Roles of innovation in education delivery

Dental students in an orthodontic course flipped classroom: A semi-experimental study on knowledge, practice, attitude, and satisfaction

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to determine the students' attitudes before and after the flipped classroom, and the effectiveness of this method to promote the students' lateral cephalograms tracing abilities, students' satisfaction and their final exam scores.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This is a single-group quasi-experimental research conducted on dental students of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences (SUMS), Iran in 2019. The intervention was carried out in a blended learning approach with the flipped classroom model. Thirty-five fourth-year dental students participated in a flipped classroom held during a semester for the lateral cephalograms tracing course. The students were provided with the educational materials before the class time through multimedia learning tools and the class time was devoted to discussions. The students were asked to fill out four questionnaires (pretest/posttest attitudes, pretest/posttest self-assessments of theoretical knowledge and practical skills in cephalograms, posttest of satisfaction from quality of the course, and posttest of students' views about effectiveness of blended learning tools) and final exam scores of students.

RESULTS

Students' attitudes toward e-Learning were improved after the flipped classroom and the quality of this method was acceptable to the students (p < .001). Their self-assessment of theoretical knowledge and practical skills were promoted (p < .001). While all blended learning tools averaged more than the cut-off-point, short lecture (5.11 ± 0.98) and live feedback (4.98 ± 1.07) were considered to be the most efficient interactive tools.

CONCLUSION

It seems that the flipped classroom has a positive effect on increasing students' knowledge, attitude, and satisfaction. In general, this method of learning seems to be favored by dental students.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The findings showed that blended learning had a positive effect on increasing knowledge, performance, and satisfaction among dental students. Therefore, blended learning as a reliable method might be used in training dental students.

Teaching the Future Radiologist: TED-Inspired Radiology Didactics

TED (acronym for technology, entertainment and design) conferences are an astonishingly successful modern-day platform for "ideas worth spreading". These continue to engage, enlighten and entertain an ever-expanding audience base. TED speakers highlight simple yet relevant ideas, often challenging entrenched perspectives and proposing hitherto unexplored solutions. In this perspective, the authors propose modeling some aspects of Radiology didactics along certain fundamental principles of TED and outline techniques to accomplish this. We overview how this shift can engage diverse learners and enhance retention of key information. We include evidence on such pedagogical techniques boosting learners' working memory and providing strategies for creative problem solving. Finally, we caution educators against criticisms of the TED format, including prioritizing style over content, "dumbing down" information to make it fit a prescribed format and sometimes offering insufficient scientific rigor.

Evaluating Student Satisfaction with Remote Learning in a Veterinary School

Veterinary college curricula are generally offered through face-to-face lectures and laboratories. However, because of the COVID-19 global pandemic, entire veterinary curricula throughout the United States were forced to utilize remote learning with large portions of courses provided through synchronous or asynchronous delivery platforms employing video portal systems in spring 2020. The purpose of this study was to examine the satisfaction of veterinary students who were taught through remote learning with the option of synchronous live streaming lectures or asynchronous recorded lectures for a portion of 1 semester. This study also examined student satisfaction by comparing two cohorts of students taught via remote learning during the same semester (semesters 2 and 4 in the curriculum). The sample population consisted of a convenience sample of 242 veterinary students from one large southeastern veterinary college, who were asked to complete the end-of-semester course evaluation, which included five statements pertaining to remote learning. This study was performed to provide insight into changes that could be considered in the future as veterinary education seeks to utilize advancing technology and increase flexibility in learning while still providing high-quality education. Measures of dispersion and frequency were used to analyze the data. Veterinary students in this study preferred watching recorded lectures to streaming live lectures. Additional responses indicated overall agreement from both groups regarding lecture length, support for remote learning, and available resources for remote learning.

Use of Learning Management System Data to Predict Student Success in a Pharmacy Capstone Course

Objective. Learning management system (LMS) data from online classes may provide opportunities to identify students at risk of failure. Previous LMS studies have not addressed the possibility of change in student engagement over time. The purpose of this study was to apply a novel statistical technique, group-based trajectory modeling (GBTM) to LMS data in an online course to identify predictors of successful course completion.Methods. Exploratory GBTM was used to assess the association of LMS activity (total activity time, dates of activity, and pages viewed) and attendance at virtual synchronous learning sessions with examination performance in a capstone disease-management course delivered in the final didactic quarter of a three-year Doctor of Pharmacy program. Groups were assigned based on trajectories of weekly page view counts using structural-equation modeling.Results. Group-based trajectory modeling identified three page view engagement groups (median total page views, n): group 1, high (1,818, n=24): group 2, moderate (1,029, n=74), and group 3, low (441 views, n=35). Group assignment alone was somewhat associated with final grade. Stratification based on consistent virtual synchronous learning session attendance improved predictive accuracy; for example, a top (A or A-) grade was earned by 49.0% and 24.0%, respectively, of group 2 students with and without consistent synchronous engagement.Conclusion. Application of GBTM to LMS data, including information about synchronous engagement, could provide data that allow educators to identify early warning signs that a student may fail a course and target interventions to those at-risk students. The technique should be further tested with alternative LMS data and obtained early in the didactic curriculum, before patterns of engagement are established.

Comparison of Pharmacy Students' Performance in a Laboratory Course Delivered Live Versus by Virtual Facilitation

Objective. To compare academic performance in and students' perceptions of an outpatient pharmacy practice laboratory course taught in a traditional laboratory setting vs by virtual facilitation.Methods. An outpatient pharmacy practice laboratory course was taught in a traditional live laboratory setting to 69 students on two campuses in 2016. A year later, the same course was taught via synchronous virtual (ie, remote) facilitation using an internet-based video and chat conference room for communication across two campuses to 91 students. Students' academic performance was evaluated based on major assessments, individual test questions, and final course grades. A course and instructor evaluation were administered to each group of students at the conclusion of each course offering.Results. Students who completed the live traditional laboratory (2016) had a mean final course grade of 90.1%, while students who completed the virtually facilitated laboratory course (2017) had a mean final course grade of 89.6%. The mean score on course evaluations completed by students in the virtually facilitated course was lower. The difference in scores between individual course and instructor evaluations between 2016 to 2017 was not significant. There was no significant difference found between students' grades on the midterm and final objective structured clinical examinations (OSCEs) and written assessment questions between 2016 and 2017.Conclusion. Students who completed the live traditional laboratory course and those who completed the course in the virtually facilitated setting performed well. Course evaluations revealed student satisfaction with the course and instructor in both settings. These findings suggest that a virtually facilitated laboratory course does not hinder student performance and provides a similar experience as a traditional classroom.

Leading a Digital Transformation in Pharmacy Education with a Pandemic as the Accelerant

The global COVID-19 pandemic has not only posed a challenge to education but created an opportunity to spearhead a digital transformation and the novel delivery of a Pharm.D. curriculum. The process to transform the curriculum in a sustainable and iterative manner involved multiple steps including: (1) Communication, (2) Maintaining faculty engagement, (3) Allowing outside the box thinking, (4) Providing resources and tools and (5) Creating accountability and timelines. At our institution, we have been interested in digital transformation since completing our interview of global leaders. We began our journey using the current COVID-19 pandemic as an accelerant for change. Digital transformation in any industry is not a simple undertaking. However, with planning, aligned organizational interests, consistent and regular communication, provision of resources and tools, engaging faculty and creating accountability and timelines with deliverables the implementation can be successful. When the global pandemic wanes and educational institutions commence in-person classes, having undergone the stages of digital transformation, we will be able to embrace these changes and transform education, not having to reproduce pre-pandemic educational systems.

'Knowing as we go': a Hunter-Gatherer Behavioural Model to Guide Innovation in Sport Science

Where do novel and innovative ideas in sport science come from? How do researchers and practitioners collectively explore the dynamic landscape of inquiry, problem, solution and application? How do they learn to skilfully navigate from current place and practice toward the next idea located beyond their current vantage point? These questions are not just of philosophical value but are important for understanding how to provide high-quality support for athletes and sport participants at all levels of expertise and performance. Grounded in concepts from social anthropology, and theoretically positioned within an ecological dynamics framework, this opinion piece introduces a hunter-gatherer model of human behaviour based on wayfinding, situating it as a conceptual guide for implementing innovations in sport science. Here, we contend that the embedded knowledge of a landscape that guides a successful hunting and gathering party is germane to the pragmatic abduction needed to promote innovation in sport performance, leading to the inquisition of new questions and ways of resolving performance-preparation challenges. More specifically, exemplified through its transdisciplinarity, we propose that to hunt 'new ideas' and gather translatable knowledge, sport science researchers and practitioners need to wayfind through uncharted regions located in new performance landscapes. It is through this process of navigation where individuals will deepen, enrich and grow current knowledge, 'taking home' new ideas as they find their way.

The use of social media as a tool to educate United Kingdom undergraduate pharmacy students about public health

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The role of community pharmacists in England now includes public health service delivery, which is deemed to be an essential pharmacy service. This study aimed to evaluate pharmacy students' perceptions of social media as a learning tool and to investigate if workplace skills could be imbedded into a course assignment.

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY AND SETTING

Final year Kingston University MPharm students (N = 120) were divided into 10 groups for a course assignment. They had to deliver an offline and online public health campaign on an assigned topic. Following the campaign, students delivered an oral presentation and created a poster to showcase their campaign content and strategy.

FINDINGS

Over half (51.3%) preferred the self-directed learning aspect of the assignment while 28.2% preferred the delivery of the campaign and use of social media. Students noted that they had developed team working, communication and creativity skills. Most (93.6%) agreed that social media was an effective tool when learning about public health. Students achieved higher scores for their social media pages than they did for their oral presentation.

SUMMARY

A blended learning approach proved to be an effective way to teach final year pharmacy students about public health topics. Social media was noted as an effective tool to learn about public health. A public health assignment is an effective way to support pharmacy students to learn how to use this medium appropriately to support healthy lifestyles.

The Need for Disruptive Innovation in Pharmacy

Disruptive innovation became a buzz phrase in the mid-1990s in the business world. In this commentary, the application of this term to pharmacy within the context of the current status of pharmacy education and practice, highlighting barriers, discussing requirements, and identifying implications for future innovative opportunities in pharmacy is discussed.

A Cost-Benefit Analysis of Teaching and Learning Technology in a Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences

Objective. To conduct a cost-benefit analysis (CBA) of investment in teaching and learning technology (TLT) by a college of pharmacy in a large, research-intensive university in Canada. Methods. Document analysis was used to determine the goals and objectives of the university and college for TLT use. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with faculty members to understand their perspectives on the value of technology for teaching and learning, their metrics to assess value, and an estimate of social value using a willingness to pay (WTP) exercise. A CBA was used to compare the social value against the cost of the investment in TLT. Results. Twenty-one faculty members participated in semi-structured interviews. National, university, and college goals for TLT were diffuse and nonspecific in terms of the intended use or the metrics by which implementation and impacts on the quality of teaching could be assessed. The mean WTP for this technology was Can$4.38M and the cost of investment was Can$4.25M. The primary analysis showed a small positive net benefit of the investment (Can$134,456), although this difference was not significant. All dollar figures are given in Canadian dollars (CAD). Conclusion. The college's monetary investment in TLT was approximately equal to the social value placed on TLT by faculty users. Conducting a CBA on technology can bring greater understanding among faculty members of the college's curriculum and pedagogical practices as well as financial decision-making. Greater clarity about the goals and objectives for TLT could help to maximize the value of investment in this area.

Design and students' perceptions of a virtually facilitated outpatient pharmacy practice laboratory course

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Web conferencing, interactive video conferencing, and classroom and lecture capture are widely used in pharmacy education. This study aimed to determine student pharmacists' receptiveness to a virtually facilitated outpatient pharmacy practice laboratory course.

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY AND SETTING

A new course design was implemented for a first-year (P1) laboratory course utilizing Zoom, an internet-based "cloud" video and chat conference room, for communication across two campuses. Physical campus attendance and Zoom connection were required for each laboratory session. Students voluntarily and anonymously completed a survey at course start and conclusion to evaluate course design and impact on student learning.

FINDINGS

The pre-survey was completed by 77 students (82%) and 82 students completed the post-survey (87%). Students agreed or strongly agreed that virtual facilitation did not hinder learning and disagreed or strongly disagreed that a facilitator needs to be physically present to simplify learning. Students concluded there is no difference in virtual or in person facilitator communication. While students agreed the experience enabled development of problem-solving skills and fostered self-awareness and responsibility for self-learning, this was not statistically significant.

SUMMARY

These results provide insight into students' perceptions of a virtually facilitated laboratory course design. This may be an alternative to live facilitation without impacting student development in the areas of problem solving, self-awareness, and responsibility for self-learning. Schools and colleges of pharmacy might consider virtual laboratory facilitation as an innovative course design.

Pharmacy student professional identity formation: a scoping review

PURPOSE

Transitioning from being pharmacy students to pharmacists is challenging. Students need to reconcile their professional aspirations and what they have learnt with the realities of practice. A smooth transition can be hampered when they are unable to enact the role they have envisaged or if their expectations are not met. These challenges relate to professional identity. A key challenge for pharmacy educators is how best to support the professional identity formation (PIF) of pharmacy students. To assist with this challenge, we conducted a scoping review to identify factors influencing pharmacy students' PIF and pedagogical strategies to support PIF.

METHODS

In September 2018, we undertook a scoping review of all contemporary research investigating pharmacy student PIF including all relevant qualitative, quantitative, theoretical, and gray literature. We searched eight databases for the review: MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Embase, Australian Education Index, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Literature published between January 2008 and September 2018 was reviewed and screened using inclusion/exclusion criteria. The selected articles were charted and thematically analyzed.

RESULTS

We included 22 articles in the review. Studies generally concurred about the importance of attending to PIF throughout the whole pharmacy curriculum. Yet, those studies reporting on pharmacy students' professional identities found that students experienced challenges forming their identities. While several curriculum interventions supporting PIF have been implemented, these tended to be one-offs and there was an absence of interventions engaging key stakeholders including placement preceptors, other health professionals, and patients/consumers.

CONCLUSION

Supporting the formation of pharmacy students' professional identity, while recognized as an important goal for pharmacy education, requires further empirical inquiry. Pedagogical practices focused on identity formation including adopting an integrative curricular approach are required.

Lebanese community-based pharmacists' interest, practice, knowledge, and barriers towards pharmacy practice research: A cross-sectional study

Objective

To assess the interest, knowledge, practice and barriers of Lebanese community-based pharmacists towards research, and to examine factors associated with interest.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey, conducted between January and May 2017, enrolled community pharmacists using a proportionate random sample of community pharmacies in the five districts of Lebanon, using the list of pharmacies provided by the Lebanese Order of Pharmacists. In the absence of validated questionnaires to answer our objectives, we created a questionnaire based on previous research. The questionnaire was modified based on the experiences and issues raised during focus groups with research active pharmacists and research oriented community pharmacists.

Results

A total of 399 pharmacists was enrolled. The results showed that 231 (72%) were conscious about the important role of research in the community pharmacy setting whereas only 5.6% considered it not important. Over two-thirds (68.5%) of the pharmacists declared being interested in participating in research. There was a statistical difference in the percentage of correct answers between auto-declared and corrected responses for all terms, with all p < 0.001.The most reported barrier was lack of time during hours of work (90.9%), followed by the lack of pharmacy staff (73.7%), lack of financial resources (68.9%), patient's lack of education and resistance to participation (64.8%), and lack of support (63.8%). Age (aOR = 0.92), years of experience (aOR = 1.06), and having been involved in research (aOR = 3.17) were associated with higher interest in research. Having studied in Lebanon (aOR = 3.63), having received previous research courses (aOR = 11.12) and being interested in research (aOR = 2.74) were associated with having participated in research projects during their professional experience.

Conclusion

Lebanese pharmacists have the good will to conduct and participate in research, but are lacking knowledge; this issue needs to be addressed vividly. Addressing the identified barriers could improve the research output of Lebanese community pharmacists.

Are There Gender-Dependent Study Habits of Medical Students in Times of the World Wide Web?

This study evaluates how medical students rate the different types of teaching materials and methods available as well as possible gender-specific differences in the use of such materials. In this descriptive, cross-sectional study a questionnaire with short, one-dimensional questions with a 4-step Likert scale was developed by a presurvey within 493 students (4th year) at a University Medical School (January-December 2015). The anonymous survey was performed from July 2016 to February 2017 with 252 students within an orthopaedic surgery course at University Medical School. After exclusion of (1) nonnative speakers and (2) incomplete forms, 233 samples were included. Practical education was regarded as the most important (n=160/68.7%) teaching method followed by Internet research (n=147/63.1%) as the most important teaching material, while traditional frontal teaching (n=19/8.2%) and e-books (n=11/4.7%) ranked last. The evaluation of gender-specific differences in the use of teaching materials showed that female students prefer to highlight text (p<0.0001) as well as a trend to Internet research (p=0.053) and small-group teaching (p=0.057). Despite some gender-specific differences, traditional learning methods retain their importance besides new learning possibilities such as Internet research.

A Randomized Crossover Comparison between Team-Based Learning and Lecture Format on Long-Term Learning Outcomes

There are limited data evaluating the effectiveness of different teaching pedagogies to maintain gains in learning achieved over the short term. The purpose of this study is to compare long-term learning outcomes between two different teaching pedagogies, team-based learning (TBL) and lecture. Within a therapeutic elective course a randomized crossover study was conducted with 30 students divided into two sections. Each section was taught six therapeutic topics (three TBL and three lecture). Six months following completion of the course, 47 assessment questions (application and recall multiple-choice questions) were re-administered to 16 students from the class with no prior announcement of the assessment. The results showed no significant difference in long-term assessment scores between TBL and lecture formats (67 ± 14% vs. 63 ± 16%, p = 0.2, respectively). In addition, there was a significant (p < 0.0001) and similar decline in short-term gains for TBL (90 ± 9% vs. 67 ± 14%) and lecture (86 ± 11% vs. 63 ± 16%) in assessment scores. In conclusion, there was no advantage gained by employing an active-learning pedagogy when assessing multiple-choice questions six months following end of a therapeutics course in a limited sample size. Neither pedagogy was able to maintain short-term gains in learning outcomes as assessed by multiple-choice questions.

Does personalized goal setting and study planning improve academic performance and perception of learning experience in a developing setting?

Objective

The learning process for pharmacists must enable the skillful harnessing of metacognition, critical thinking, and effective application of specialized skills. This study assessed the impact of self-developed academic goals and study plans on pharmacy students' academic performance and perception of learning experience in a developing setting.

Methods

A prospective cohort study was conducted at the College of Clinical Pharmacy, King Faisal University, KSA, in a compulsory 4th year course (Pharmacy management). The study group was exposed to goal setting and study planning while the control group had only routine teaching and learning activities planned for the course. Academic performance was determined with quizzes, midterm, and final exams, and the percentage achievement for the course objectives. An end-of-course evaluation, with a pre-tested questionnaire, was used to assess the perception of learning experience.

Results

The study group constituted 41.4% (29), while 58.6% (41) were in the control group, with a mean ± SD age of 22.9 (SD = 3.2) and 21.6 (SD = 6.1) years, respectively. The mean ± SD scores for quizzes (8.4 (SD = 2.2), mid-term (21.9 (SD = 3.7), and final exams (42.8 (SD = 5.3), and the percentage achievement for the course objectives A (77%) and B (78%) were significantly higher in the study group (P < 0.001). The end-of-course feedbacks showed key differences in the perception of learning experience between the study and control groups.

Conclusion

Personalized goal setting and study planning appeared to significantly improve continuous engagement with learning, focus on academic goals, and academic performance.

Pharmacy students' perceptions towards online learning in a Saudi Pharmacy School

Objectives

The aim of the study was to evaluate previous exposure to online learning and preference for learning through pre-recorded online lectures with or without live active learning among pharmacy students in their fifth year.

Methods

An anonymous online survey was self-administered to fifth-year students enrolled on the Graduation Research Project Course.

Results

The response rate was 100%. Ninety-seven percent of students had previous experience with at least one online course during their pharmacy undergraduate curriculum; 76% of the courses were science courses. The majority of respondents preferred face-to-face, in-class lectures to online lectures, but 17% expressed no preference.

Conclusion

Pharmacy students expressed some interest in online learning methods within the pharmacy curriculum.

An innovative addition to team-based-learning pedagogy to enhance teaching and learning: Students' perceptions of team exams

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The study investigates students' perceptions of the value of implementing a team exam to enhance learning prior to a summative assessment. Team exams are similar to midterm exams, except that answering questions is a team effort.

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY AND SETTING

Data was collected from second year pharmacy students at California Northstate University College of Pharmacy (CNUCOP) through a self-administered online survey. The survey questions included closed-ended questions to evaluate students' perception on preparedness for a summative assessment and to rank advantages and disadvantages of the team exams.

FINDINGS

Of the 40 students who completed the survey (38% response rate), 100% of participants agreed that having a team exam prior to a major exam made them feel more prepared for a major summative exam. Ninety-seven percent of students believed that the team exam helped them to identify gaps in their knowledge and 85% agreed that taking a team exam reinforced their knowledge by teaching other students. The survey results did not identify any major disadvantages to holding a team exam.

SUMMARY

Students perceived that taking a team exam prior to a midterm exam is an effective approach to review the course contents and identify areas of improvement.

The Flipped Classroom - From Theory to Practice in Health Professional Education

The flipped classroom is growing in popularity in health professional education. As such, instructors are experiencing various growing pains in functionalizing this model, from justifying the approach to managing time inside and outside of class to assessing impact on learning. This review focuses on some key theories that support the flipped model and translates those key theories into practice across core aspects of the flipped classroom: pre-class preparation, in-class activities, after-class activities and assessment of student learning.

Blended learning for reinforcing dental pharmacology in the clinical years: A qualitative analysis

OBJECTIVES

Blended learning has become the method of choice in educational institutions because of its systematic integration of traditional classroom teaching and online components. This study aims to analyze student's reflection regarding blended learning in dental pharmacology.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted in Faculty of Dentistry, Melaka-Manipal Medical College among 3^rd and 4^th year BDS students. A total of 145 dental students, who consented, participate in the study. Students were divided into 14 groups. Nine online sessions followed by nine face-to-face discussions were held. Each session addressed topics related to oral lesions and orofacial pain with pharmacological applications. After each week, students were asked to reflect on blended learning. On completion of 9 weeks, reflections were collected and analyzed.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Qualitative analysis was done using thematic analysis model suggested by Braun and Clarke.

RESULTS

The four main themes were identified, namely, merits of blended learning, skill in writing prescription for oral diseases, dosages of drugs, and identification of strengths and weakness. In general, the participants had a positive feedback regarding blended learning. Students felt more confident in drug selection and prescription writing. They could recollect the doses better after the online and face-to-face sessions. Most interestingly, the students reflected that they are able to identify their strength and weakness after the blended learning sessions.

CONCLUSIONS

Blended learning module was successfully implemented for reinforcing dental pharmacology. The results obtained in this study enable us to plan future comparative studies to know the effectiveness of blended learning in dental pharmacology.

Qualitative Analysis of Student Perceptions Comparing Team-based Learning and Traditional Lecture in a Pharmacotherapeutics Course

Objective. To qualitatively compare students' attitudes and perceptions regarding team-based learning (TBL) and lecture. Design. Students were exposed to TBL and lecture in an elective pharmacotherapeutics course in a randomized, prospective, cross-over design. After completing the course, students provided their attitudes and perceptions through a written self-reflection and narrative questions on the end-of-course evaluation. Student responses were reviewed using a grounded theory coding method. Assessment. Students' responses yielded five major themes: impact of TBL on learning, perceptions about TBL learning methods, changes in approaches to learning, building skills for professional practice, and enduring challenges. Overall, students report TBL enhances their learning of course content (knowledge and application), teamwork skills, and lifelong learning skills. Conclusion. Students' attitudes and perceptions support TBL as a viable pedagogy for teaching pharmacotherapeutics.

An Approach for All in Pharmacy Informatics Education

Computerization is transforming health care. All clinicians are users of health information technology (HIT). Understanding fundamental principles of informatics, the field focused on information needs and uses, is essential if HIT is going to support improved patient outcomes. Informatics education for clinicians is a national priority. Additionally, some informatics experts are needed to bring about innovations in HIT. A common approach to pharmacy informatics education has been slow to develop. Meanwhile, accreditation standards for informatics in pharmacy education continue to evolve. A gap remains in the implementation of informatics education for all pharmacy students and it is unclear what expert informatics training should cover. In this article, we propose the first of two complementary approaches to informatics education in pharmacy: to incorporate fundamental informatics education into pharmacy curricula for all students. The second approach, to train those students interested in becoming informatics experts to design, develop, implement, and evaluate HIT, will be presented in a subsequent issue of the Journal.

Using Continuing Professional Development with Portfolio in a Pharmaceutics Course

The introduction of Continuing Professional Development (CPD) to encourage individual life-long learning as a way of maintaining professional competency in pharmacy has faced resistance. To investigate ways to address this barrier we included CPD with portfolio in a university Pharmaceutics course. Underpinning knowledge for the course was delivered using a flipped classroom approach and students used the CPD model to address clinical scenarios presented in a simulated pharmacy setting. Students produced portfolio items for the different case scenarios and submitted these for assessment. This provided the opportunity for students to carry out repeated application of the CPD cycle and, in so doing, develop skills in critical thinking for self-reflection and self-evaluation. This course was designed to encourage the development of higher level learning skills for future self-directed learning. Thirty six students submitted a completed portfolio. Twenty nine students achieved a result of >70%, five students scored between 57%-69%, one student obtained a mark of 50% and one student failed. The end of course survey revealed that while students found portfolio development challenging (40%), they also reported that it was effective for self-learning (54%). Differentiating between the concepts "reflection" and "evaluation" in CPD was problematic for some students and the use of clearer, simpler language should be used to explain these processes in future CPD work.

A Randomized Crossover Comparison of Team-based Learning and Lecture Format on Learning Outcomes

Objective. To compare learning outcomes and student confidence between team-based learning (TBL) and lecture. Methods. A crossover study was conducted with 30 students divided into two sections. Each section was taught six therapeutic topics (three TBL and three lecture). There were two assessments of 24 questions each. A survey (Likert scale) assessing student confidence and attitudes was administered at the end. Results. A significantly higher overall examination score was observed for TBL as compared to lecture. Students were more confident in providing therapeutic recommendations following TBL. Higher survey scores favoring TBL were also seen related to critical-thinking skills and therapeutic knowledge. Conclusion. Learning outcomes and student confidence in performing higher-order tasks were significantly higher with TBL. The findings of this novel crossover type design showed that TBL is an effective pedagogy.

Assessing the Value of Online Learning and Social Media in Pharmacy Education

Objective. To assess student preferences regarding online learning and technology and to evaluate student pharmacists' social media use for educational purposes. Methods. An anonymous 36-question online survey was administered to third-year student pharmacists enrolled in the Drug Information and Clinical Literature Evaluation course. Results. Four hundred thirty-one students completed the survey, yielding a 96% response rate. The majority of students used technology for academic activities, with 90% using smart phones and 91% using laptop computers. Fifty-eight percent of students also used social networking websites to communicate with classmates. Conclusion. Pharmacy students frequently use social media and some online learning methods, which could be a valuable avenue for delivering or supplementing pharmacy curricula. The potential role of social media and online learning in pharmacy education needs to be further explored.

Student perceptions of and performance in a blended foundational drug information course

OBJECTIVES

Assess and trend student opinions of online educational components utilized in a redesigned 5-week foundational drug information course. Comparison of performance on the final examination, course grade, and changes in standardized university course evaluations between 2012 and 2013 were the secondary objectives.

METHODS

This course used narrated video instruction coupled with the use of a face-to-face weekly laboratory session. This project consisted of pre- and post-exposure surveys to allow for paired analysis of six opinion-based survey items using a five-point Likert scale. Secondary objectives were compared between the 2013 and 2012 entering classes by use of paired t-tests.

RESULTS

Only matched pairs were analyzed for this project (n = 65 of 127 enrolled students; 51.2%). Changes between mean pre- and post-survey results indicated a decline in student favorability for traditional lecture styles (difference = -0.49 points; p < 0.05) and a decline in the importance of face-to-face interaction with instructors outside class (difference = -0.46 points; p < 0.05) while demonstrating increased favorability for use of online video demonstrations as an acceptable substitute for in-person demonstration of skills (difference = 0.34 points; p < 0.05) and increased rating of overall preference of online learning compared to traditional modalities (difference = 0.44 points; p < 0.05). Standardized course evaluations did not differ between 2012 and 2013. Mean final exam scores significantly increased from 84.86% in 2012 to 88.99% in 2013 (p < 0.05), but no difference between mean course grades (94.03% and 93.62%, respectively; p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Blended course design is an effective format for introductory skills-based professional pharmacy courses.

Impact of Flipped Classroom Design on Student Performance and Perceptions in a Pharmacotherapy Course

Objective. To determine whether a flipped classroom design would improve student performance and perceptions of the learning experience compared to traditional lecture course design in a required pharmacotherapy course for second-year pharmacy students. Design. Students viewed short online videos about the foundational concepts and answered self-assessment questions prior to face-to-face sessions involving patient case discussions. Assessment. Pretest/posttest and precourse/postcourse surveys evaluated students' short-term knowledge retention and perceptions before and after the redesigned course. The final grades improved after the redesign. Mean scores on the posttest improved from the pretest. Postcourse survey showed 88% of students were satisfied with the redesign. Students reported that they appreciated the flexibility of video viewing and knowledge application during case discussions but some also struggled with time requirements of the course. Conclusion. The redesigned course improved student test performance and perceptions of the learning experience during the first year of implementation.

Pharmacy education in Saudi Arabia: A vision of the future

Background: Pharmacy education in developing countries faces many challenges. An assessment of the challenges and opportunities for the future of pharmacy education in Saudi Arabia has not been conducted. Objectives: The purpose of the study was to ascertain the views and opinions of pharmacy education stakeholders regarding the current issues challenging pharmacy education, and to discuss the future of pharmacy education in Saudi Arabia. Methods: A total of 48 participants attended a one-day meeting in October 2011, designed especially for the purpose of this study. The participants were divided into six round-table discussion sessions with eight persons in each group. Six major themes were explored in these sessions, including the need to improve pharmacy education, program educational outcomes, adoption of an integrated curriculum, the use of advanced teaching methodologies, the need to review assessment methods, and challenges and opportunities to improve pharmacy experiential training. The round-table discussion sessions were videotaped and transcribed verbatim and analyzed by two independent researchers. Results: Participants agreed that pharmacy education in the country needs improvement. Participants agreed on the need for clear, measureable, and national educational outcomes for pharmacy programs in the Kingdom. Participants raised the importance of collaboration between faculty members and departments to design and implement an integrated curriculum. They also emphasized the use of new teaching methodologies focusing on student self-learning and active learning. Assessments were discussed with a focus on the use of new tools, confidentiality of examinations, and providing feedback to students. Several points were raised regarding the opportunities to improve pharmacy experiential training, including the need for more experiential sites and qualified preceptors, addressing variations in training quality between experiential sites, the need for accreditation of experiential sites, and the use of technology to track experiential activities and assessments. Conclusion: Several challenges for improving pharmacy education in Saudi Arabia were discussed by stakeholders. To tackle these challenges facing most pharmacy schools in the Kingdom, national efforts need to be considered by involving all stakeholders.

Impact of a "TED-Style" presentation on potential patients' willingness to accept dental implant therapy: a one-group, pre-test post-test study

PURPOSE

A survey was conducted to assess the impact of a TED-like educational session on participants' willingness to accept dental implant therapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Volunteers interested in having information about dental implant therapies were recruited and asked to complete a two-part survey before and after an educational session. The initial survey elicited demographic information, self-perceived knowledge on dental implants and willingness to this kind of treatment. A "TED-style" presentation that provided information about dental implant treatments was conducted before asking the participants to complete a second set of questions assessing the impact of the session.

RESULTS

The survey was completed by 104 individuals, 78.8% were women and the mean age was 66.5±10.8. Before the educational session, 76.0% of the participants refused dental implants mainly due to lack of knowledge. After the educational session, the rejection of dental implants decreased by almost four folds to 20.2%.

CONCLUSION

This study proved that an educational intervention can significantly increase willingness to accept treatment with dental implants in a segment of the population who is interested in having information about dental implant therapy. Furthermore, educational interventions, such as TED-like talks, might be useful to increase popular awareness on dental implant therapy.

Does self-reflection and peer-assessment improve Saudi pharmacy students' academic performance and metacognitive skills?

BACKGROUND

The patient-centered focus of clinical pharmacy practice which demands nuanced application of specialized knowledge and skills targeted to meeting patient-specific therapeutic needs warrant that the training strategy used for PharmD graduates must empower with the ability to use the higher level cognitive processes and critical thinking effectively in service delivery. However, the historical disposition to learning in the Middle East and among Saudi students appeared heavily focused on rote memorization and recall of memorized facts.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the impact of active pedagogic strategies such as self-reflection and peer assessment on pharmacy students' academic performance and metacognitive skills, and evaluate students' feedback on the impact of these active pedagogic strategies on their overall learning experience.

METHOD

An exploratory prospective cohort study was conducted among 4th year students at the College of Clinical Pharmacy, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia to assess the impact of self-reflection and peer-assessment in a semester-wide assessment tasks in two compulsory first semester 4th year courses (Therapeutics-3 and Pharmacoeconomics). An end-of-course evaluation survey with a pre-tested 5-item open-ended questionnaire was also conducted to evaluate students' feedback on the impact of active pedagogic strategies on their overall learning experience.

RESULT

Male students (study group) constituted 40.7% of the cohort while 59.3% were females (control group) with mean ± SD age of 23.2 ± 5.6 and 22.1 ± 4.9 years respectively. The mean ± SD scores for quizzes, mid-term and final exams, and the overall percentage pass were significantly higher in the study group for both courses (P < 0.001). The majority of the students in the study group opined that the exposure to active pedagogic strategies enabled them to improve their use of critical thinking, facilitated deeper engagement with their learning and improved their clinical decision-making and discussion skills.

CONCLUSION

The use of active pedagogic strategies such as self-reflection and peer-assessment appeared to significantly improve examination performance, facilitate deep and constructive engagement with learning and fostered students' confidence in the use of critical thinking and clinical decision-making.

A Required Online Course with a Public Health Focus for Third Professional Year Pharmacy Students

OBJECTIVE

To design, deliver, and evaluate the impact of a required course on student knowledge acquisition and ability to evaluate contemporary public health issues.

DESIGN

A 2-credit course was implemented using asynchronous, online delivery. Learning activities included literature retrieval and assessment, analytic writing, quizzes, and creation of a group wiki evaluating a current public health issue. Course topics included health care reform, social determinants of health, health disparities, evidence-based medicine, end-of-life care, patient safety, and research ethics.

ASSESSMENT

Strong student performance on assessments indicated an ability to use higher-order cognitive domains. Online delivery provided students with the flexibility to complete assignments at their convenience, allowed participation by all students, and encouraged self-directed learning.

CONCLUSION

Completion of a required, online, asynchronous course with a public health focus allowed pharmacy students to increase their knowledge of and ability to evaluate contemporary ethical, social, cultural, and governmental issues affecting pharmacy practice.

Factors influencing pharmacy students' attitudes towards pharmacy practice research and strategies for promoting research interest in pharmacy practice

Objectives:

To (1) investigate the relationships between students’ characteristics and their (a) perceptions of research in general and (b) attitudes towards pharmacy practice research; (2) identify strategies that could be used by pharmacy educators to promote research interest in pharmacy practice; and (3) identify perceived barriers to the pursuit or completion of a pharmacy practice research degree.

Methods:

A survey was administered to all students enrolled in each year of the four-year pharmacy undergraduate program, University of Sydney, Australia. Perceptions of research in general were measured using 4 items on a five-point semantic-differential scale and attitudes towards pharmacy practice research were measured using 16 items on a five-point Likert scale. Student characteristics were also collected as were responses to open-ended questions which were analysed using content analysis.

Results:

In total 853 students participated and completed the survey (83% response rate). Participants’ characteristics were associated with some but not all aspects of research and pharmacy practice research. It appeared that positive attitudes and perspectives were influenced strongly by exposure to the ‘research’ process through projects, friends or mentors, previous degrees or having future intentions to pursue a research degree. Results from both the quantitative and qualitative analyses suggest positive attitudes and perceptions of research can be nurtured through the formal inclusion in research processes, particularly the utility of practice research in clinical practice across the four years of study. Participants indicated there was a lack of awareness of the needs, benefits and career opportunities associated with pharmacy practice research and voiced clear impediments in their career path with respect to the choice of practice research-related careers.

Conclusions:

Future research should investigate changes in perceptions and attitudes in a single cohort over the four-year degree, other factors influencing students’ perceptions and attitudes, and evaluate the effectiveness of research promoting strategies and programs.

Lessons Learned from Sleep Education in Schools: A Review of Dos and Don'ts

STUDY OBJECTIVES

Sleep duration and quality are associated with negative neuropsychological and psychosocial outcomes in children and adolescents. However, community awareness of this is low and sleep education programs in schools are attempting to address this issue. Several studies now exist assessing the efficacy of these sleep education programs for improving sleep knowledge, sleep hygiene and sleep patterns. This paper presents these sleep education programs, most particularly, it presents the strengths and weaknesses of the current available studies in the hope that this can identify areas where future sleep education programs can improve.

METHODS

A systematic search of all school-based sleep education studies in adolescents was undertaken. Studies were scrutinized for author, teacher and participant comment regarding strengths and limitations of each study, which were then extracted and summarized.

RESULTS

Two specific types of sleep education programs emerged from the review, those that sought to change sleep behavior and those that sought simply to disseminate information. Issues that dictated the strength or weakness of a particular study including who delivers the program, the theoretical basis, the tools utilized to measure sleep patterns, the content, and their capacity to engage students were assessed. Sleep education was considered important by teachers, students and parents alike.

CONCLUSIONS

Future sleep education programs need to take into account lessons learned from previous sleep education efforts in order to maximize the potential for sleep education programs to improve the sleep health of our young people.

COMMENTARY

A commentary on this article appears in this issue on page 595.

Student Preferences on Gaming Aspects for a Serious Game in Pharmacy Practice Education: A Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

Serious games are motivating and provide a safe environment for students to learn from their mistakes without experiencing any negative consequences from their actions. However, little is known about students' gaming preferences and the types of serious games they like to play for education.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to determine the types of gaming aspects that students would like to play in a pharmacy-related serious game.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted using a self-administered survey, which obtained students' responses on their preferences regarding various gaming aspects (reward systems, game settings, storylines, viewing perspectives, and gaming styles) and for a hypothetical gaming scenario (authentic simulation or post-apocalyptic fantasy). Descriptive statistics, chi-square, and Fisher's exact tests were used for statistical analyses.

RESULTS

Response rate was 72.7% (497/684 undergraduates). The most popular game reward systems were unlocking mechanisms (112/497, 22.5%) and experience points (90/497, 18.1%). Most students preferred fantasy/medieval/mythic (253/497, 50.9%) and modern (117/497, 23.5%) settings, but lower year undergraduates preferred modern settings less than upper year seniors (47/236, 19.9% vs 70/242, 28.9%, P=.022). Almost one-third (147/497, 29.6%) preferred an adventurer storyline or an authentic pharmacy-related plot (119/497, 23.9%), and a collaborative game style was most preferred by the students (182/497, 36.6%). Three-dimensional game perspectives (270/497, 54.3%) were more popular than two-dimensional perspectives (221/497, 44.5%), especially among males than females (126/185, 68.1% vs 142/303, 46.9%, P<.001). In terms of choice for a pharmacy-related serious game, a post-apocalyptic fantasy game (scenario B, 287/497, 57.7%) was more popular than an authentic simulation game (scenario A, 209/497, 42.1%). More males preferred the post-apocalyptic fantasy scenario than females (129/187, 69.0% vs 155/306, 50.7%, P<.001).

CONCLUSIONS

In general, students want a three-dimensional, fantasy/medieval/mythic post-apocalyptic game, based on an adventurer storyline with an unlocking mechanism reward system. A balance between real-life and fantasy elements needs to be struck in order for the game to cater students towards health care practices.

A Learning Activity to Introduce Undergraduate Students to Bioethics in Human Clinical Research

We developed a pharmacology practicum assignment to introduce students to the research ethics and steps involved in a clinical trial. The assignment included literature review, critical analysis of bioethical situations, writing a study protocol and presenting it before a simulated ethics committee, a practice interview with a faculty member to obtain informed consent, and a student reflective assessment and self-evaluation. Students were assessed at various steps in the practicum; the learning efficiency of the activity was evaluated using an independent survey as well as students’ reflective feedback. Most of the domains of Bloom’s and Fink’s taxonomies of learning were itemized and covered in the practicum. Students highly valued the translatability of theoretical concepts into practice as well as the approach to mimic professional practice. This activity was within a pharmacy program, but may be easily transferable to other medical or health sciences courses.

Preceptor development: providing effective feedback, part 2

An integral part of providing effective feedback to pharmacy residents occurs during the evaluation process. Residency evaluation involves measuring and documenting performance as it relates to standardized residency outcomes, goals, and learning objectives. Evaluations may be formative or summative and include the preceptor's evaluation of the resident's performance, the resident's self-assessments, and the resident's evaluation of the preceptor and learning experience. Evaluations are more structured than feedback, and they involve documentation of the verbal feedback that was provided throughout the learning experience. This article will focus on the preceptor's role in providing effective resident evaluations based on specific learning activities.

The flipped classroom: a course redesign to foster learning and engagement in a health professions school

Recent calls for educational reform highlight ongoing concerns about the ability of current curricula to equip aspiring health care professionals with the skills for success. Whereas a wide range of proposed solutions attempt to address apparent deficiencies in current educational models, a growing body of literature consistently points to the need to rethink the traditional in-class, lecture-based course model. One such proposal is the flipped classroom, in which content is offloaded for students to learn on their own, and class time is dedicated to engaging students in student-centered learning activities, like problem-based learning and inquiry-oriented strategies. In 2012, the authors flipped a required first-year pharmaceutics course at the University of North Carolina Eshelman School of Pharmacy. They offloaded all lectures to self-paced online videos and used class time to engage students in active learning exercises. In this article, the authors describe the philosophy and methodology used to redesign the Basic Pharmaceutics II course and outline the research they conducted to investigate the resulting outcomes. This article is intended to serve as a guide to instructors and educational programs seeking to develop, implement, and evaluate innovative and practical strategies to transform students' learning experience. As class attendance, students' learning, and the perceived value of this model all increased following participation in the flipped classroom, the authors conclude that this approach warrants careful consideration as educators aim to enhance learning, improve outcomes, and fully equip students to address 21st-century health care needs.

A roadmap for educational research in pharmacy

Educational research must play a critical role in informing practice and policy within pharmacy education. Understanding the educational environment and its impact on students, faculty members, and other stakeholders is imperative for improving outcomes and preparing pharmacy students to meet the needs of 21st century health care. To aid in the design and implementation of meaningful educational research within colleges and schools of pharmacy, this roadmap addresses philosophy and educational language; guidelines for the conduct of educational research; research design, including 4 approaches to defining, collecting, and analyzing educational data; measurement issues; ethical considerations; resources and tools; and the value of educational research in guiding curricular transformation.

Pharmacy student engagement, performance, and perception in a flipped satellite classroom

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether "flipping" a traditional basic pharmaceutics course delivered synchronously to 2 satellite campuses would improve student academic performance, engagement, and perception.

DESIGN

In 2012, the basic pharmaceutics course was flipped and delivered to 22 satellite students on 2 different campuses. Twenty-five condensed, recorded course lectures were placed on the course Web site for students to watch prior to class. Scheduled class periods were dedicated to participating in active-learning exercises. Students also completed 2 course projects, 3 midterm examinations, 8 graded quizzes, and a cumulative and comprehensive final examination.

ASSESSMENT

Results of a survey administered at the beginning and end of the flipped course in 2012 revealed an increase in students' support for learning content prior to class and using class time for more applied learning (p=0.01) and in the belief that learning key foundational content prior to coming to class greatly enhanced in-class learning (p=0.001). Significantly more students preferred the flipped classroom format after completing the course (89.5%) than before completing the course (34.6%). Course evaluation responses and final examination performance did not differ significantly for 2011 when the course was taught using a traditional format and the 2012 flipped-course format. Qualitative findings suggested that the flipped classroom promoted student empowerment, development, and engagement.

CONCLUSION

The flipped pharmacy classroom can enhance the quality of satellite students' experiences in a basic pharmaceutics course through thoughtful course design, enriched dialogue, and promotion of learner autonomy.

Correlation between active-learning coursework and student retention of core content during advanced pharmacy practice experiences

OBJECTIVE

To implement an active-learning approach in a pharmacotherapy course sequence in the second year (P2) and third (P3) year of a doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) program and determine whether the pedagogical changes correlated with retention of core content in the fourth year (P4).

DESIGN

Class sessions were transitioned from slides-based lectures to discussion-based active-learning pedagogy.

ASSESSMENT

A comprehensive examination was created and administered to assess student retention of therapeutic topics taught. Students demonstrated significantly improved overall scores on questions derived from the active-learning pedagogy used in Pharmacotherapy II and III compared to those derived from Pharmacotherapy I in which content was delivered by lecture.

CONCLUSION

The use of active-learning strategies over lecture-based methods in pharmacotherapy courses resulted in higher retention of core content. Students' performance in areas taught using the discussion-based methodology was superior to that which was taught using lecture-based slide presentations.