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Abstract
Protective immunity against fungal pathogens is achieved by the integration of two distinct arms of the immune system, the innate and adaptive responses. Innate and adaptive immune responses are intimately linked and controlled by sets of molecules and receptors that act to generate the most effective form of immunity for protection against fungal pathogens. The decision of how to respond will still be primarily determined by interactions between pathogens and cells of the innate immune system, but the actions of T cells will feed back into this dynamic equilibrium to regulate the balance between tolerogenic and inflammatory responses. In the last two decades, the immunopathogenesis of fungal infections and fungal diseases was explained primarily in terms of Th1/Th2 balance. Although Th1 responses driven by the IL-12/IFN-gamma axis are central to protection against fungi, other cytokines and T cell-dependent pathways have come of age. The newly described Th17 developmental pathway may play an inflammatory role previously attributed to uncontrolled Th1 responses and serves to accommodate the seemingly paradoxical association of chronic inflammatory responses with fungal persistence in the face of an ongoing inflammation. Regulatory T cells in their capacity to inhibit aspects of innate and adaptive antifungal immunity have become an integral component of immune resistance to fungi, and provide the host with immune defense mechanisms adequate for protection, without necessarily eliminating fungal pathogens which would impair immune memory--or causing an unacceptable level of tissue damage. The enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase and tryptophan metabolites contribute to immune homeostasis by inducing Tregs and taming overzealous or heightened inflammatory responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigina Romani
- Microbiology Section, Department of Experimental Medicine and Biochemical Sciences, University of Perugia, Italy.
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2
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Medeiros AI, Sá-Nunes A, Turato WM, Secatto A, Frantz FG, Sorgi CA, Serezani CH, Deepe GS, Faccioli LH. Leukotrienes Are Potent Adjuvant during Fungal Infection: Effects on Memory T Cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 181:8544-51. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.181.12.8544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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3
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Szymczak WA, Deepe GS, Winters MS. The interface between virulence and host response to the pathogenic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum. CURRENT FUNGAL INFECTION REPORTS 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s12281-008-0023-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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4
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Wüthrich M, Filutowicz HI, Allen HL, Deepe GS, Klein BS. V beta1+ J beta1.1+/V alpha2+ J alpha49+ CD4+ T cells mediate resistance against infection with Blastomyces dermatitidis. Infect Immun 2006; 75:193-200. [PMID: 17030569 PMCID: PMC1828383 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01148-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunization with a cell wall/membrane (CW/M) and yeast cytosol extract (YCE) crude antigen from Blastomyces dermatitidis confers T-cell-mediated resistance against lethal experimental infection in mice. We isolated and characterized T cells that recognize components of these protective antigens and mediate protection. CD4+ T-cell clones elicited with CW/M antigen adoptively transferred protective immunity when they expressed a V alpha2+ J alpha49+/V beta1+ J beta1.1+ heterodimeric T-cell receptor (TCR) and produced high levels of gamma interferon (IFN-gamma). In contrast, V beta8.1/8.2+ CD4+ T-cell clones that were reactive against CW/M and YCE antigens and produced little or no IFN-gamma either failed to mediate protection or exacerbated the infection depending on the level of interleukin-5 expression. Thus, the outgrowth of protective T-cell clones against immunodominant antigens of B. dermatitidis is biased by a combination of the TCR repertoire and Th1 cytokine production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Wüthrich
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin Medical School, University of Wisconsin Hospitals and Clinics, Madison, WI 53792, USA.
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5
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Heninger E, Hogan LH, Karman J, Macvilay S, Hill B, Woods JP, Sandor M. Characterization of the Histoplasma capsulatum-induced granuloma. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 177:3303-13. [PMID: 16920971 PMCID: PMC2748851 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.5.3303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Rising rates of Histoplasma capsulatum infection are an emerging problem among the rapidly growing population of immune-compromised individuals. Although there is a growing understanding of systemic immunity against Histoplasma, little is known about the local granulomatous response, which is an important component in the control of infection. The focus of this article is the characterization of Histoplasma-induced granulomas. Five days after i.p. infection, infected macrophage appear in the liver and lung; however, no granulomas are apparent. Two days later, well-formed sarcoid granulomas are abundant in the lung and liver of infected mice, which contain all visible Histoplasma. Granulomas are dominated by macrophage and lymphocytes. Most of the Histoplasma and most of the apoptotic cells are found in the center of the lesions. We isolated liver granulomas at multiple time points after infection and analyzed the cellular composition, TCR gene usage, and cytokine production of granuloma-infiltrating cells. The lesions contain both CD4+ and CD8+ T cell subsets, and T cells are the primary source of IFN-gamma and IL-17. The main source of local TNF-alpha is macrophage. Chemokines are produced by both infiltrating macrophage and lymphocytes. Dendritic cells are present in granulomas; however, T cell expansion seems to occur systemically because TCR usage is very heterogeneous even at the level of individual lesions. This study is the first direct examination of host cellular responses in the Histoplasma-induced granuloma representing the specific interface between host and pathogen. Our studies will allow further analysis of key elements of host Histoplasma interactions at the site of chronic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Heninger
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Laura H. Hogan
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Jozsef Karman
- Cellular and Molecular Pathology Graduate Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Sinarack Macvilay
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Bjork Hill
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Jon P. Woods
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Matyas Sandor
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706
- Cellular and Molecular Pathology Graduate Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706
- Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Matyas Sandor, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin, 5460 MSC, 1300 University Avenue, Madison, WI 53706.
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Lindell DM, Ballinger MN, McDonald RA, Toews GB, Huffnagle GB. Diversity of the T-cell response to pulmonary Cryptococcus neoformans infection. Infect Immun 2006; 74:4538-48. [PMID: 16861640 PMCID: PMC1539621 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00080-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell-mediated immunity plays an important role in immunity to the pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus neoformans. However, the antigen specificity of the T-cell response to C. neoformans remains largely unknown. In this study, we used two approaches to determine the antigen specificity of the T-cell response to C. neoformans. We report here that a diverse T-cell receptor (TCR) Vbeta repertoire was maintained throughout the primary response to pulmonary C. neoformans infection in immunocompetent mice. CD4+ T-cell deficiency resulted in relative expansion of all CD8+ T-cell subsets. During a secondary immune response, preferential usage of a TCR Vbeta subset in CD4+ T cells occurred in single individuals, but the preferences were "private" and not shared between individuals. Both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from the secondary lymphoid tissues of immunized mice proliferated in response to a variety of C. neoformans antigens, including heat-killed whole C. neoformans, culture filtrate antigen, C. neoformans lysate, and purified cryptococcal mannoprotein. CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from the secondary lymphoid tissues of mice undergoing a primary response to C. neoformans proliferated in response to C. neoformans lysate. In response to stimulation with C. neoformans lysate, lung CD4+ and CD8+ T cells produced the effector cytokines tumor necrosis factor alpha and gamma interferon. These results demonstrate that a diverse T-cell response is generated in response to pulmonary C. neoformans infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis M Lindell
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, 6301 MSRB III, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-0642, USA
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Allen HL, Deepe GS. Apoptosis modulates protective immunity to the pathogenic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum. J Clin Invest 2005; 115:2875-85. [PMID: 16151533 PMCID: PMC1199552 DOI: 10.1172/jci25365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2005] [Accepted: 06/28/2005] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogen-induced apoptosis of lymphocytes is associated with increased susceptibility to infection. In this study, we determined whether apoptosis influenced host resistance to the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum. The level of apoptotic leukocytes progressively increased in the lungs of naive and immune mice during the course of H. capsulatum infection. T cells constituted the dominant apoptotic population. Apoptosis was diminished in H. capsulatum-infected gld/gld and TNF-alpha-deficient mice; concomitantly, the fungal burden exceeded that of controls. Treatment of naive and H. capsulatum-immune mice with caspase inhibitors decreased apoptosis but markedly enhanced the severity of infection. Administration of a proapoptotic dose of suramin diminished the fungal burden. The increased burden in recipients of a caspase inhibitor was associated with elevations in IL-4 and IL-10 levels. In the absence of either of these cytokines, caspase inhibition suppressed apoptosis but did not increase the fungal burden. Thus, apoptosis is a critical element of protective immunity to H. capsulatum. Production of IL-4 and IL-10 is markedly elevated when apoptosis is inhibited, and the release of these cytokines exacerbates the severity of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly L Allen
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Veterans Affairs Hospital, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
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Sá-Nunes A, Medeiros AI, Nicolete R, Frantz FG, Panunto-Castelo A, Silva CL, Faccioli LH. Efficacy of cell-free antigens in evaluating cell immunity and inducing protection in a murine model of histoplasmosis. Microbes Infect 2005; 7:584-92. [PMID: 15820152 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2004.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2004] [Revised: 12/20/2004] [Accepted: 12/21/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Histoplasma capsulatum is a dimorphic pathogenic fungus that causes a wide spectrum of disease when mycelial fragments are inhaled. Resistance to H. capsulatum is dependent on cellular immunity mediated by T cells and macrophages. Here we standardized the production of extracts containing cell-free antigens (CFAgs) and observed their efficacy in evaluating cellular immunity during murine histoplasmosis. CFAgs induced a more potent delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) response in H. capsulatum-infected mice than did histoplasmin-a classical antigen. This DTH response to CFAgs is able to determine the immune status of infected mice and to predict their death. Moreover, CFAgs stimulated spleen cells from immune mice to produce higher amounts of gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) in vitro. Finally, immunization with CFAgs protected against a lethal inoculum of H. capsulatum. These results demonstrate that CFAgs may be useful for the evaluation of cellular immune response and as a potential source for the development of a vaccine against histoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anderson Sá-Nunes
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. do Café s/n(o), Ribeirão Preto, SP 14040-903, Brazil
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Johnson TR, Varga SM, Braciale TJ, Graham BS. Vbeta14(+) T cells mediate the vaccine-enhanced disease induced by immunization with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) G glycoprotein but not with formalin-inactivated RSV. J Virol 2004; 78:8753-60. [PMID: 15280483 PMCID: PMC479099 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.16.8753-8760.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mice immunized with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) G glycoprotein or with formalin-inactivated RSV (FI-RSV) exhibit severe disease following RSV challenge. This results in type 2 cytokine production and pulmonary eosinophilia, both hallmarks of vaccine-enhanced disease. RSV G-induced T-cell responses were shown to be restricted to CD4(+) T cells expressing Vbeta14 in the T-cell receptor (TCR), and the deletion of these T cells resulted in less severe disease. We therefore examined the role of Vbeta14(+) T cells in FI-RSV-induced disease. BALB/c mice were immunized with vaccinia virus expressing secreted RSV G (vvGs) or with FI-RSV. At the time of challenge with live RSV, mice were injected with antibody to the Vbeta14 component of the TCR. vvGs-immunized mice treated with anti-Vbeta14 had reduced cytokine levels in the lung. Eosinophil recruitment to the lung was also significantly reduced. In contrast, depletion of Vbeta14(+) T cells in FI-RSV-immunized mice had little impact on cytokine production or pulmonary eosinophilia. An analysis of TCR Vbeta chain usage confirmed a bias toward Vbeta14 expression on CD4(+) T cells from vvGs-immunized mice, whereas the CD4(+) T cells in FI-RSV-immunized mice expressed a diverse array of Vbeta chains. These data show that although FI-RSV and vvGs induce responses resulting in similar immunopathology, the T-cell repertoire mediating the response is different for each immunogen and suggest that the immune responses elicited by RSV G are not the basis for FI-RSV vaccine-enhanced disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa R Johnson
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, Bldg. 40, Room 2614, 40 Convent Dr., MSC 3017, Bethesda, MD 20892-3017, USA.
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Scheckelhoff M, Deepe GS. The protective immune response to heat shock protein 60 of Histoplasma capsulatum is mediated by a subset of V beta 8.1/8.2+ T cells. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 169:5818-26. [PMID: 12421963 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.169.10.5818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Immunization with recombinant heat shock protein 60 (rHsp60) from Histoplasma capsulatum or a region of the protein designated fragment 3 (F3) confers protection from a subsequent challenge in mice. To determine the T cell repertoire involved in the response to Hsp60, T cell clones from C57BL/6 mice immunized with rHsp60 were generated and examined for Vbeta usage by flow cytometry and RT-PCR. Vbeta8.1/8.2(+) T cells were preferentially expanded; other clones bore Vbeta4, -6, or -11. When Vbeta8.1/8.2(+) cells were depleted in mice, Vbeta4(+) T cell clones were almost exclusively isolated. Measurement of cytokine production demonstrated that nine of 16 Vbeta8.1/8.2(+) clones were Th1, while only three of 13 non-Vbeta8.1/8.2(+) clones were Th1. In mice immunized with rHsp60, depletion of Vbeta8.1/8.2(+), but not Vbeta6(+) plus Vbeta7(+), T cells completely abolished the protective efficacy of Hsp60 to lethal and sublethal challenges. Examination of the TCR revealed that a subset of Vbeta8.1/2(+) clones that produced IFN-gamma and were reactive to F3 shared a common CDR3 sequence, DGGQG. Transfer of these T cell clones into TCR alpha/beta(-/-) or IFN-gamma(-/-) mice significantly improved survival, while transfer of other Vbeta8.1/8.2(+) clones that were F3 reactive but were Th2 or clones that were not reactive to F3 but were Th1 did not confer protection. These data indicate that a distinct subset of Vbeta8.1/8.2(+) T cells is crucial for the generation of a protective response to rHsp60.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Line
- Chaperonin 60/administration & dosage
- Chaperonin 60/genetics
- Chaperonin 60/immunology
- Clone Cells/immunology
- Clone Cells/metabolism
- Clone Cells/microbiology
- Clone Cells/transplantation
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- Fungal Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Fungal Vaccines/immunology
- Histoplasma/genetics
- Histoplasma/immunology
- Histoplasmosis/immunology
- Histoplasmosis/microbiology
- Histoplasmosis/prevention & control
- Immunoglobulin Variable Region/analysis
- Immunoglobulin Variable Region/biosynthesis
- Immunotherapy, Adoptive/methods
- Lymphocyte Depletion
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Nude
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/administration & dosage
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/deficiency
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/physiology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/microbiology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/transplantation
- Vaccines, Synthetic/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Synthetic/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Scheckelhoff
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Biochemistry, and Microbiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
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Deepe GS, Gibbons RS, Ward SR. Discordance between T-cell receptor expression and effector function in mice infected with Histoplasma capsulatum. Infect Immun 2002; 70:1648-52. [PMID: 11854260 PMCID: PMC127812 DOI: 10.1128/iai.70.3.1648-1652.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
V beta 10(+) and V beta 14(+) T cells were selectively increased 7 to 14 days following infection in the lungs of naive mice infected with Histoplasma capsulatum. Following secondary challenge of immune mice, V beta 1(+) and V beta 8.1(+) cells were sporadically increased. Elimination of V beta 10(+) and V beta 14(+) cells from naive mice did not alter the course of infection over a period of 21 days. Thus, overexpression of V beta families does not necessarily signify a key role in host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- George S Deepe
- Veterans Affairs Hospital and Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio 45267-0560, USA.
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Deepe GS, Gibbons R. V beta 6+ T cells are obligatory for vaccine-induced immunity to Histoplasma capsulatum. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 167:2219-26. [PMID: 11490008 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.167.4.2219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We examined TCR usage to a protective fragment of heat shock protein 60 from the fungus, Histoplasma capsulatum. Nearly 90% of T cell clones from C57BL/6 mice vaccinated with this protein were Vbeta6+; the remainder were Vbeta14+. Amino acid motifs of the CDR3 region from Vbeta6+ cells were predominantly IxGGG, IGG, or SxxGG, whereas it was uniformly SFSGG for Vbeta14+ clones. Short term T cell lines from Vbeta6+-depleted mice failed to recognize Ag, and no T cell clones could be generated. To determine whether Vbeta6+ cells were functionally important, we eliminated them during vaccination. Depletion of Vbeta6+ cells abrogated protection in vivo and upon adoptive transfer of cells into TCR alphabeta(-/-) mice. Transfer of a Vbeta6+, but not a Vbeta14+, clone into TCR alphabeta(-/-) mice prolonged survival. Cytokine generation by Ag-stimulated splenocytes from immunized mice depleted of Vbeta6+ cells was similar to that of controls. The efficacy of the Vbeta6+ clone was associated with elevated production of IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, and GM-CSF compared with that of the Vbeta14+ clone. More Vbeta6+ cells were present in lungs and spleens of TCR alphabeta(-/-) on day 3 postinfection compared with Vbeta14+ cells. Thus, a single Vbeta family was essential for vaccine-induced immunity. Moreover, the mechanism by which Vbeta6+ contributed to protective immunity differed between unfractionated splenocytes and T cell clones.
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MESH Headings
- Adoptive Transfer
- Animals
- Base Sequence
- Cell Line
- Chaperonin 60/immunology
- Clone Cells/transplantation
- Cytokines/analysis
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- Fungal Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Fungal Vaccines/immunology
- Histoplasma/immunology
- Histoplasmosis/immunology
- Histoplasmosis/prevention & control
- Injections, Intravenous
- Injections, Subcutaneous
- Lymphocyte Depletion
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Peptide Fragments/administration & dosage
- Peptide Fragments/immunology
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/deficiency
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/genetics
- Spleen/cytology
- Spleen/transplantation
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/transplantation
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Affiliation(s)
- G S Deepe
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, and Veterans Affairs Hospital, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA.
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