signs, body weight gain, food and water consumption and urinalysis. Furthermore, hematological, serum biochemical and histopathological analyses did not find any BGE-related toxicity.

Conclusion

Our findings demonstrated that BGE has broad-spectrum in vitro cytotoxic activity, and that NOAEL of BGE in SD rats is > 2000 mg/kg, providing the essential safety information for human consumption.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12906-022-03522-3.

DK-MGAR101, an extract of adventitious roots of mountain ginseng, improves blood circulation by inhibiting endothelial cell injury, platelet aggregation, and thrombus formation

Background

Since ginsenosides exert an anti-thrombotic activity, blood flow-improving effects of DK-MGAR101, an extract of mountain ginseng adventitious roots (MGAR) containing various ginsenosides, were investigated in comparison with an extract of Korean Red Ginseng (ERG).

Methods

In Sprague-Dawley rats orally administered with DK-MGAR101 or ERG, oxidative carotid arterial thrombosis was induced with FeCl₃ (35%), and their blood flow and occlusion time were measured. To elucidate underlying mechanisms, the cytoprotective activities on rat aortic endothelial cells (RAOECs) exposed to hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) were confirmed. In addition, the inhibitory activities of DK-MGAR101 and ERG on agonist-induced platelet aggregation, thromboxane B₂ production, and ATP granule release from stimulated platelets as well as blood coagulation were analyzed.

Results

DK-MGAR101 containing high concentrations of Rb1, Rg1, Rg3, Rg5, and Rk1 ginsenosides (55.07 mg/g) was more effective than ERG (ginsenosides 8.45 mg/g) in protecting RAOECs against H₂O₂ cytotoxicity. DK-MGAR101 was superior to ERG not only in suppressing platelet aggregation, thromboxane B₂ production, and granule release, but also in delaying blood coagulation, FeCl₃-induced arterial occlusion, and thrombus formation.

Conclusions

The results indicate that DK-MGAR101 prevents blood vessel occlusion by suppressing platelet aggregation, thrombosis, and blood coagulation, in addition to endothelial cell injury.

Ginsenosides Conversion and Anti-Oxidant Activities in Puffed Cultured Roots of Mountain Ginseng

CRMG (Cultured Roots of Mountain Ginseng) have the advantages in scale-up production, safety, and pharmacological efficacies. Though several methods are available for the conversion of major to minor ginsenosides, which has more pharmacological activities, a single step process with high temperature and pressure as a puffing method took place in this study to gain and produce more pharmacologically active compounds. Puffed CRMG exhibited an acceleration of major ginsenosides to minor ginsenosides conversions, and released more phenolic and flavonoid compounds. HPLC analysis was used to detect a steep decrease in the contents of major ginsenosides (Re, Rf, Rg1, Rg2, Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc and Rd) with increasing pressure; on the contrary, the minor ginsenosides (20 (S, R)-Rg3, Rg5, Rk1, Rh1, Rh2, Rg6, F4 and Rk3) contents increased. Minor ginsenosides, such as Rg6, F4 and Rk3, were firstly reported to be produced from puffed CRMG. After the puffing process, phenolics, flavonoids, and minor ginsenoside contents were increased, and also, the antioxidant properties, such as DPPH inhibition and reducing the power of puffed CRMG, were significantly enhanced. Puffed CRMG at 490.3 kPa and 588.4 kPa had a low toxicity on HaCaT (immortalized human epidermal keratinocyte) cells at 200 μg/mL, and could significantly reduce ROS by an average of 60%, compared to the group treated with H2O2. Therefore, single step puffing of CRMG has the potential to be utilized for functional food and cosmeceuticals.

Effect of steaming process on the structural characteristics and antioxidant activities of polysaccharides from Polygonatum sibiricum rhizomes

Polygonatum sibiricum (P. sibiricum) rhizomes are widely used as a tonic and functional food, and are often processed to enhance their tonic function by repeated steaming and drying. As the most important constituent, the polysaccharide from P. sibiricum rhizomes (PSP) has demonstrated various activities, but the alteration of structural characteristics and activities of the purified PSPs during steaming process was rarely investigated. To well understand the effect of steaming process on the polysaccharides of P. sibiricum, neutral polysaccharides from P. sibiricum rhizomes (PSP0 ~ PSP9) after steaming were first isolated and purified, and then the chemical properties and antioxidant activities were determined. The results showed that the molar ratios of monosaccharides in PSPs were different. The molecular weights of PSPs were increased significantly after the fourth steaming. Morphological studies showed that the surface of PSPs became much tighter during the steaming process. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy spectra displayed the polysaccharides had similar backbones and chemical groups. Furthermore, the antioxidant activity of PSPs was measured through radical scavenging tests. It was found that the radical scavenging activity of PSPs was elevated strikingly after steaming, and increased gradually with numbers of steaming process. The biological and chemical variance of PSPs revealed considerable segregation of PSP0, PSP1 ~ PSP4 and PSP5 ~ PSP9. In conclusion, our results proposed the fourth time as the optimal number of steaming to extract functional polysaccharide from P. sibiricum rhizomes.

Ginsenosides in Panax genus and their biosynthesis

Ginsenosides are a series of glycosylated triterpenoids which belong to protopanaxadiol (PPD)-, protopanaxatriol (PPT)-, ocotillol (OCT)- and oleanane (OA)-type saponins known as active compounds of Panax genus. They are accumulated in plant roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. The content and composition of ginsenosides are varied in different ginseng species, and in different parts of a certain plant. In this review, we summarized the representative saponins structures, their distributions and the contents in nearly 20 Panax species, and updated the biosynthetic pathways of ginsenosides focusing on enzymes responsible for structural diversified ginsenoside biosynthesis. We also emphasized the transcription factors in ginsenoside biosynthesis and non-coding RNAs in the growth of Panax genus plants, and highlighted the current three major biotechnological applications for ginsenosides production. This review covered advances in the past four decades, providing more clues for chemical discrimination and assessment on certain ginseng plants, new perspectives for rational evaluation and utilization of ginseng resource, and potential strategies for production of specific ginsenosides.

An Efficient Synthesis of Ginsenoside Rg5 via Conversion of PPD Type Saponins: Unusual Application of 4A Molecular Sieves

Ginsenoside Rg5 is a rare secondary ginsenoside with good pharmacological activity. However, preparation of Rg5 is time consuming, gives a low yield and has poor selectivity and efficiency. Therefore, the current study describes an efficient method of preparing ginsenoside Rg5 through conversion of Protopanaxadiol (PPD) type saponins in the presence of a molecular sieve and hydrochloric acid. The PPD type saponins were transformed on the surface of a molecular sieve to obtain ginsenoside Rg5 and most of the generated secondary ginsenoside was dissociates into the reaction solution, avoiding further decomposition. In addition, the optimal experimental conditions were identified to be as follows; 0.5 ml of absolute ethanol, 0.2 mol/L of hydrochloric acid, 12.5 mg of a 4A molecular sieve, a reaction time of 2.5 hours and a reaction temperature of 70 ℃. Under these experimental conditions, yields of upto 63.2% were obtained for ginsenoside Rg5. Moreover, the hydrochloric acid-catalyzed preparation of ginsenoside Rg5 effectively inhibited its decomposition in the presence of a molecular sieve. The method is therefore suitable for laboratory and industrial production with the advantages of large-scale preparation and high-yield.

Pharmacokinetic studies of ginsenosides Rk1 and Rg5 in rats by UFLC-MS/MS

A rapid ultra-fast liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and validated to determine ginsenosides Rk1 and Rg5, a pair of isomers, in rat plasma, which was successfully applied to their pharmacokinetic studies. Two ginsenosides were given to male Sprague-Dawley rats via intragastrical and intravenous routes, respectively, and the impact of double bond position on the pharmacokinetic features of the two ginsenosides was elucidated in rats. Ginsenoside Rg3 was used as internal standard and ethyl acetate was applied to extract analytes and internal standard. Chromatographic separation was carried out on a reverse-phase UPLC HSS T3 column (100 × 2.1 mm, 1.8 μm). The flow rate was set to 0.4 ml/min. The fragmentation transition was m/z 765.4 → m/z 101.1 for two ginsenosides. The mobile phases were composed of 0.1% formic acid aqueous solution and acetonitrile. The linear range was 2-1,000 ng/ml for the two ginsenosides. Intra- and inter-day precisions were <11.67%, and accuracy fluctuated from -7.44 to 6.78%. The extraction recovery, matrix effect and stability were within acceptable levels. After treatment with ginsenosides Rk1 and Rg5, some differences were found in their pharmacokinetic profiles in rats. The maximum plasma drug concentration and the area under the plasma drug concentration-time curve of ginsenoside Rg5 were about 5 times bigger than those of ginsenoside Rk1 after oral administration, and 3 times higher after intravenous administration. The oral bioavailabilities of ginsenosides Rk1 and Rg5 were 0.67 and 0.97%, respectively. The results indicated that ∆²⁰⁽²²⁾ -ginsenosides showed better pharmacokinetic features than ∆²⁰⁽²¹⁾ -ginsenosides with the same glycosylation.

Enhanced Antioxidant Capacity of Puffed Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) by High Hydrostatic Pressure Extraction (HHPE) of Bioactive Compounds

Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) is known for its health benefits. Several previous studies revealed that curcumin, the main active compound in turmeric, has antioxidant capacity. It has been previously demonstrated that puffing, the physical processing using high heat and pressure, of turmeric increases the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities by increasing phenolic compounds in the extract. The current study sought to determine if high hydrostatic pressure extraction (HHPE), a non-thermal extraction at over 100 MPa, aids in the chemical changes and antioxidant functioning of turmeric. 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS), and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) analyses were conducted and assessed the content of total phenol compounds in the extract. The chemical changes of curcuminoids were also determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Among the three variables of ethanol concentration, pressure level, and treatment time, ethanol concentration was the most influential factor for the HHPE of turmeric. HHPE at 400 MPa for 20 min with 70% EtOH was the optimal extraction condition for the highest antioxidant activity. Compositional analysis revealed that 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol was produced by puffing. Vanillic acid and ferulic acid content increased with increasing HHPE time. Synergistic effect was not observed on antioxidant activity when the turmeric was sequentially processed using puffing and HHPE.

The Application of Simulated Moving-Bed Chromatography for the Separation of Ginsenosides in Sanchi Ginseng and American Ginseng

In this study, the separation of ginsenosides from the crude extract of Sanchi ginseng and American ginseng, obtained by aqueous ethanol extraction, was conducted in a simulated moving bed (SMB) with cleaning in place (CIP) design. Concentrated products with 86.2%, w/w, and 91.5%, w/w, of ginsenosides were obtained by the utilization of CIP-SMB for Sanchi and American ginseng, respectively. This study reveals that CIP-SMB could enrich ginsenosides by removing the retained impurities, which were initially extracted by aqueous ethanol and not removed by either the antisolvent precipitation for Sanchi ginseng or the ethyl acetate extraction for American ginseng. Although the ginsenosides in both ginsengs are similar, the difficulty in applying chromatography to the crude extract differs. A natural crude extract normally contains compounds with significant difference in retention. A traditional SMB with 4 sections will be, consequently, unable to continuously separate the natural products. This study develops methods for pretreating the crude extract and demonstrates the feasibility of continuously separating ginsenosides by using SMB. SMB is an effective technology for large-scale chromatography and can generally resolve solvent and energy consumption problems. This is expected to promote the industrial use of SMB for the production of concentrated ginsenosides as active pharmaceutical ingredients.

Chemical components of ginseng, their biotransformation products and their potential as treatment of hypertension

Ginseng is an ancient perennial herb belonging to the family Araliaceae and genus Panax which has been used for medical therapeutics for thousands of years, particularly in China and other Asian cultures although increasing interest in ginseng has recently emerged in western societies. Ginseng is a complex substance containing dozens of bioactive and potentially effective therapeutic compounds. Among the most studied are the ginsenosides, which are triterpene saponins possessing a wide array of potential therapeutic effects for many conditions. The quantity and type of ginsenoside vary greatly depending on ginseng species and their relative quantity in a given ginseng species is greatly affected by extraction processes as well as by subjecting ginseng to various procedures such as heating. Adding to the complexity of ginsenosides is their ability to undergo biotransformation to bioactive metabolites such as compound K by enteric bacteria following ingestion. Many ginsenosides exert vasodilatating effects making them potential candidates for the treatment of hypertension. Their vascular effects are likely dependent on eNOS activation resulting in the increased production of NO. One proposed end-mechanism involves the activation of calcium-activated potassium channels in vascular smooth cells resulting in reduced calcium influx and a vasodilatating effect, although other mechanisms have been proposed as discussed in this review.

Rg3-enriched Korean Red Ginseng extract inhibits blood-brain barrier disruption in an animal model of multiple sclerosis by modulating expression of NADPH oxidase 2 and 4

Background

Multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal model, the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), are primarily characterized as dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Ginsenoside-Rg3-enriched Korean Red Ginseng extract (Rg3-KRGE) is known to exert neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidative effects on neurological disorders. However, effects of Rg3-KRGE in EAE remain unclear.

Methods

Here, we investigated whether Rg3-KRGE may improve the symptoms and pathological features of myelin oligodendroglial glycoprotein (MOG)_35-55 peptide – induced chronic EAE mice through improving the integrity of the BBB.

Results

Rg3-KRGE decreased EAE score and spinal demyelination. Rg3-KRGE inhibited Evan's blue dye leakage in spinal cord, suppressed increases of adhesion molecule platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1, extracellular matrix proteins fibronection, and matrix metallopeptidase-9, and prevented decreases of tight junction proteins zonula occludens-1, claudin-3, and claudin-5 in spinal cord following EAE induction. Rg3-KRGE repressed increases of proinflammatory transcripts cyclooxygenase-2, inducible nitric oxide synthase, interleukin (IL)-1 beta, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, but enhanced expression levels of anti-inflammatory transcripts arginase-1 and IL-10 in the spinal cord following EAE induction. Rg3-KRGE inhibited the expression of oxidative stress markers (MitoSOX and 4-hydroxynonenal), the enhancement of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase 2 (NOX2) and NOX4, and NADPH activity in the spinal cord of chronic EAE mice. Furthermore, apocynin, a NOX inhibitor, mimicked beneficial effects of Rg3-KRGE in chronic EAE mice.

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that Rg3-KRGE might alleviate behavioral symptoms and pathological features of MS by improving BBB integrity through modulation of NOX2/4 expression.

Immune-Enhancing Effects of Red Platycodon grandiflorus Root Extract via p38 MAPK-Mediated NF-κB Activation

Platycodongrandiflorus (PG) root extract has been widely used as an oriental herbal medicine. Red PG root extract (RPGE), which is made by steaming and drying PG several times, contains more saponin than raw (white) PG. Although RPGE has been known to have anti-inflammatory activity, the effects of RPGE on the immune-enhancing response remain unclear. In this study, we aimed to investigate the immune-enhancing effects of RPGE and its mechanism in macrophage cells and splenocytes. Our results revealed that cell proliferation of both macrophages and splenocytes correlate positively with the concentration of RPGE. Moreover, RPGE treatment increased the phagocytic activity of macrophage cells, as well as nitric oxide and cytokines production. Furthermore, RPGE induced phosphorylation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, which contributed to nuclear factor-kappa B activation. Thus, our findings suggest that RPGE may be a potential functional food for improving immune function.

Fermented Ginseng Extract, BST204, Suppresses Tumorigenesis and Migration of Embryonic Carcinoma through Inhibition of Cancer Stem Cell Properties

The pharmacological effects of BST204—a fermented ginseng extract—on several types of cancers have been reported. However, the effects of ginseng products or single ginsenosides against cancer stem cells are still poorly understood. In this study, we identified the anti-tumorigenic and anti-invasive activities of BST204 through the suppression of the cancer stem cell marker, CD133. The treatment of embryonic carcinoma cells with BST204 induced the expression of the tumor suppressor protein, p53, which decreased the expression of cell cycle regulatory proteins and downregulated the expression of CD133 and several stemness transcription factors. These changes resulted in both the inhibition of tumor cell proliferation and tumorigenesis. The knockdown of CD133 suggests that it has a role in tumorigenesis, but not in cancer cell proliferation or cell cycle arrest. Treatment with BST204 resulted in the reduced expression of the mesenchymal marker, N-cadherin, and the increased expression of the epithelial marker, E-cadherin, leading to the suppression of tumor cell migration and invasion. The knockdown of CD133 also exhibited an anti-invasive effect, indicating the role of CD133 in tumor invasion. The single ginsenosides Rg3 and Rh2—major components of BST204—exhibited limited effects against cancer stem cells compared to BST204, suggesting possible synergism among several ginsenoside compounds.

Advances in the Production of Minor Ginsenosides Using Microorganisms and Their Enzymes

Abstract Minor ginsenodes are of great interest due to their diverse pharmacological activities such as their anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, neuroprotective, immunomodulator, and anti-inflammatory effects. The miniscule amount of minor ginsenosides in ginseng plants has driven the development of their mass production methods. Among the various production methods for minor ginsenosides, the utilization of microorganisms and their enzymes are considered as highly specific, safe, and environmentally friendly. In this review, various minor ginsenosides production strategies, namely utilizing microorganisms and recombinant microbial enzymes, for biotransforming major ginsenosides into minor ginsenoside, as well as constructing synthetic minor ginsenosides production pathways in yeast cell factories, are described and discussed. Furthermore, the present challenges and future research direction for producing minor ginsenosides using those approaches are discussed.

Puffing as a Novel Process to Enhance the Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Curcuma longa L. (Turmeric)

Curcuma longa L. (turmeric) is used as a food spice; however, its strong taste restricts wider applications as a food ingredient despite its well-known health benefits. To develop an effective yet simple process for enhancing its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, turmeric was gun-puffed at various pressures. Puffed turmeric exhibited an increase in its brown color and porous structures, indicating the occurrence of the Maillard reaction and vaporization during the process. Proximal analysis revealed that puffing did not alter the major constituents, although a very small decrease in crude fat extraction was observed under some circumstances. Total phenolic compounds in the extract were significantly increased after puffing, and subsequent assessment of antioxidant capacity, as determined using independent 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS), and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays, demonstrated enhanced antioxidant capacity in a puffing-pressure-dependent manner. Turmeric extract was further tested for the regulation of inflammatory responses in the murine macrophage RAW264.7 cell line. Suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α in lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced macrophages was amplified using puffed-turmeric extracts compared to the control extract. Furthermore, macrophage-activation assessment revealed downregulated expression of inflammation-relevant cluster of differentiation (CD)80 and CD86 using puffed-turmeric extract in a puffing-pressure-dependent manner. However, expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-II, which controls adoptive immunity, was not affected by treatment with any of the turmeric extracts. Overall, the current study demonstrated that puffing is a promising and simple method for enhancing the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of turmeric.