The Effect of Adenotonsillectomy for Childhood Sleep Apnea on Cardiometabolic Measures

Efficacy of adenotonsillectomy on pediatric obstructive sleep apnea and related outcomes: A narrative review of current evidence

This review summarizes the current evidence in systematic reviews, meta-analysis and randomized controlled trials regarding adenotonsillectomy outcomes in pediatric obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Adenotonsillectomy is effective in treating OSA in children without co-morbidities, despite postoperative residual OSA remained in roughly half of these children. For children with comorbidities such as Down syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, sickle cell disease, or cerebral palsy, adenotonsillectomy is less effective and associated with more postoperative complications than that in children without comorbidities. For other OSA-related outcomes, evidence from meta-analyses and randomized controlled trials confirm adenotonsillectomy results in improvement of subjective OSA-related outcomes (e.g. symptoms, behaviors, and quality of life), but the results in objective OSA-related outcomes (e.g. cardiometabolic parameters or neurocognitive functions) are inconsistent. Future studies should focus on randomized controlled trials comparing objective OSA-related outcomes and the long-term effects of adenotonsillectomy in children with OSA.

Serum Biomarkers after Adenotonsillectomy for Pediatric OSA: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVE

To assess whether adenotonsillectomy improves levels of inflammatory and cardiometabolic markers in children with polysomnographically diagnosed obstructive sleep apnea (OSA).

DATA SOURCES

Two authors independently searched PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane databases up to August 16, 2022, for studies relating to pre- and post-operative levels of serum markers in pediatric patients undergoing adenotonsillectomy.

REVIEW METHODS

Data were extracted from included articles into a structured proforma. Meta-analyses of the standardized mean difference (SMD) were conducted in random-effects models. We calculated the probability of benefit (POB) and number needed to treat (NNT) for outcomes that demonstrated a statistically significant effect after adenotonsillectomy. The primary outcomes were changes in serum markers including C-reactive protein (CRP), high-sensitivity CRP (hs-CRP), Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), interleukin-10 (IL-10), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), insulin, glucose, total cholesterol, triglyceride, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL).

RESULTS

We screened 1616 studies and included 26 studies with 1331 participants. Meta-analysis was performed on 20 of the included studies. Adenotonsillectomy was associated with a significant decrease in insulin levels (SMD = -0.322, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = -0.583 to -0.061), CRP (SMD = -0.946, 95% CI = -1.578 to -0.314), and BNP (SMD = -1.416, 95% CI = -2.355 to -0.477) and significant increase in levels of IGF-1 (SMD = 0.691, 95% CI = 0.207 to 1.176). There were no significant changes in levels of triglyceride, total cholesterol, TNF-α, LDL, HDL, glucose, IL-10, and IL-6.

CONCLUSION

In children with polysomnographically diagnosed OSA, adenotonsillectomy was associated with improvements in serum biomarkers, comprising lower CRP, insulin, and BNP, and higher IGF-1. Laryngoscope, 2024.

Sleep quality, sleep apnea, and metabolic health in children treated with adenotonsillectomy

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to determine if cardiopulmonary coupling (CPC) calculated sleep quality (SQI) may predict changes in metabolic health in children treated with early adenotonsillectomy (eAT) for obstructive sleep apnea (OSA).

METHODS

Secondary analysis of the Childhood Adenotonsillectomy Trial (CHAT) was performed including children 5.0-9.9 years with OSA assigned to eAT. The cohort was stratified based on SQI and AHI to evaluate (1) response to eAT in children with high sleep quality (SQI ≥ 75) and mild-OSA, AHI < 5.0 (group1) and children with moderate-OSA AHI ≥ 5.0 or SQI < 75 (group2) at baseline and (2) effect of eAT therapy on metabolic health, GroupRemission (AHI < 1.0, SQI ≥ 75) compared to GroupResidual.

RESULTS

At baseline group2 (n=124) had higher average heart rate during sleep (AHRSleep), 87 vs. 81 beats/minute (p < 0.001) compared to group1 (n=72). After surgery, group2 on average had less increase in BMI z-score 0.13 vs. 0.27, (p = 0.025), improved their SQI + 2.06 compared to decline - 3.75 in group1, (p = 0.015), decreased AHRSleep-- 2.90 vs. - 0.34 (p = 0.025) and AHI - 5.00 vs. - 0.36 (p = 0.002). GroupRemission was younger 6.59 vs. 7.41; p < 0.001; with lower BMI z-score 0.90 vs. 1.34; p = 0.021; AHRSleep 80.60 vs. 83.50; p = 0.032; fasting insulin (µIU/ml) 7.54 vs. 12.58; p = 0.017 and glucose (mmol/L) 4.45 vs. 4.60; p = 0.049, with better lipid metabolism though not statistically significantly, low-density-lipoprotein 90.26 mg/dL vs. 97.94; p = 0.081 and cholesterol 154.66 mg/dL vs. 164.36; p = 0.076.

CONCLUSION

The results may indicate that children with mild-OSA and high-SQI may be less likely to benefit from eAT than children with moderate-OSA. To improve metabolic health, successfully treating both AHI and SQI is likely needed. CPC-calculated SQI may have a role to identify children less likely to benefit from eAT and to evaluate success of therapy.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00560859.

Effect of surgical intervention for childhood OSA on blood pressure: A randomized controlled study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of surgical intervention on 24-h ABP in children with OSA. It was hypothesized that blood pressure would improve following adenotonsillectomy.

METHODS

This was a two-centered investigator-blinded randomized controlled trial. Non-obese pre-pubertal children aged 6-11 years with OSA (obstructive apnea-hypopnea index, OAHI >3/h) underwent 24-h ABP monitoring at baseline and 9 months after the randomly assigned intervention, i.e. Early Surgery (ES) or Watchful Waiting (WW). Intention-to-treat analysis was performed.

RESULTS

137 subjects were randomized. Sixty-two (Age: 7.9y ± 1.3, 71% boys) and 47 (Age: 8.5y ± 1.6, 77% boys) participants from the ES and WW groups, respectively completed the study. Changes in ABP parameters were similar in the ES and WW groups (nighttime systolic BP z-scores: +0.03 ± 0.93 vs. -0.06 ± 1.04, p = 0.65; nighttime diastolic BP z-scores: -0.20 ± 0.95 vs. -0.02 ± 1.00, p = 0.35) despite a greater improvement in OSA in the ES group. However, a reduction in nighttime diastolic BP z-score correlated with improvements in OSA severity indexes (r = 0.21-0.22, p < 0.05), and a significant improvement in nighttime diastolic BP z-score [-0.43 ± 1.01, p = 0.027] following surgery was observed in participants with severe preoperative OSA (OAHI ≥10/h). The ES group had a significant increase in body mass index z-score after surgery [+0.27 ± 0.57, p < 0.001], which correlated with the increase in daytime systolic BP z-score (r = 0.2, p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Surgical treatment did not lead to significant improvements in ABP in OSA children except in those with more severe disease. The improvement in BP was partially masked by the weight gain following surgery.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

The trial was registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (http://www.chictr.org.cn.

REGISTRATION NUMBER

ChiCTR-TRC-14004131).

Ambulatory Blood Pressure Variability after Adenotonsillectomy in Childhood Sleep Apnea

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the influence of adenotonsillectomy (T&A) on ambulatory blood pressure (BP) variability in children with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA).

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective, interventional study.

METHODS

Children with OSA symptoms were recruited from a tertiary center. After OSA diagnosis was confirmed (ie, apnea-hypopnea index [AHI] > 1), these children underwent T&A for treatment. We performed polysomnography and 24-hour recordings of ambulatory BP before and 3 to 6 months postoperatively. Ambulatory BP variability was presented as the standard deviation of mean blood pressure in the 24-hour monitoring of ambulatory BP. Differences in BP variability among different subgroups were tested using a multivariable linear mixed model.

RESULTS

A total of 190 children were enrolled (mean age: 7.8 ± 3.3 years; 73% were boys; 34% were obese). The AHI significantly decreased from 12.3 ± 17.0 to 2.7 ± 5.5 events/hr after T&A. Overall, daytime, and nighttime ambulatory BP did not significantly change postoperatively, and overall, daytime, and nighttime ambulatory BP variability did not differ significantly preoperatively and postoperatively. In the subgroup analysis, children aged <6 years demonstrated a significantly greater decrease in ambulatory BP variability postoperatively than those aged >6 years (nighttime diastolic BP variability: 9.9 to 7.7 vs. 8.9 to 9.4). Children with hypertension also showed a significantly greater decrease in ambulatory BP variability than those without hypertension.

CONCLUSIONS

We concluded that overall ambulatory BP variability does not significantly change after T&A in children with OSA. Moreover, young-aged and hypertensive children demonstrate a significant decrease in BP variability after T&A.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

4 Laryngoscope, 132:2491-2497, 2022.

Secondary Analyses of the Childhood Adenotonsillectomy Trial: A Narrative Review

Importance

Adenotonsillectomy, performed for approximately 500 000 children annually in the US alone, is the first line of treatment of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). The Childhood Adenotonsillectomy Trial (CHAT), the first randomized clinical trial to test the efficacy of adenotonsillectomy, compared the management of pediatric nonsevere OSA by early adenotonsillectomy (eAT) vs watchful waiting with supportive care. Since the publication of the primary article in 2013, the CHAT study data set were made available via the National Sleep Research Resource, which allowed researchers to address a range of additional clinical questions relevant to the care of children with OSA. This review focuses on secondary analyses associated with the CHAT data set as grouped by the outcome of interest.

Observations

The results of most secondary analyses suggest that children who underwent eAT experienced the greatest improvements in symptom burden, sleepiness, parent-reported behavior, and quality of life. Changes in other domains, such as cognition, cardiovascular physiology, and metabolic indicators, were modest and selective. The associations between most treatment outcomes and polysomnographic parameters were weak. Symptoms were poor predictors of OSA severity. The results from these secondary analyses benefitted from the rigor of multicenter design and centralized polysomnography interpretation in CHAT. However, the exclusion of younger preschool-aged children and children with primary snoring limited the generalizability of findings. In addition, because caregivers were not masked, some of the parent-reported outcomes may have been inflated.

Conclusions and Relevance

The results of this narrative review suggest that CHAT provides a model for future OSA-related studies in children for design, conduct, and subsequent reuse of the study data set, and its findings have advanced our understanding of the pathophysiology and management of pediatric nonsevere OSA. Directions for future research include whether the findings from this landmark study are generalizable to younger children and children with primary snoring and severe OSA. Similar studies may help address practice variability associated with pediatric OSA and help identify children who are most likely to benefit from undergoing eAT.

Impact of Tonsillectomy on Obesity in Pediatric Patients With Sleep-Disordered Breathing

Objective

Both tonsillar hypertrophy and obesity contribute to pediatric sleep-disordered breathing (SDB). Tonsillectomy addresses anatomical obstruction causing SDB; however, it may adversely affect the obesity profile postoperatively. Herein, we investigate posttonsillectomy body mass index (BMI) changes in pediatric patients.

Study Design

Retrospective case series.

Setting

Tertiary, pediatric urban academic center.

Methods

All patients undergoing tonsillectomy from January 1, 2016, to December 31, 2016, were included. Patients’ age, sex, surgical indication, and preoperative BMI were recorded. Postoperative BMI data were collected between March 1, 2016, and December 31, 2017. Statistical analysis was performed using a generalized regression model, using BMI percentile-for-age weight status.

Results

A total of 1153 patients were included (50% female), with age ranging from 2.0 to 19.5 years (mean [SD], 7.6 [4.0]). The majority (87.8%) had tonsillectomy for SDB. Of the cohort, 560 (48.6%) had available follow-up BMI data. The BMI percentile on the day of the surgery had a median of 65.8, and the BMI percentile on follow-up had a median of 76.4. The median time to follow-up was 197 days with a range of 50 to 605 days. Higher postoperative BMI percentile strongly correlated to higher preoperative BMI percentile (P < .001), as well as younger age (P < .001), male sex (P = .0005), and SDB as a surgical indication (P = .003).

Conclusion

We observed a significant increase in BMI percentile following tonsillectomy, which accounted for a significantly higher proportion of the cohort being classified as overweight or obese postoperatively. These findings necessitate greater preoperative counseling, closer follow-up, and adjunctive measures for obesity management in pediatric patients undergoing tonsillectomy.

Heart Rate Variability as a Potential Biomarker of Pediatric Obstructive Sleep Apnea Resolution

STUDY OBJECTIVES

Pediatric obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) affects cardiac autonomic regulation, altering heart rate variability (HRV). Although changes in classical HRV parameters occur after OSA treatment, they have not been evaluated as reporters of OSA resolution. Specific frequency bands (named BW1, BW2 and BWRes) have been recently identified in OSA. We hypothesized that changes with treatment in these spectral bands can reliably identify changes in OSA severity and reflect OSA resolution.

METHODS

404 OSA children (5-9.9 years) from the prospective Childhood Adenotonsillectomy Trial (CHAT) were included; 206 underwent early adenotonsillectomy (eAT), while 198 underwent watchful waiting with supportive care (WWSC). HRV changes from baseline to follow-up were computed for classical and OSA-related frequency bands. Causal mediation analysis was conducted to evaluate how treatment influences HRV through mediators such as OSA resolution and changes in disease severity. Disease resolution was initially assessed by considering only obstructive events, and was followed by adding central apneas to the analyses.

RESULTS

Treatment, regardless of eAT or WWSC, affects HRV activity, mainly in the specific frequency band BW2 (0.028-0.074 Hz). Furthermore, only changes in BW2 were specifically attributable to all OSA resolution mediators. HRV activity in BW2 also showed statistically significant differences between resolved and non-resolved OSA.

CONCLUSIONS

OSA treatment affects HRV activity in terms of change in severity and disease resolution, especially in OSA-related BW2 frequency band. This band allowed to differentiate HRV activity between children with and without resolution, so we propose BW2 as potential biomarker of pediatric OSA resolution.

C-reactive protein in children with obstructive sleep apnea and effects of adenotonsillectomy

OBJECTIVE

C-reactive protein (CRP) is an important serum marker of inflammation associated with cardiovascular outcomes. This study aims to evaluate the association between CRP and childhood obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and clarify the effects of adenotonsillectomy on serum CRP levels in children with OSA.

METHODS

Children with symptoms suggestive of OSA who underwent an overnight polysomnography were recruited from a tertiary medical center. Their serum CRP levels were measured. For children who underwent adenotonsillectomy for OSA treatment, polysomnography and serum high-sensitivity CRP (hs-CRP) level measurement were conducted after surgery.

RESULTS

This study included 326 children (mean age: 7.2 ± 3.0 years; boys: 67%). Children with apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) > 5 events/h had significantly higher hs-CRP levels than children with AHI of 1-5 events/h and AHI < 1 event/h [median (interquartile range): 0.08 (0.03-0.25) vs 0.03 (0.02-0.14) vs 0.04 (0.01-0.10), P < 0.001]. Log-transformed hs-CRP levels were positively associated with log AHI values (r = 0.2, P < 0.001). In multiple linear regression analysis, hs-CRP levels were independently associated with AHI; 101 children with OSA (ie, AHI > 1) underwent adenotonsillectomy. In children with OSA in the study cohort, a significant reduction of hs-CRP levels did not occur after surgery [from 0.07 (0.02-0.22) to 0.08 (0.03-0.17), P = 0.716]. In children with OSA having abnormal hs-CRP levels (ie, CRP > 1 mg/dL), hs-CRP levels significantly decreased after surgery [from 1.87 (1.11-2.78) to 0.20 (0.07-1.04), P = 0.043].

CONCLUSION

Children with OSA had increased hs-CRP levels. Children with OSA and abnormal hs-CRP levels exhibited significantly reduced hs-CRP levels following adenotonsillectomy.

Association of Pediatric Obstructive Sleep Apnea With Elevated Blood Pressure and Orthostatic Hypertension in Adolescence

Importance

Although pediatric guidelines have delineated updated thresholds for elevated blood pressure (eBP) in youth and adult guidelines have recognized obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) as an established risk factor for eBP, the relative association of pediatric OSA with adolescent eBP remains unexplored.

Objective

To assess the association of pediatric OSA with eBP and its orthostatic reactivity in adolescence.

Design, Setting, and Participants

At baseline of this population-based cohort study (Penn State Child Cohort) in 2000-2005, a random sample of 700 children aged 5 to 12 years from the general population was studied. A total of 421 participants (60.1%) were followed up in 2010-2013 after 7.4 years as adolescents (ages, 12-23 years). Data analyses were conducted from July 6 to October 29, 2020.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Outcomes were the apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) score, ascertained via polysomnography conducted in a laboratory; eBP measured in the seated position identified using guideline-recommended pediatric criteria; orthostatic hyperreactivity identified with BP assessed in the supine and standing positions; and visceral adipose tissue assessed via dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry.

Results

Among the 421 participants (mean [SD] age at follow-up, 16.5 [2.3] years), 227 (53.9%) were male and 92 (21.9%) were racial/ethnic minorities. A persistent AHI of 2 or more since childhood was longitudinally associated with adolescent eBP (odds ratio [OR], 2.9; 95% CI 1.1-7.5), while a remitted AHI of 2 or more was not (OR, 0.9; 95% CI 0.3-2.6). Adolescent OSA was associated with eBP in a dose-response manner; however, the association of an AHI of 2 to less than 5 among adolescents was nonsignificant (OR, 1.5; 95% CI, 0.9-2.6) and that of an AHI of 5 or more was approximately 2-fold (OR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.1-4.9) after adjusting for visceral adipose tissue. An AHI of 5 or more (OR, 3.1; 95% CI, 1.2-8.5), but not between 2 and less than 5 (OR, 1.3; 95% CI, 0.6-3.0), was associated with orthostatic hyperreactivity among adolescents even after adjusting for visceral adipose tissue. Childhood OSA was not associated with adolescent eBP in female participants, while the risk of OSA and eBP was greater in male participants.

Conclusions and Relevance

The results of this cohort study suggest that childhood OSA is associated with adolescent hypertension only if it persists during this developmental period. Visceral adiposity explains a large extent of, but not all, the risk of hypertension associated with adolescent OSA, which is greater in male individuals.

Effect of adenotonsillectomy on blood pressure in children with obstructive sleep apnea: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

While adenotonsillectomy (T&A) is widely recognized as the first-line therapy for pediatric obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), effects of T&A on blood pressure (BP) remain unclear. This meta-analysis evaluates the associations between T&A and BP in children with OSA.

METHODS

The study protocol was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42020154425). Two authors independently searched the PubMed, Medline, EMBASE, and Cochrane databases. The keywords used were "sleep apnea syndromes," "adenotonsillectomy," and "child." A random-effects model was applied to determine office systolic BP (SBP), diastolic BP (DBP), and ambulatory BP changes.

RESULT

Twelve studies with 1193 children were analyzed (mean age: 7.6 y; 54% boys). The apnea-hypopnea index significantly reduced of 9.4 events/h (95% CI, -12.0 to -6.8) after T&A. Office SBP (-0.24 mmHg; 95% CI, -1.64 to 1.16) and DBP (-1.65 mmHg; 95% CI, -3.47 to 0.17) did not decrease significantly after surgery. No significant decreases were observed in 24-h ambulatory BP after T&A. Subgroup analysis showed a significant postoperative decrease in office SBP (-6.23 mmHg; 95% CI, -7.78 to -4.67) and DBP (-7.93 mmHg; 95% CI, -10.37 to -5.48) among children with hypertension but a slight increase in office SBP (2.50 mmHg; 95% CI, 1.14 to 3.86) and DBP (1.98 mmHg; 95% CI, -0.02 to 3.98) in those without (P for heterogeneity < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis suggests the office and ambulatory BP changes after T&A in children with OSA are trivial. Moreover, children with hypertension experience a significantly greater decrease in office BP than children without hypertension.

Effect of surgical intervention for mild childhood obstructive sleep apnoea on attention and behavioural outcomes: A randomized controlled study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

We evaluated inattention and behavioural outcomes following surgery versus watchful waiting (WW) in school-aged children with mild obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA).

METHODS

A prospective randomized controlled study was performed in pre-pubertal children aged 6-11 years with polysomnography (PSG)-confirmed mild OSA. They were assigned randomly to early surgical intervention (ES) or WW. The surgical intervention consisting of tonsillectomy with or without adenoidectomy and turbinate reduction was carried out within 4-6 weeks after randomization. Both groups underwent PSG, attention and behavioural assessment and review by an otorhinolaryngologist at baseline and 9-month follow-up. The primary outcome was omission T score from Conners' continuous performance test (CPT). Secondary outcomes were parent-reported behaviours, quality of life, symptoms and PSG parameters.

RESULTS

A total of 114 participants were randomized. Data of 35 subjects from the ES and 36 from the WW group were available for final analysis. No significant treatment effect could be found in all CPT parameters and behavioural outcomes. Nevertheless, significantly greater reductions were seen in PSG parameters (obstructive apnoea-hypopnoea index [-1.4 ± 2.0 cf. +0.3 ± 4.1/h, p = 0.038] and arousal index [-1.3 ± 4.4 cf. +1.4 ± 4.5/h, p = 0.013]) and OSA-18 total symptom score (-17.3 ± 19.7 cf. -3.6 ± 14.1, p = 0.001) in the ES group. Subjects who underwent surgery also had significantly greater weight gain (+3.3 ± 2.1 cf. +2.2 ± 1.5 kg, p = 0.014) and increase in systolic blood pressure (+5.1 ± 12.4 cf. -1.2 ± 8.7 mm Hg, p = 0.016).

CONCLUSION

Despite improvements in PSG parameters and parent-reported symptoms, surgical treatment did not lead to parallel improvements in objective attention measures in school-aged children with mild OSA.

Analyses of Weight/Blood Pressure Changes before and after Tonsillectomy in Adults: A Longitudinal Follow-Up Study

This study aimed to evaluate the changes in weight and blood pressure in Korean adults who underwent tonsillectomy compared to controls. A nested case-control study used data from the Korean National Health Insurance Service-Health Screening Cohort (2002–2015). Tonsillectomy was defined using claim code Q2300. The changes in weight and systolic/diastolic blood pressure (SBP/DBP) were measured before tonsillectomy and 1 year after tonsillectomy (study I) in some participants and during the second year after tonsillectomy (study II) in other participants. Patients who underwent tonsillectomy (n = 569 in study I; n = 556 in study II) were 1:4 matched with control participants (n = 2276 in study I; n = 2224 in study II). The paired t-test and linear mixed model were used to test the differences between groups at each time point. There were no changes in body mass index (p = 0.732 in study I; p = 0.128 in study II), SBP (p = 0.344 in study I; p = 0.559 in study II), or DBP (p = 0.826 in study I; p = 0.524 in study II) between the tonsillectomy patients and controls in the first or second year postoperatively. Subgroup analyses by age, sex, and degree of obesity showed consistent results. Tonsillectomy does not lead to a change in weight or blood pressure in Korean adults.

Parental Perception of Weight Status for Adenotonsillectomy Patients

OBJECTIVE

Weight status can affect outcomes in pediatric adenotonsillectomy performed for obstructive sleep disordered breathing. Parents frequently underestimate their child's weight and are unaware weight status may affect adenotonsillectomy success. Accurate understanding of a child's weight status is important for shared decision making with the family and perioperative care. The purpose of this study is to analyze the accuracy of the parent's perception of their child's weight status.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was performed of prospective data collected from families of children undergoing adenotonsillectomy from June 2018 through June 2019.

RESULTS

A total of 522 children met the inclusion criteria. Two hundred and thirty-two children were either overweight (n = 46, 9%) or obese (n = 186, 36%). Among parents of this cohort whose children were overweight or obese, 74 (32%) erroneously reported that their child was normal weight. For the 290 nonoverweight children, 99% of parents accurately reported weight status. After adjusting for ethnicity, race, BMI%, and sex, for every 1-year increase in age of the child, the odds of the parent correctly identifying their child as overweight increased by a factor of 1.18 (95% CI: 1.09, 1.27).

CONCLUSION

One-third of families with children who were overweight or obese undergoing adenotonsillectomy for obstructive sleep disordered breathing underestimated their child's weight. This study highlights the need to facilitate family understanding of weight status' potential impact on both obstructive sleep disordered breathing severity and adenotonsillectomy success, especially for younger children.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

4 Laryngoscope, 131:2121-2125, 2021.

Diagnosis and management of childhood sleep-disordered breathing. Clinical approach

Sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) includes disorders of breathing that affect airway patency, which impair children's sleep and lead to negative consequences. Obstructive sleep apnea, hypoventilation and upper airway resistance syndrome are common causes of morbidity and mortality in childhood. These clinical practice guidelines, intended for use by pediatricians and primary care clinicians, provide a clear recommendation for the diagnosis and management of sleep-disordered breathing, focusing on the most serious disorder, obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS). These clinical guidelines formulate clear recommendations to identify patients with suspected OSAS. Further, the manuscript will highlight the potential consequences of SBD in children, and how to overcome such difficulties, what could be the therapeutic options, a 12 recommendations and what are the future direction for pediatric sleep medicine.

Frequency of moderate-to-severe obstructive sleep apnea syndrome among children with snoring and blood pressure in the hypertensive range

BACKGROUND

It is recommended that children with hypertension and loud snoring should be referred for polysomnography. We aimed to compare the frequency of moderate-to-severe obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) among snorers with and without hypertension. Thus, it was hypothesized that systolic or diastolic hypertension among children with snoring is a risk factor for moderate-to-severe OSAS.

METHODS

Data of children with snoring and adenotonsillar hypertrophy and/or obesity referred for polysomnography were retrospectively analyzed. Blood pressure (BP) was measured three times in the morning after polysomnography and percentiles were calculated for the average of the second and third measurement. Association of systolic or diastolic hypertension with moderate-to severe OSAS (apnea-hypopnea index-AHI > 5 episodes/h) adjusted for age and obesity was assessed by logistic regression.

RESULTS

Data of 646 children with snoring (median age, 6.5 years; 3-14.9 years; 25.7% obese) were analyzed. Prevalence of systolic or diastolic hypertension was 14.1% and 16.1%, respectively and frequency of AHI > 5 episodes/h was 18.3%. Systolic hypertension was a significant predictor of moderate-to-severe OSAS (OR 1.87; 95% CI 1.10 to 3.17; P = 0.02) after adjustment for age and obesity, but diastolic hypertension was not (OR, 0.96; 0.55 to 1.67; P > 0.05). Odds of AHI > 5 episodes/h prior to considering systolic hypertension was 0.25 and after considering its presence, increased to 0.46 (Bayes' theorem), or for every three children with systolic hypertension and snoring tested, one had AHI > 5 episodes/h.

CONCLUSIONS

In the context of systolic hypertension and snoring, referral for polysomnography to rule out moderate-to-severe OSAS is a clinically productive practice.

The relationship of hypertension with obesity and obstructive sleep apnea in adolescents

OBJECTIVES

To assess the independent relationships of obesity and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) with hypertension/elevated blood pressure (EBP) in adolescent patients.

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective cohort analysis was performed on 501 patients (age 13-21 years) with three separate blood pressure measurements within 6 months of polysomnography. EBP was defined as average systolic blood pressure (SBP) ≤120 mm Hg; obesity as body mass index Z-score ≤1.65; and OSA as obstructive apnea-hypopnea index <1. Pearson correlations and multivariable analyses were performed to assess the independent effects of the apnea-hypopnea index and body mass index Z-score on SBP.

RESULTS

Of 501 patients (mean age 16 ± 2 years), 246 (49%) were male. OSA was present in 329 (66%) patients, obesity in 337 (67%), and EBP in 262 (52%). EBP was present in 70% of obese adolescents and 60% of adolescents with OSA. Univariable correlation showed a significant relationship between SBP, body mass index Z-score, and apnea-hypopnea index. Multivariable linear regression analysis showed blood pressure was significantly associated with body mass index Z-score (β = .46; P < .01), age (β = .25; P < .01), and height Z-score (β = .14; P < .01), but not apnea-hypopnea index (β = .01; P = .72).

CONCLUSIONS

The relationship between OSA and EBP in adolescents is most closely associated with the degree of obesity. Further studies are needed to assess the effect of the treatment of obesity and OSA on blood pressure in adolescents.

Assessing the need for adenotonsillectomy for sleep-disordered breathing in a community setting: A secondary outcome measures analysis of a randomized controlled study

OBJECTIVE

To assess whether children with sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) symptom severity above a certain level, measured by a validated questionnaire, improve after adenotonsillectomy (AT) compared to no intervention.

METHODS

Children with snoring and tonsillar hypertrophy (4 to 10-years old), who were candidates for AT, were randomly assigned to two evaluation sequences (baseline and 3-month follow-up): (a) evaluation immediately before AT and at 3 months postoperatively (AT group); or (b) evaluation at the initial visit and at the end of the usual 3-month waiting period for surgery (control group). Outcomes were (a) Pediatric Sleep Questionnaire sleep-related breathing disorder scale (PSQ-SRBD); (b) modified Epworth Sleepiness Scale (mESS); and (c) proportion of subjects achieving PSQ-SRBD <0.33 (low-risk for apnea-hypopnea index ≥5/h) if they had score ≥0.33 at baseline.

RESULTS

Sixty-eight children were assigned to the AT and 72 to the control group and two-thirds of them had PSQ-SRBD ≥0.33. The AT group experienced significantly larger improvement between follow-up and baseline than controls (between-group difference [95% CI] for PSQ-SRBD: -0.31 [-0.35 to -0.27]; and mESS: -2.76 [-3.63 to -1.90]; P < .001 for both). Children with baseline PSQ-SRBD ≥0.33 in the AT group had an eight-times higher probability of achieving PSQ-SRBD <0.33 at follow-up than controls with similar baseline score (risk ratio [95% CI]: 8.33 [3.92-17.54]; P < .001).

CONCLUSION

Among children with snoring, tonsillar hypertrophy, and clinical indications for AT, those with preoperative PSQ-SRBD score ≥0.33 show measurable clinical benefit postoperatively.

Effect of adenotonsillectomy for childhood obstructive sleep apnea on nocturnal heart rate patterns

Study Objectives

To assess the effect of adenotonsillectomy for relieving obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) symptoms in children on cardiac autonomic modulation.

Methods

In 354 children enrolled in the Childhood Adenotonsillectomy Trial, randomized to undergo either early adenotonsillectomy (eAT; N = 181) or a strategy of watchful waiting with supportive care (WWSC; N = 173), nocturnal heart rate control was analyzed during quiet, event-free sleep at baseline and at 7 months using overnight polysomnography (PSG). The relative frequency of patterns indicating monotonous changes in heart rate was quantified.

Results

Children who underwent eAT demonstrated a significantly greater reduction in heart rate patterns postsurgery than the WWSC group. On assessing those heart rate patterns regarding normalization of clinical PSG, heart patterns were reduced to a similar level in both groups. In children whose AHI normalized spontaneously, heart rate patterns were already significantly less frequent at baseline, suggesting that upper airway obstruction was milder in this group at the outset.

Conclusions

Adenotonsillectomy reduces monotonous heart rate patterns throughout quiet event-free sleep, reflecting a reduction in cardiac autonomic modulation. Heart rate pattern analysis may help quantifying the effect of OSAS on autonomic nervous system activity in children. Clinical Trial Registration: The study was registered at Clinicaltrials.gov (#NCT00560859).

Cardiometabolic correlates of sleep-disordered breathing in renal transplant children

Sleep-disordered breathing, a prevalent condition among adult renal transplant (RTx) recipients, has become an established independent risk factor of MetS, and furthermore, it might contribute to increased CV risk. Despite the proven correlations in adults, there is a lack of evidence for its significance in the pediatric RTx population. In this study, we aimed at assessing the prevalence and the clinical correlates of SDB in RTx children. Data of 13 patients (age [mean ± SD]: 14.2 ± 2.7 years) were analyzed. SDB was evaluated by PSG, as severity score OAHI was applied. Carbohydrate metabolism was characterized by OGTT, whereas CV status was studied by ABPM. Three composite end-points were calculated as sum of z-scores: daytime systolic and diastolic BP; nighttime systolic and diastolic BP; and glucose and insulin levels at 120 minutes. Eight patients (61.5%) were diagnosed with SDB of whom five patients (38.5%) had moderate or severe SDB. In linear regression analysis, OAHI during REM was associated with the CV variables (daytime BP P = 0.032, ß = 0.748; nighttime BP P = 0.041, ß = 0.715), and the correlations remained significant after adjustments for BMI. However, we did not confirm a significant association with the metabolic variables. The prevalence of SDB was high, and its severity during REM was a predictor of the BP suggesting that RTx children with SDB might be at risk of developing CV complications, especially HTN similarly to adults.

Objective sleep quality and metabolic risk in healthy weight children results from the randomized Childhood Adenotonsillectomy Trial (CHAT)

BACKGROUND

We hypothesized that cardiopulmonary coupling (CPC) sleep quality reflects cardiovascular and cardiometabolic health, in healthy weight children.

METHODS

Retrospective signal analysis of existing ECG data utilizing CPC, FDA cleared, software as medical device (SaMD). ECG signals were extracted from baseline polysomnography studies in the prospective Childhood Adenotonsillectomy Trial database, multicenter, single-blind, randomized controlled trial of 5.0-9.9-year-old children identified with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome without severe hypoxemia. Healthy weight was defined as age- and gender-specific BMI in the 5th-85th percentile range and overweight above the 85th percentile. The cohort was stratified based on CPC sleep quality Index (SQI) defined as high sleep quality (SQI  ≥ 80) or low sleep quality (SQI < 60). Cardiovascular, cardiometabolic, quality of life, and cognition were compared between the sleep quality groups.

RESULTS

Healthy weight children with low sleep quality had more fragmented sleep with significantly higher arousal index (10.0 ± 4.3 vs.7.2 ± 3.1; p = 0.00) and eLFC_BB (12.4 ± 4.9 vs. 0.9 ± 1.0; p < 0.001) CPC indicator of sleep fragmentation, higher average heart rate during sleep (84.5 ± 10.6 vs. 79.4 ± 7.1; p = 0.03) and worse insulin/glucose ratio (1.7 ± 1.6 vs. 1.1 ± 1.1; p = 0.03) and fasting insulin levels (7.9 ± 7.2 vs.5.3 ± 5.5; p = 0.05) when compared to healthy weight children with high sleep quality. SQI significantly correlates with average heart rate during sleep, insulin and triglyceride levels; for a unit increase in SQI, there is 0.154 unit decrease in average heart rate during sleep, 0.109 unit in insulin levels and 0.332 unit in triglyceride levels, respectively.

CONCLUSION

CPC sleep quality offers insights into pediatric sleep and how it affects cardiovascular and cardiometabolic health. ECG is simple signal to collect, which makes this method practical for testing sleep, over multiple nights, and on multiple occasions providing information on sleep dynamics not possible before.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT00560859.

Effect of Adenotonsillectomy on Ambulatory Blood Pressure in Pediatric Obstructive Sleep Apnea: 6-Month Follow-up Study

Objective

To investigate 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure changes 6 months after surgery among children with obstructive sleep apnea.

Study Design

Prospective interventional study.

Setting

Tertiary medical hospital.

Subjects and Methods

Children aged 4 to 16 years with symptoms of obstructive sleep apnea (apnea-hypopnea index >1) were recruited. All children underwent adenotonsillectomy and postoperative polysomnography overnight. The 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure was measured before and 6 months after surgery.

Results

The study cohort enrolled 124 children: mean (SD) age, 7.3 (3.1) years; 73% boys. After surgery, the apnea-hypopnea index significantly decreased from 13.3 (18.1) to 3.3 (7.2) events per hour ( P < .001). Overall systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure were not significantly different following surgery, while daytime systolic blood pressure was slightly increased (114.3 to 117.3 mm Hg, P < .01) postoperatively. The hypertensive group (n = 43) exhibited significantly decreased levels of overall diastolic, nighttime systolic, and nighttime diastolic blood pressure ( P < .05), and 54% of hypertensive children became nonhypertensive after surgery. The nonhypertensive group (n = 81) showed slightly increased levels of nocturnal overall systolic, daytime systolic, and nighttime systolic blood pressure. A generalized linear mixed model revealed that children with hypertension had a greater decrease in systolic and diastolic ambulatory blood pressure during the daytime and nighttime (all P < .05) than those without hypertension.

Conclusions

Ambulatory blood pressure changes after adenotonsillectomy among children with obstructive sleep apnea are minimal. The decrease in ambulatory blood pressure after surgery is more prominent for hypertensive children than nonhypertensive children.

Prothrombotic state in children with obstructive sleep apnea

OBJECTIVE

Increased blood coagulation might be one important mechanism linking obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) with cardiovascular diseases. We tested the association between several hemostatic parameters and sleep breathing-related variables in a representative pediatric population with a clinical suspicion of OSA.

METHODS

Polysomnography was performed in 152 snoring children to diagnose OSA. Anthropometric and clinical data were registered and venous blood samples were collected for the measurement of platelet count, plateletcrit, platelet distribution width (PDW), mean platelet volume (MPV), prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), fibrinogen and C-reactive protein.

RESULTS

Children with OSA had significantly higher platelet count, plateletcrit and PDW compared with those without OSA. After controlling for the anthropometric characteristics (age, gender, body mass index (BMI) z-score), platelet count negatively correlated with minimum SaO₂ while the plateletcrit correlated with time with SaO₂ <90% and MPV correlated with apnea-hypopnea index. PT and PT international normalized ratio correlated with mean SaO₂ and aPTT correlated with the oxygen desaturation index.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that different OSA-related effects may be factors contributing to an enhanced coagulability in pediatric OSA. Measures reflecting apnea severity and disrupted sleep were associated with clotting factor changes independent of covariates affecting hemostatic function.

24-Hour Ambulatory Blood Pressure after Adenotonsillectomy in Childhood Sleep Apnea

OBJECTIVE

To assess the effects of adenotonsillectomy (T&A) on ambulatory blood pressure (ABP) in childhood obstructive sleep apnea (OSA).

STUDY DESIGN

From 2012 to 2017, children aged 4-16 years with symptoms and polysomnography-diagnosed OSA (apnea-hypopnea index [AHI] >1) underwent T&A. PSG studies and 24-hour ABP monitoring were performed before and at 3 months after surgery.

RESULTS

In total, 159 children were enrolled (mean age, 7.8 ± 3.3 years; 72% male). T&A significantly reduced the AHI from 12.4 ± 15.9 events/hour to 2.7 ± 5.7 events/hour (P < .001). A decrease was observed in the children's overall diastolic blood pressure (65.1 ± 6.1 mm Hg to 63.8 ± 7.4 mm Hg, P = .04) after surgery. In subgroup analysis, 100 (63%) patients were classified as nonhypertensive, and 59 (37%) were classified as hypertensive. Linear mixed model analysis revealed that compared with the children without hypertension, those with hypertension had superior improvement in systolic and diastolic blood pressure during daytime and nighttime (all P values < .01). The ABP changes after surgery were not correlated with the AHI changes. Finally, preoperative hypertension was an independent risk factor of postoperative hypertension among these children (OR 3.66; 95% CI 1.70-7.86).

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, in children with OSA, the 24-hour ABP change after T&A is small. However, among children with preoperative hypertension, there is significant BP improvement after T&A surgery.

Association of sleep disturbances with obesity, insulin resistance and the metabolic syndrome

Insufficient sleep, which has become endemic in recent years, has been variably associated with increased risk of obesity, disorders of glucose and insulin homeostasis, and the metabolic syndrome; to a lesser degree, so has excessive sleep. This review summarizes recent epidemiological and pathophysiological evidence linking sleep disturbances (primarily abnormalities of sleep duration) with obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome in children and adults.

Association of Adenotonsillectomy With Blood Pressure Among Hypertensive and Nonhypertensive Children With Obstructive Sleep Apnea

Importance

Hypertension in childhood may continue into adulthood and lead to adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Evidence suggests that adenotonsillectomy for childhood obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) may be associated with blood pressure (BP) improvement. However, how adenotonsillectomy is associated with BP in hypertensive and nonhypertensive children with OSA remains unclear.

Objective

To investigate disparities in BP changes after adenotonsillectomy in hypertensive and nonhypertensive children with OSA.

Design, Setting, and Participants

From January 1, 2010, to April 30, 2016, children (aged <18 years) with symptoms of OSA treated at National Taiwan University Hospital were enrolled in this retrospective case series study.

Interventions

Children underwent polysomnography for diagnosis of OSA (apnea-hypopnea index >1). All children with OSA underwent adenotonsillectomy.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Preoperative and postoperative overnight polysomnographic data were obtained. Office BP was measured in a sleep center before (nocturnal BP) and after (morning) polysomnography.

Results

A total of 240 nonobese children (mean [SD] age, 7.3 [3.0] years; 160 [66.7%] male and 80 [33.3%] female) with OSA were recruited. Postoperatively, the apnea-hypopnea index decreased significantly from 12.1 to 1.7 events per hour (95% CI of difference, -12.3 to -8.4 events per hour). The whole cohort had a significant decrease in nocturnal diastolic BP (66.9 to 64.5 mm Hg; 95% CI of difference, -4.1 to -0.7 mm Hg) and morning diastolic BP (66.9 to 64.4 mm Hg; 95% CI of difference, -4.2 to -0.8 mm Hg). The number (percentage) of patients with diastolic BP in the greater than 95th percentile decreased significantly nocturnally (48 [20.0%] to 33 [13.8%]; 95% CI of difference, -12.1% to -0.4%) and in the morning (52 [21.7%] to 34 [14.2%]; 95% CI of difference, -13.6% to -1.4%). Postoperatively, hypertensive children had a significant decrease in all BP measures, including mean (SD) nocturnal and morning systolic BP (nocturnal: 107.5 [8.6] mm Hg; morning: 106.0 [9.4] mm Hg), systolic BP index (nocturnal: -4.3 [8.6]; morning: -5.7 [8.5]), diastolic BP (nocturnal: 65.1 [11.5] mm Hg; morning: 64.4 [10.1] mm Hg), and diastolic BP index (nocturnal: -10.7 [17.3]; morning: -11.6 [15.7]), whereas the nonhypertensive group had a slight increase in nocturnal systolic BP (103.8 to 105.9 mm Hg; 95% CI of difference, 0.4-3.9 mm Hg). A generalized estimating equation model for subgroup comparisons revealed that children with hypertension, compared with those without, had greater improvement in all BP measures.

Conclusions and Relevance

Hypertensive children with OSA had a significant improvement in BP after adenotonsillectomy. Hypertensive children with OSA should be screened and treated by adenotonsillectomy because proper treatment not only eases OSA symptoms but also potentially prevents future cardiovascular and end-organ disease.

Paediatric obstructive sleep apnoea: is our operative management evidence-based?

BACKGROUND

Despite the plethora of publications on the subject of paediatric obstructive sleep apnoea, there seems to be wide variability in the literature and in practice, regarding recourse to surgery, the operation chosen, the benefits gained and post-operative management. This may reflect a lack of high-level evidence.

METHODS

A systematic review of four significant controversies in paediatric ENT was conducted from the available literature: tonsillectomy versus tonsillotomy, focusing on the evidence base for each; anaesthetic considerations in paediatric obstructive sleep apnoea surgery; the objective evidence for the benefits of surgical treatment for obstructive sleep apnoea; and the medical treatment options for residual obstructive sleep apnoea after surgical treatment.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

There are many gaps in the evidence base for the surgical correction of obstructive sleep apnoea. There is emerging evidence favouring subtotal tonsillectomy. There is continuing uncertainty around the prediction of the level of post-operative care that any individual child might require. The long-term benefit of surgical correction is a particularly fertile ground for further research.

Insulin Resistance and Hypertension in Obese Youth With Sleep-Disordered Breathing Treated With Positive Airway Pressure: A Prospective Multicenter Study

STUDY OBJECTIVES

There is evidence that cardiometabolic disease associated with obesity and sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) in adults is present in youth. SDB is often treated with positive airway pressure (PAP) in youth with obesity. Our aims were to determine: (1) the prevalence of cardiometabolic disease and (2) whether PAP improves markers of cardiometabolic disease, in youth with obesity and newly diagnosed moderate-severe SDB.

METHODS

A prospective multicenter cohort study was conducted in youth (8 to 16 years old) with obesity, prescribed PAP therapy for newly diagnosed moderate-severe SDB. Assessments occurred at baseline and at 6 and 12 months. Outcomes included markers of insulin resistance (change in homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) at 6 months = primary outcome), hypertension (24-hour ambulatory/blood pressure) and inflammation (high-sensitivity C-reactive protein: hs-CRP).

RESULTS

Twenty-seven participants were enrolled. Of those with baseline testing available, 10/25 (40%) had HOMA-IR above the 97th percentile, 10/23 (44%) were hypertensive, 16/23 (70%) had loss of nocturnal blood pressure dip and hs-CRP was elevated in 16/27 (64%). There were no significant changes over time in markers of metabolic dysfunction or blood pressure, nor between PAP-adherent and non-adherent subgroups.

CONCLUSIONS

In youth with obesity and SDB, metabolic dysfunction and hypertension were highly prevalent. There were no statistically significant improvements in cardiometabolic markers 1 year after the prescription of PAP therapy, although clinically relevant improvements were seen in insulin resistance and systolic blood pressure load, important predictors of future risk of cardiovascular disease. Larger, longer-term studies are needed to determine whether PAP improves cardiometabolic outcomes in obese youth.

COMMENTARY

A commentary on this article appears in this issue on page 1025.

Lingual Tonsillectomy for Treatment of Pediatric Obstructive Sleep Apnea: A Meta-analysis

Importance

Evidence indicates correlations between lingual tonsil hypertrophy and pediatric obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). However, to our knowledge, a meta-analysis of surgical outcomes for lingual tonsillectomy in children with OSA has not been conducted.

Objective

To evaluate the therapeutic outcomes of lingual tonsillectomy for treatment of pediatric OSA.

Data Sources

The study protocol was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42015027053). PubMed, MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Reviews databases were searched independently by 2 authors for relevant articles published by September 2016.

Study Selection

The literature search identified English-language studies that used polysomnography to evaluate children with lingual tonsil hypertrophy and OSA after lingual tonsillectomy alone. The search keywords were lingual tonsil, lingual tonsillectomy, sleep endoscopy, sleep apnea, and child.

Data Extraction and Synthesis

Polysomnographic data from each study were extracted. A random-effects model pooled postoperative sleep variable changes and success rates for lingual tonsillectomy in treating pediatric OSA.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Four outcomes for lingual tonsillectomy were analyzed. These included net postoperative changes in the apnea-hypopnea index (AHI), net postoperative changes in the minimum oxygen saturation, the overall success rate for a postoperative AHI less than 1, and the overall success rate for a postoperative AHI less than 5.

Results

This meta-analysis consisted of 4 studies (mean sample size, 18.25 patients), with a total of 73 unique patients (mean [SD] age, 8.3 [1.1] years). Fifty-nine percent (27 of 46) of the patients were male, and 1 of the 4 studies did not specify number of males. Lingual tonsillectomy was indicated for persistent OSA after adenotonsillectomy in all cases. Lingual tonsil hypertrophy was evaluated using computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging in 1 study, sleep endoscopy in 2 studies, and cine magnetic resonance imaging in 1 study. The mean change in the AHI after lingual tonsillectomy was a reduction of 8.9 (95% CI, -12.6 to -5.2) events per hour. The mean change in the minimum oxygen saturation after lingual tonsillectomy was an increase of 6.0% (95% CI, 2.7%-9.2%). The overall success rate was 17% (95% CI, 7%-35%) for a postoperative AHI less than 1 and 51% (95% CI, 25%-76%) for a postoperative AHI less than 5. Postoperative complications that developed included airway obstruction, bleeding, and pneumonia.

Conclusions and Relevance

Lingual tonsillectomy is an effective surgical management for children with OSA caused by lingual tonsil hypertrophy, and it achieves significant improvement in the AHI and the minimum oxygen saturation. However, children frequently have residual OSA after lingual tonsillectomy, and postoperative complications must be carefully managed.

Success of Tonsillectomy for Obstructive Sleep Apnea in Children With Down Syndrome

STUDY OBJECTIVES

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is common in children with Down syndrome (DS) and associated with significant morbidity. In the current study we examined polysomnographic outcomes of children with DS who underwent tonsillectomy.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review of children with DS who underwent a tonsillectomy between 2009-2015 was performed. All children had either a concurrent adenoidectomy or had previously underwent an adenoidectomy. Children with preoperative and postoperative polysomnograms within 6 months of surgery were included in the analysis. Preoperative OSA severity was categorized by obstructive apnea-hypopnea index (OAHI) as follows: mild = 1.5-4.9 events/h; moderate = 5-9.9 events/h; severe ≥ 10 events/h.

RESULTS

Seventy-five children with DS met inclusion criteria. The cohort included 41 males and 34 females with mean age of 5.1 years (± 3.6 years), range of 0.51-16.60 years. Preoperative OSA severity was as follows, mild = 8/75; moderate = 16/75; severe = 51/75. Cure rates varied depending on definition: 12% for OAHI < 1 event/h and 21% for OAHI < 2 events/h. 48% had residual OAHI < 5 events/h. On postoperative PSG 16/75 saw resolution (OAHI < 2) in OSA; mild = 21/75; moderate = 20/75; severe = 18/75. 48% moderate/severe patients saw conversion to mild or cure. Overall, tonsillectomy resulted in significant improvements in multiple respiratory parameters, including OAHI (OAHI; 21.3 ± 19.7 to 8.0 ± 8.1, P < .001), percent sleep time with oxygen saturations < 90% (19.0 ± 25.0 to 6.1 ± 10.1, P < .001), and percent sleep time with end-tidal carbon dioxide above 50 mmHg (7.7 ± 18.0 to 1.8 ± 6.6, P = .001). Average asleep oxygen saturation was associated with postoperative OSA severity.

CONCLUSIONS

Children with DS and OSA who undergo tonsillectomy experience improvements in both respiratory event frequency and gas exchange but approximately half still have moderate to severe residual OSA.

High-Flow, Heated, Humidified Air Via Nasal Cannula Treats CPAP-Intolerant Children With Obstructive Sleep Apnea

STUDY OBJECTIVES

Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is effective but challenging for children with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). High-flow air via open nasal cannula (HFNC) as treatment in children remains controversial. We report the efficacy of HFNC in children with OSA and CPAP intolerance, a titration protocol, and a discussion of potential mechanisms.

METHODS

Patients aged 1 to 18 years with OSA (defined by obstructive apnea-hypopnea index [OAHI] greater than 1 event/h) and CPAP intolerance were enrolled. Routine polysomnography data obtained during 1 night wearing HFNC was compared with diagnostic data by Wilcoxon rank-sum test.

RESULTS

Ten school-age subjects (representing all patients attempting HFNC at our institution to date) with varied medical conditions, moderate to severe OSA, and CPAP intolerance wore HFNC from 10 to 50 L/min of room air with oxygen supplementation if needed (room air alone for 6 of the 10). HFNC reduced median OAHI from 11.1 events/h (interquartile range 8.7-18.8 events/h) to 2.1 events/h (1.7-2.2 events/h; P = .002); increased oxyhemoglobin saturation (SpO₂) mean from 91.3% (89.6% to 93.5%) to 94.9% (92.4% to 96.0%; P < .002); increased SpO₂ nadir from 76.0% (67.3% to 82.3%) to 79.5% (77.2% to 86.0%; P = .032); decreased SpO₂ desaturation index from 19.2 events/h (12.7-25.8 events/h) to 6.4 events/h (4.7-10.7 events/h; P = .013); and reduced heart rate from 88 bpm (86-91 bpm) to 74 bpm (67-81 bpm; P = .004). Stratified analysis of the 6 subjects with only room air via HFNC, the OAHI, obstructive hypopnea index, and mean SpO₂ still demonstrated improvements (P = .031).

CONCLUSIONS

High-flow nasal cannula reduces respiratory events, improves oxygenation, reduces heart rate, and may be effective for CPAP intolerant children with moderate to severe OSA. Our data suggest HFNC warrants further study and consideration by payers as OSA therapy.

Longitudinal Cardiovascular Outcomes of Sleep Disordered Breathing in Children: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review

Objectives

The presence of sleep disordered breathing (SDB) is known to impact long-term cardiovascular morbidity in adults; however, the long-term effects in children are poorly understood. We aimed to systematically review and synthesize studies published to date on the long-term effects of SDB in children.

Study Design

Meta-analysis and systematic review using PubMed, CINAHL, Embase, and Scopus (all indexed years).

Methods

We searched for English-language articles containing original human data from prospective studies, with ≥7 participants, in children ≤18 years of age. Data regarding study design, demographics, clinical characteristics, outcomes, level of evidence, and risk of bias were obtained. Articles were independently reviewed by three investigators. Retrospective and cross-sectional studies were excluded.

Results

Of 1701 identified abstracts, 25 articles (combined n = 1418) were ultimately included. All studies reported longitudinal outcomes following treatment of SDB, 21 studies exclusively reporting outcomes after adenotonsillectomy. Therefore, studies were combined to objectively assess the effect of SDB treatment on cardiovascular outcomes. Although all cardiovascular parameters were within the normal range at baseline, at follow-up there was a significant decrease in mean pulmonary artery pressure, right ventricular end diastolic diameter, heart rate, mitral Em/Am ratio, and C-reactive protein. There was no significant change in interventricular septum thickness, left ventricular parameters (shortening fraction, systolic and end diastolic diameters, ejection fraction, posterior wall thickness, isovolumetric relaxation time), left atrial diameter, and aortic and pulmonary valve peak velocities.

Conclusions

Studies assessing the long-term cardiovascular effects of SDB in children are limited. The available literature indicates effects on autonomic function, right, and left heart function following treatment for SDB. However, well-designed, large-scale, prospective cohort studies (using standardized outcomes) are needed to better understand the relationship of cardiovascular morbidity in the context of pediatric SDB.

Effect of Obstructive Sleep Apnea Treatment on Lipids in Obese Children

Obesity in children is associated with several co-morbidities including dyslipidemia. Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is commonly seen in obese children. In adults, diagnosis of OSA independent of obesity is associated with cardiometabolic risk factors including dyslipidemia. There is limited data on the impact of treatment of OSA on lipids in children. The objective of the study was to examine the impact of treatment of OSA on lipids in 24 obese children. Methods: Seventeen children were treated with continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) and five underwent adenotonsillectomy. Mean apnea hypopnea index prior to treatment was 13.0 + 12.1 and mean body mass index (BMI) was 38.0 + 10.6 kg/m². Results: Treatment of OSA was associated with improvement in total cholesterol (mean change = −11 mg/dL, p < 0.001), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (mean change = –8.8 mg/dL, p = 0.021). Conclusion: Obese children should be routinely screened for OSA, as treatment of OSA favorably influences lipids and therefore decreases their cardiovascular risk.

When and why to treat the child who snores?

Obstructive sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) can result in cardiovascular and neurocognitive morbidity as well as adversely affect behavior, growth, quality of life, and nocturnal continence. This article summarizes the latest evidence regarding the morbidity related to obstructive SDB, commenting on the impact of severity of obstruction, that is, the difference in effects seen of moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) compared to those of mild OSAS or primary snoring. The impact of therapy is discussed, focusing on which children are likely to benefit from treatment interventions; namely those with moderate or severe OSAS irrespective of the presence of morbidity, children with mild OSAS with associated morbidity or predictors of SDB persistence such as obesity, and children with complex conditions accompanied by upper airway obstruction like craniosynostosis and Prader-Willi syndrome. The co-existing conditions which may improve when treatment for obstructive SDB is offered are reviewed, while the clinical parameters associated with spontaneous improvement or resolution of obstructive SDB are discussed. The intention being to enable clinicians to make informed decisions on who should be treated, when and why. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2017;52:399-412. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Comparisons of Office and 24-Hour Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring in Children with Obstructive Sleep Apnea

OBJECTIVE

To compare office blood pressure (BP) and 24-hour ambulatory BP (ABP) monitoring to facilitate the diagnosis and management of hypertension in children with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA).

STUDY DESIGN

Children aged 4-16 years with OSA-related symptoms were recruited from a tertiary referral medical center. All children underwent overnight polysomnography, office BP, and 24-hour ABP studies. Multiple linear regression analyses were applied to elucidate the association between the apnea-hypopnea index and BP. Correlation and consistency between office BP and 24-hour ABP were measured by Pearson correlation, intraclass correlation, and Bland-Altman analyses.

RESULTS

In the 163 children enrolled (mean age, 8.2 ± 3.3 years; 67% male). The prevalence of systolic hypertension at night was significantly higher in children with moderate-to-severe OSA than in those with primary snoring (44.9% vs 16.1%, P = .006). Pearson correlation and intraclass correlation analyses revealed associations between office BP and 24-hour BP, and Bland-Altman analysis indicated an agreement between office and 24-hour BP measurements. However, multiple linear regression analyses demonstrated that 24-hour BP (nighttime systolic BP and mean arterial pressure), unlike office BP, was independently associated with the apnea-hypopnea index, after adjustment for adiposity variables.

CONCLUSIONS

Twenty-four-hour ABP is more strongly correlated with OSA in children, compared with office BP.

Postoperative Bleeding and Associated Utilization following Tonsillectomy in Children

Objective To assess posttonsillectomy hemorrhage (PTH), associated nonoperative readmissions/revisits, and reoperations in children. Data Sources MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library. Review Methods Two investigators independently screened studies against predetermined criteria and extracted key data. Investigators independently assessed study risk of bias and the strength of the evidence of the body of literature. We calculated unadjusted pooled estimates of PTH frequency and conducted a Bayesian meta-analysis to estimate frequency of primary and secondary PTH and PTH-associated reoperation and revisits/readmissions by partial and total tonsillectomy and surgical approach. Results In meta-analysis, the frequency of primary and secondary PTH associated with total and partial tonsillectomy was <4% for any technique and with overlapping confidence bounds. Pooled frequencies of PTH were also <5% overall (4.2% for total tonsillectomy, 1.5% for partial tonsillectomy) in comparative studies. Fewer PTH episodes occurred with tonsillectomy for obstructive sleep-disordered breathing than for throat infection. In meta-analysis, frequency of PTH-associated nonoperative revisits/readmission or reoperation ranged from 0.2% to 5.7% for total tonsillectomy and from 0.1% to 3.7% for partial tonsillectomy. At least 4 deaths were reported in case series including 1,778,342 children. Conclusions PTH occurred in roughly 4% of tonsillectomies in studies included in this review. Although studies typically did not report bleeding severity or amount, relatively few episodes of PTH necessitated reoperation for hemostasis. Nonetheless, tonsillectomy is not without risk of harm. Frequency of PTH across techniques was similar; thus, we cannot conclude that a given technique is superior.

Tonsillectomy for Obstructive Sleep-Disordered Breathing: A Meta-analysis

CONTEXT

The effectiveness of tonsillectomy or adenotonsillectomy (hereafter, "tonsillectomy") for obstructive sleep-disordered breathing (OSDB) compared with watchful waiting with supportive care is poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

To compare sleep, cognitive or behavioral, and health outcomes of tonsillectomy versus watchful waiting with supportive care in children with OSDB.

DATA SOURCES

Medline, Embase, and the Cochrane Library.

STUDY SELECTION

Two investigators independently screened studies against predetermined criteria.

DATA EXTRACTION

Two investigators independently extracted key data. Investigators independently assessed study risk of bias and the strength of the evidence of the body of literature. Investigators synthesized data qualitatively and meta-analyzed apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) scores.

RESULTS

We included 11 studies. Relative to watchful waiting, most studies reported better sleep-related outcomes in children who had a tonsillectomy. In 5 studies including children with polysomnography-confirmed OSDB, AHI scores improved more in children receiving tonsillectomy versus surgery. A meta-analysis of 3 studies showed a 4.8-point improvement in the AHI in children who underwent tonsillectomy compared with no surgery. Sleep-related quality of life and negative behaviors (eg, anxiety and emotional lability) also improved more among children who had a tonsillectomy. Changes in executive function were not significantly different. The length of follow-up in studies was generally <12 months.

LIMITATIONS

Few studies fully categorized populations in terms of severity of OSDB; outcome measures were heterogeneous; and the durability of outcomes beyond 12 months is not known.

CONCLUSIONS

Tonsillectomy can produce short-term improvement in sleep outcomes compared with no surgery in children with OSDB. Understanding of longer-term outcomes or effects in subpopulations is lacking.

Sleep disordered breathing in childhood

Sleep disordered breathing (SDB) in childhood is linked with significant end-organ dysfunction across various systems, particularly with cardiovascular, neurocognitive and metabolic consequences. If we understand the pathophysiology of SDB, diagnose it promptly and treat appropriately, we may be able to prevent morbidity associated with SDB and also save health resources around the world. In this article, we highlight articles on this topic published in medical journals in the past year.

Prematurity, obesity and adenotonsillar hypertrophy are risk factors for sleep disordered breathinghttp://ow.ly/W47FU

Inflammation mediates the association between visceral adiposity and obstructive sleep apnea in adolescents

Only a handful of studies, primarily in clinical samples, have reported an association between obesity, inflammation, and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) in children and adolescents. No studies, however, have examined the pathogenetic link between visceral adiposity, systemic inflammation, and incident OSA in a large general population sample using objective measures of sleep and body fat. Adolescents (n = 392; mean age 17.0 ± 2.2 yr, 54.0% male) from the Penn State Child Cohort (PSCC) underwent 9-h overnight polysomnography; a DXA scan to assess body fat distribution; and a single fasting blood draw for the assessment of plasma interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-6 soluble receptor (IL-6 sR), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), tumor necrosis factor receptor 1A (TNFR1), C-reactive protein (CRP), leptin, and adiponectin levels via ELISA. Visceral fat area was significantly elevated in moderate OSA (AHI ≥ 5), especially in boys. IL-6, CRP, and leptin were highest in adolescents with moderate OSA, even after adjusting for BMI percentile. Mediation analysis revealed that 42% of the association between visceral fat and OSA in adolescents was mediated by IL-6 (p = 0.03), while 82% of the association was mediated by CRP (p = 0.01). These data are consistent with the model of a feed-forward, vicious cycle, in which the release of proinflammatory cytokines by visceral adipocytes largely explains the association between central obesity and OSA; in turn, inflammation is also elevated in OSA independent of BMI. These findings, in a large, representative, non-clinical sample of young people, add to our understanding of the developmental pathogenesis of sleep apnea.

Role of sleep quality in the metabolic syndrome

Emerging evidence has assigned an important role to sleep as a modulator of metabolic homeostasis. The impact of variations in sleep duration, sleep-disordered breathing, and chronotype to cardiometabolic function encompasses a wide array of perturbations spanning from obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, the metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease risk and mortality in both adults and children. Here, we critically and extensively review the published literature on such important issues and provide a comprehensive overview of the most salient pathophysiologic pathways underlying the links between sleep, sleep disorders, and cardiometabolic functioning.