Delivery of Comprehensive Medication Management and Other Clinical Services via Telehealth by Pharmacy Type

Background: The recent coronavirus pandemic accelerated the need to deliver pharmacy-related services remotely. Objective: To describe experiences with providing comprehensive medication management (CMM) and other clinical services via telehealth by pharmacy type, before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: An online survey of pharmacists, representing 27 pharmacies, was conducted to capture telehealth usage in three pharmacy types: independently owned, integrated into a clinical setting, and retail chain. A sub-analysis was performed to assess if providing CMM services via telehealth helped, resulted in no change, or worsened the care of different patient groups (e.g., those with diabetes, were low-income, aged 65+ years). Results: During the pandemic, telehealth usage among independently owned pharmacies and those integrated into a clinical setting increased, but no change occurred among retail chain pharmacies. This usage increase in the first two pharmacy types occurred despite limited investments in connectivity-related resources to support telehealth services. Pharmacists from both independently owned pharmacies (63%) and those integrated into a clinical setting (89%) reported CMM via telehealth reached patients they would not otherwise have been able to reach during the pandemic. Most pharmacists/pharmacies found telehealth to be a feasible and acceptable method of delivering CMM. Conclusion: Pharmacists and pharmacies are now experienced with and have interest in continuing CMM via telehealth, even as the pandemic recedes. However, investments in telecommunications resources, training support, technical assistance, and continued telehealth reimbursement from health plans are needed to sustain this service delivery model.

Adherence to Hepatitis C Treatment Among Underserved Patients With Substance Use Disorder in a Pharmacist-led Treatment Model

BackgroundTreatment with medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD) may improve hepatitis C virus (HCV) treatment outcomes by providing additional contact with health care professionals to support patient engagement. Objective: We describe a pharmacist-led HCV treatment model and assessed the effect of MOUD on adherence to direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) in an underserved patient population. Methods: This was a retrospective cohort study of adults (age≥18 years) treated for HCV infection with DAAs at a Federally Qualified Health Center in Portland, Oregon, between March 1, 2019, and March 16, 2020. Patients were followed to 12 weeks to assess adherence to DAAs by MOUD status. Results: Among 59 eligible patients, 16 (27%) were prescribed MOUD. Baseline characteristics were similar between patients who did and did not receive MOUD. Adherence to DAAs was overall high and not significantly different between the groups (median: 98.5% vs median: 100%; P = .06). Five patients missed at least one dose due to an adverse drug effect and two of these patients discontinued HCV therapy due to these effects. Conclusion: Adherence to HCV therapy was nearly 100% among underserved patients in a pharmacist-led HCV treatment model and did not differ by MOUD engagement.

Commonly Reported Mosquito-Borne Viruses in the United States: A Primer for Pharmacists

Mosquito-borne diseases are a public health concern. Pharmacists are often a patient's first stop for health information and may be asked questions regarding transmission, symptoms, and treatment of mosquito borne viruses (MBVs). The objective of this paper is to review transmission, geographic location, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of MBVs. We discuss the following viruses with cases in the US in recent years: Dengue, West Nile, Chikungunya, LaCrosse Encephalitis, Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus, and Zika. Prevention, including vaccines, and the impact of climate change are also discussed.

Community Pharmacist and Family Medicine Collaboration for Pre-Visit Planning for Shared Patients Receiving Chronic Care Management Services

Background: Pre-visit planning entails completing necessary tasks prior to clinic appointments. Community pharmacists (CPs) have unique knowledge about patients' medication use but do not routinely provide drug therapy reviews before clinic visits. Objectives: (1) Create and implement a business partnership between a CP and family medicine clinic (FMC) for CP provision of pre-visit medication reviews, and (2) describe the billing experience for shared patients in the FMC chronic care management (CCM) program. Methods: A prospective 8-month study in one community pharmacy and FMC in Iowa. Eligible patients were enrolled in the clinic CCM program and received their prescriptions at the CP. CPs were granted access to the clinic electronic health record (EHR), performed medication reviews, and recorded drug therapy recommendations (DTRs) in the clinic EHR. FMC physicians reviewed CP DTRs before the patient encounter. Time tracking software in the EHR recorded CP and FMC time performing CCM services. CCM revenue was prorated between parties. FMC physicians completed a survey about their experience. Results: Overall, there were 129 CP reviews performed for 95 patients. These reviews resulted in 169 DTRs and 76% were accepted by the physician. There were 71 CCM claims billed and CCM revenue was $3596 ($1796 FMC, $1800 CP). More than 90% of physicians (N = 11) indicated they reviewed CP DTRs before the patient encounter and agreed they were helpful to their practice. Conclusion: CPs completed pre-visit medication reviews and made accepted medication therapy recommendations. CCM billing provided a mechanism for CPs to receive revenue for their services.

Pharmacy-driven performance improvement initiative to increase compliance with intravenous smart pump drug error reduction systems at a large urban academic medical center

PURPOSE

Smart pump dose error reduction systems (DERS) reduce errors for intravenous (IV) administration medications by warning users of order, calculation, and programming errors. The purpose of this performance improvement initiative was to increase IV smart pump DERS usage from 77% to 95% at a large, urban academic medical center.

METHODS

A pharmacy-led team with nurses, physicians, and quality improvement specialists executed interventions from July 2020 through April 2022 to increase DERS compliance. A discovery phase (phase I) was followed by 6 Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) cycles created to address barriers to DERS utilization. Phase I revealed that problems involving the DERS library and bedside nurse training were the major drivers of noncompliance. Phase II consisted of 3 system-level PDSA cycles, and phase III included 3 focused group PDSA cycles. Data were collected monthly from the smart pump reporting software by the informatics pharmacist and analyzed by the team to assess compliance rates in response to the corresponding interventions.

RESULTS

The median DERS compliance increased from 77% to 83% over the 2-year period, which correlates with approximately 109,000 additional infusions run on DERS each year within our institution. The implementation of a DERS problem reporting tool accessed through the medication administration record resulted in the most pronounced improvement.

CONCLUSION

DERS compliance improved following system-level sustainable interventions, although further PDSA cycles are needed to meet the goal DERS utilization rate of 95%. The results of this study may help other institutions attempting to improve DERS utilization create targeted interventions.

Recent and anticipated novel drug approvals for 2024

PURPOSE

Health-system pharmacists play a crucial role in monitoring the pharmaceutical pipeline to manage formularies, allocate resources, and optimize clinical programs for new therapies. This article aims to support pharmacists by providing periodic updates on new and anticipated novel drug approvals.

SUMMARY

Selected drug approvals anticipated in the 12-month period covering the first quarter of 2024 through the fourth quarter of 2024 are reviewed. The analysis emphasizes drugs expected to have significant clinical and financial impact in hospitals and clinics, as selected from 59 novel drugs awaiting US Food and Drug Administration approval. This year's pipeline includes recently added drugs with various indications including oncology, infectious diseases, genetic disorders, and rare diseases. New cellular and gene therapies are rapidly evolving and being studied for several rare diseases and cancers.

CONCLUSION

More oncology agents, including gene therapies, oral agents, and monoclonal antibodies, are in the pipeline this year. Additional diseases targeted by new novel drugs, including cellular and gene therapies, are hemophilia, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, Alzheimer's disease, and rare diseases such as galactosemia and epidermolysis bullosa.

The role of pharmacist in community palliative care-a scoping review

OBJECTIVES

Dynamic and adaptive services that provide timely access to care are pivotal to ensuring patients with palliative needs experience high-quality care. Patients who have palliative care needs may require symptomatic relief with medicines and, therefore, may engage with community pharmacists frequently. However, there is limited evidence for pharmacists' involvement in community palliative care models. Therefore, a scoping review was conducted to identify pharmacists' role in community palliative care.

METHODS

A systematic search strategy was implemented across PubMed, PsychINFO, CINAHL, and Embase databases. Articles were screened by abstract and full text against inclusion and exclusion criteria.

KEY FINDINGS

Five articles (two from Australia, two from England, and one from Scotland) met the inclusion criteria and described interventions involving pharmacists in community palliative care. This review has identified that the inclusion of trained pharmacists in community palliative care teams can improve the quality of care provided for patients with palliative needs. Pharmacists are able to undertake medication reviews and provide education to patients and other healthcare professionals on the quality use of palliative care medicines. Additionally, the underutilization of community pharmacists in palliative care, the need for further training of pharmacists, and improved community pharmacy access to patient information to deliver community palliative care were identified.

CONCLUSION

Pharmacists can play a vital role in community palliative care to enhance the quality of life of patients. There is a need for greater pharmacist education/training, improved interprofessional communication, improved access to patient information and sustainable funding to strengthen community-based palliative care.

What's age got to do with it? A study of the implementation of the discharge medicines service for paediatric patients

OBJECTIVES

The discharge medicines service (DMS) was introduced as an essential service for all community pharmacies in England through the Community Pharmacy Contractual Framework (CPCF) in February 2021. This study aimed to describe the implementation of this service for paediatric patients and to identify any barriers to referrals.

METHODS

The study was undertaken in a 24-bed paediatric ward in a District General Hospital from September 2022 to February 2023. All paediatric inpatients on long-term medications were eligible for inclusion. Out of 169 eligible participants, 149 were referred. Community pharmacists accessed referrals through PharmOutcomes® and could accept, complete, or reject referrals on this platform.

KEY FINDINGS

Of the 149 referred patients, 24 (16.1%) were accepted but not yet actioned; 63 (42.3%) were fully or partially completed; 19 (12.8%) were rejected, and 43 (28.9%) there was no response (remained as referred). Younger children (<2 years) were more likely to have their referral rejected than older children (6 years and older). The feedback from parents was overwhelmingly positive (93.5%) and two families reported that they believed the DMS service prevented readmission to the hospital for their children. No children were involved in the community pharmacist consultation. Barriers to referrals included patients not having a nominated pharmacy and a lack of confidence in completing paediatric referrals.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates the value of completing referrals for paediatric patients. More research is required to explore how community pharmacists can be supported to complete paediatric DMS referrals.

Patient perspectives on the vital primary care role of community pharmacists in Nova Scotia, Canada: qualitative findings from the PUPPY Study

OBJECTIVES

Community pharmacists play an important role in primary care access and delivery for all patients, including patients with a family physician or nurse practitioner ("attached") and patients without a family physician or nurse practitioner ("unattached"). During the COVID-19 pandemic, community pharmacists were accessible care providers for unattached patients and patients who had difficulty accessing their usual primary care providers ("semi-attached"). Before and during the pandemic, pharmacist services expanded in several Canadian provinces. The aim of this qualitative study was to explore patient experiences receiving care from community pharmacists, and their perspectives on the scope of practice of community pharmacists.

METHODS

Fifteen patients in Nova Scotia, Canada, were interviewed. Participant narratives pertaining to pharmacist care were analyzed thematically.

KEY FINDINGS

Attached, "semi-attached," and unattached patients valued community pharmacists as a cornerstone of care and sought pharmacists for a variety of health services, including triaging and system navigation. Patients spoke positively about expanding the scope of practice for community pharmacists, and better optimization of pharmacists in primary care.

CONCLUSIONS

System decision-makers should consider the positive role community pharmacists can play in achieving primary care across the Quintuple Aim (population health, patient and provider experiences, reducing costs, and supporting equity in health).

A qualitative exploration of the barriers and enablers to supporting informal and familial carers within community pharmacies

OBJECTIVES

There are approximately 5.3 million informal carers in the United Kingdom, many of whom support family in their health despite being unpaid and often unsupported. Many visit pharmacies to collect medicines and look for advice. This work explores informal carer support within community pharmacies (CP).

METHODS

Semi-structured video interviews exploring perspectives on the role of CP in supporting carers were conducted in autumn 2022. The study received institutional ethical approval. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analysed using a reflexive thematic approach.

KEY FINDINGS

In total 25 interviews were conducted with 13 carers and 12 pharmacy staff. Three themes were identified:-What support do carers need through CP?-medicines management, navigating services, and carers health and wellbeing.-Barriers to CP better supporting carers-relationships with CP, carer needs, identification as a 'carer'.-Enablers to CP better supporting carers-support is a team effort, and CP as a community 'hub'.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a trusted relationships between carers and pharmacy staff which can contribute to establishing pharmacies as a safe space of support, this includes medicines-specific support and navigating services, but also carer health and wellbeing support. Pharmacy staff may need to reconsider approaches to identifying and supporting carers and not just treating them as an extension of supporting a patient. In making this support accessible, relationships with pharmacy staff are important, as well as embracing CP as a 'community hub', although pharmacy staff may need training and information to facilitate them in this role.

Financial impact of integrated specialty pharmacy efforts to avoid oral anticancer medication waste

BACKGROUND

The growing number of oral anticancer medications represents a significant portion of pharmacy spending and can be costly for patients. Patients taking oral anticancer medications may experience frequent treatment changes following necessary safety and effectiveness monitoring, often resulting in medication waste. Strategies to avoid medication waste could alleviate the financial burden of these costly therapies on the payer and the patient.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the impact on waste and cost avoidance of reviewing the amount of medication patients have on hand and the presence of upcoming follow-up (ie, provider visit, laboratory testing, or imaging) before requesting a prescription refill renewal for patients taking oral anticancer medications through an integrated health system specialty pharmacy.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective review of patients filling oral anticancer medications prescribed by a Vanderbilt University Medical Center provider and dispensed by Vanderbilt Specialty Pharmacy between January 1, 2020, and December 31, 2020. Specialty pharmacists received a system-generated refill renewal request for oral anticancer medications when the final prescription refill was dispensed, prompting the pharmacist to review the patient's medical record for continued therapy appropriateness and to request a new prescription. If the patient had a sufficient supply on hand to last until an upcoming follow-up (ie, provider visit, imaging, or laboratory assessment), the pharmacist postponed the renewal until after the scheduled follow-up. Patients were included in the analysis if the refill renewal request was postponed after review of the amount of medication on hand and the presence of an upcoming follow-up. Medication outcomes (ie, continued, dose changed, held, medication changed to a different oral anticancer medication, or discontinued) resulting from the follow-up were collected. Cost avoidance in US dollars was assigned based on the outcome of follow-up by calculating the price per unit times the number of units that would have been unused or in excess of what was needed if the medication had been dispensed before the scheduled follow-up. The average wholesale price minus 20% (AWP-20%) and wholesale acquisition cost (WAC) were used to report a range of costs avoided over 12 months.

RESULTS

The total cost avoidance over 12 months associated with postponing refill renewal requests in a large academic health system with an integrated specialty pharmacy ranged from $549,187.03 using WAC pricing to $751,994.99 using AWP-20% pricing, with a median cost avoidance per fill of $366.04 (WAC) to $1,931.18 (AWP-20%). Refill renewal requests were postponed in 159 instances for 135 unique patients. After follow-up, medications were continued unchanged in only 2% of postponed renewals, 56% of follow-ups resulted in medication discontinuations, 32% in dose changes, 5% in medication changes, and 5% in medication holds.

CONCLUSIONS

Integrated health system specialty pharmacist postponement of refill requests after review of the amount of medication on hand and upcoming follow-up proved effective in avoiding waste and unnecessary medication costs in patients treated with oral anticancer medications at a large academic health system.

Attributes for a discrete-choice experiment on preferences of patients for oncology pharmacy consultations

PURPOSE

To ensure the safe use of oral anticancer drugs, oncology pharmacy consultations (OPCs) have been established in France. They are conditioned by the needs, expectations, and involvement of the patients in their care. Thus, it is essential to elicit their preferences. The discrete-choice experiment (DCE) is a method recommended by the ISPOR for such a task. The "selection and validation of attributes and their values" step is fundamental in this process. In this context, the aim of this study was to present our research approach to identify and validate the attributes that characterize an OPC and their values.

METHODS

Due to the lack of relevant published data in the literature, the focus-group method was used in accordance with good research practices for the application of conjoint-analysis of the ISPOR. The two-round Delphi method was used to validate the attributes and their values identified by the focus-group method.

RESULTS

The focus-group method enabled identification of nine attributes. Thirty-seven healthcare professionals at a national level, including 30 pharmacists and seven physicians, were selected to take part in the Delphi procedure. Seven attributes (frequency, planification, operation mode, duration, content, written support, and report) and their values were thus validated.

CONCLUSION

Based on these results, the next step will be to elicit patient preferences for OPCs and to then shed light on the issues of pharmaceutical support for patients by comparing their preferences with those of informal caregivers and, in particular, those of the healthcare professionals involved in their care.

Development of a computerized intervention to improve health literacy in older Hispanics with type 2 diabetes using a pharmacist supervised comprehensive medication management

Objective

The primary objective was to develop a computerized culturally adapted health literacy intervention for older Hispanics with type 2 diabetes (T2D). Secondary objectives were to assess the usability and acceptability of the intervention by older Hispanics with T2D and clinical pharmacists providing comprehensive medication management (CMM).

Materials and methods

The study occurred in three phases. During phase I, an integration approach (i.e., quantitative assessments, qualitative interviews) was used to develop the intervention and ensure cultural suitability. In phase II, the intervention was translated to Spanish and modified based on data obtained in phase I. During phase III, the intervention was tested for usability/acceptability.

Results

Thirty participants (25 older Hispanics with T2D, 5 clinical pharmacists) were included in the study. Five major themes emerged from qualitative interviews and were included in the intervention: 1) financial considerations, 2) polypharmacy, 3) social/family support, 4) access to medication/information, and 5) loneliness/sadness. Participants felt the computerized intervention developed was easy to use, culturally appropriate, and relevant to their needs. Pharmacists agreed the computerized intervention streamlined patient counseling, offered a tailored approach when conducting CMM, and could save them time.

Conclusion

The ability to offer individualized patient counseling based on information gathered from the computerized intervention allows for precision counseling. Future studies are needed to determine the effectiveness of the developed computerized intervention on adherence and health outcomes.

Pharmacists' involvement in COVID-19 vaccination across Europe: a situational analysis of current practice and policy

One year since the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, rapid response measures have been implemented internationally to mitigate the spread of the virus. Following rapid and successful pre-clinical and human trials, several vaccines have been authorised for use across Europe through the European Medicines Agency and national regulatory authorities. Clinical trials have shown promising results including important reductions in disease severity, hospitalisation and mortality. In order to maximise the public health benefit of available vaccines, there is a pressing need to vaccinate a large proportion of the population. Internationally, this has prompted coordination of existing services at enormous scale, and development and implementation of novel vaccination strategies to ensure maximum inoculation over the shortest possible timeframe. Pharmacists are being promoted as healthcare professionals that enhance roll-out of COVID-19 vaccination programmes. This paper aims to summarise current policy and practice in relation to pharmacists’ involvement in COVID-19 vaccination in 13 countries across Europe.

Impact of medication therapy management service on selected clinical and humanistic outcomes in the ambulatory diabetes patients of Tikur Anbessa Specialist Hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Diabetes mellitus (DM) patients are at increased risk of developing drug therapy problems (DTPs). The patients had a variety of comorbidities and complications, and they were given multiple medications. Medication therapy management (MTM) is a distinct service or group of services that optimize therapeutic outcomes for individual patients. The study assessed the impact of provision of MTM service on selected clinical and humanistic outcomes of diabetes patients at the diabetes mellitus clinic of Tikur Anbessa Specialized Hospital (TASH).

METHODS

A pre-post interventional study design was carried out at DM clinic from July 2018 to April 2019. The intervention package included identifying and resolving drug therapy problems, counseling patients in person at the clinic or through telephone calls, and providing educational materials for six months. This was followed by four months of post-intervention assessment of clinical outcomes, DTPs, and treatment satisfaction. The interventions were provided by pharmacist in collaboration with physician and nurse. The study included all adult patients who had been diagnosed for diabetes (both type I & II) and had been taking anti-diabetes medications for at least three months. Patients with gestational diabetes, those who decided to change their follow-up clinic, and those who refused to participate in the study were excluded. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics, t-test, and logistic regressions were performed for data analyses.

RESULTS

Of the 423 enrolled patients, 409 fulfilled the criteria and included in the final data analysis. The intervention showed a decrease in average hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), fasting blood sugar (FBS), and systolic blood pressure (SBP) by 0.92%, 25.04 mg/dl, and 6.62 mmHg, respectively (p<0.05). The prevalence of DTPs in the pre- and post-intervention of MTM services was found to be 72.9% and 26.2%, respectively (p<0.001). The overall mean score of treatment satisfaction was 90.1(SD, 11.04). Diabetes patients of age below 40 years (92.84 (SD, 9.54)), type-I DM (93.04 (SD, 9.75)) & being on one medication regimen (93.13(SD, 9.17)) had higher satisfaction score (p<0.05).

CONCLUSION

Provision of MTM service had a potential to reduce DTPs, improve the clinical parameters, and treatment satisfaction in the post-intervention compared to the pre-intervention phase.

Reducing Emergency Department Visits Among Patients With Diabetes by Embedding Clinical Pharmacists in the Primary Care Teams

BACKGROUND

Pharmacists are effective at improving control of cardiovascular risk factors, but it less clear whether these improvements translate into less emergency department (ED) use and fewer hospitalizations. The UCMyRx program embed pharmacists in primary care.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to examine if the integration of pharmacists into primary care was associated with lower ED and hospital use for patients with diabetes.

DESIGN

This was a quasi-experimental study with a comparator group.

SUBJECTS

The analytic sample included patients with diabetes with uncontrolled cardiovascular risk factors (A1C >9%, blood pressure >140/90 mm Hg, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol >130 mg/dL) who had 1 or more visits in either a UCMyRx (648 patients, 14 practices) or usual care practice (1944 patients, 14 practices).

MEASURES

Our outcomes were ED and hospitalization rates as measured before and after the consultations between UCMyRx and usual care. Our predictor variable was the pharmacist consultation. Poisson generalized estimating equations model was used to estimate the adjusted predicted change in utilization before and after the pharmacist consultation. The Average Treatment Effect on the Treated was estimated.

RESULTS

In models adjusted, the adjusted mean predicted number of emergency department visits/month during the year before the consultation was 0.09 among UCMyRx patients. During the year after initiating the care with the pharmacists, this rate decreased to an adjusted mean monthly rate of 0.07, with an Average Treatment Effect on the Treated=0.021 (P=0.035), a predicted reduction of 21% in emergency department visits associated with the clinical pharmacist consults. There was a nonsignificant predicted 3.2% reduction in hospitalizations over time for patients in the UCMyRx program.

CONCLUSION

Clinical pharmacists are an important addition to clinical care teams in primary care practices and significantly decreased utilization of the ED among patients with poorly controlled diabetes.

Intervention by clinical pharmacists can improve blood glucose fluctuation in patients with diabetes and acute myocardial infarction: A propensity score-matched analysis

Acute phase hyperglycemia and exaggerated glucose fluctuation may be associated with poor outcomes in diabetic patients after acute myocardial infarction (AMI). This study aimed to determine whether intervention by clinical pharmacists can mitigate blood glucose and glucose fluctuations in these fragile patients. This retrospective study enrolled patients with diabetes and AMI, from 1 January 2019 to 30 June 2020 in our institution. Blood glucose and glucose fluctuations were calculated before and after the pharmacist's intervention and between patients who underwent intervention and those who did not. Propensity score matching (PSM) was used to reduce the impact of patient characteristics on the results. A total of 170 patients were included in our primary analysis, including 29 patients who received the pharmacist intervention and 141 patients who did not. After the pharmacist's intervention, blood glucose (fasting blood glucose-FBG, from 11.9 to 9.8; postprandial blood glucose-PBG, from 15.3 to 13.2; mean blood glucose-BG, 14.5 to 12.3 mmol/L; p < .001), and glucose fluctuations (standard deviation of blood glucose-SDBG, from 3.8 to 3.0, mmol/L, p = .005) were significantly improved. Before PSM, no clear effects were found in intervention versus nonintervention patients, in terms of blood glucose and glucose fluctuation indicators, except for FBG (9.3 vs. 8.0. mmol/L, p = .005). Further analysis indicated a high incidence of FBG <7.8 mmol/L in nonintervention versus intervention patients (51.5% vs. 27.6%, p = .003). After PSM, a significant reduction in blood glucose fluctuation (SDBG, 3.0 vs. 4.1, p = .031; PBGE, 2.1 vs. 4.1, p = .017; LAGE, 4.7 vs. 7.2, mmol/L, p = .004), and PBG (11.1 vs. 13.0, mmol/L, p = .048) was observed in the intervention group than in the nonintervention group. The clinical pharmacist intervention contributed to improved outcomes, specifically, in reducing blood glucose fluctuations and potential hypoglycemia risk.

The Impact of an Established Pharmaceutical Care Pathway on Drug Related Problems in an Intensive Care Unit

BACKGROUND

The incidence of drug related problems (DRPs) in intensive care units (ICU) is higher compared to any other wards in the hospital, requiring a structured pathway to ensure optimum detection of DRPs. The study aimed to evaluate the impact of implementing a pharmaceutical care pathway on the detection and management of DRPs in an ICU.

METHODS

The study was conducted in a general ICU and included three phases: tool preparation phase included the development of a core measures reference pathway and daily working scenario flow-charts, a control phase where the patient files and pharmacists' case assessment notes were retrospectively reviewed to detect the rate of DRPs before pathway implementation and a prospective phase similar to the control phase but with the implementation of the new pathway. The number and classification of DRPs and required core measures in the control and implementation phases were documented.

RESULTS

Using the new pathway, the detection of unmet core measures increased from 7.3% in the control phase to 99% in the implementation phase (p-value <0.001). The prevalence of unidentified DRPs/1000 patients' service days decreased from 98.1 in the control phase to 27.08 in the implementation phase (p-value <0.001). However, there was no significant difference between the phases regarding mortality rate and length of ICU stay.

CONCLUSIONS

The implementation of a unified pharmaceutical care pathway improved the detection of DRPs in ICU patients.

A retrospective study comparing interventions by oncology and non-oncology pharmacists in outpatient chemotherapy

BACKGROUND

The differences in the clinical pharmacy services (CPS) provided by oncology and non-oncology pharmacists have not been sufficiently explained.

AIM

This study aimed to demonstrate the differences in direct CPS provided by oncology and non-oncology pharmacists for patients and physicians, and to assess the potential impact of these services on medical costs.

METHODS

We retrospectively examined CPS provided by oncology and non-oncology pharmacists for outpatients who underwent chemotherapy between January and December 2016.

RESULTS

In total, 1177 and 1050 CPS provided by oncology and non-oncology pharmacists, respectively, were investigated. The rates of interventions performed by oncology and non-oncology pharmacists for physicians-determined treatment were 18.5% and 11.3%, respectively (p < .001). The rates of oncology and non-oncology pharmacist interventions accepted by physicians were 84.6 and 78.8%, respectively (p = .12). Level 4 and Level 5 interventions accounted for 64.6% of all oncology pharmacist interventions and 53.0% of all non-oncology pharmacist interventions (p = .03). The rates of improvement in symptoms from adverse drug reactions among patients resulting from interventions by oncology and non-oncology pharmacists were 89.4 and 72.1%, respectively (p = .02). Conservative assessments of medical cost impact showed that a single intervention by an oncology and by a non-oncology pharmacist saved ¥6355 and ¥3604, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study suggested that CPS by oncology pharmacists enable safer and more effective therapy for patients with cancer and indirectly contribute to reducing health care fees.

Pharmacist led homeless outreach engagement and non-medical independent prescribing (Rx) (PHOENIx) intervention for people experiencing homelessness: a non- randomised feasibility study

BACKGROUND

Homelessness and associated mortality and multimorbidity rates are increasing. Systematic reviews have demonstrated a lack of complex interventions that decrease unscheduled emergency health services utilisation or increase scheduled care. Better evidence is needed to inform policy responses. We examined the feasibility of a complex intervention (PHOENIx: Pharmacist led Homeless Outreach Engagement Nonmedical Independent prescribing (Rx)) to inform a subsequent pilot randomised controlled trial (RCT).

METHODS

Non-randomised trial with Usual Care (UC) comparator group set in Greater Glasgow and Clyde Health Board, Scotland. Participants were adult inpatients experiencing homelessness in a city centre Glasgow hospital, referred to the PHOENIx team at the point of hospital discharge, from 19th March 2018 until 6th April 2019. The follow up period for each patient started on the day the patient was first seen (Intervention group) or first referred (UC), until 24th August 2019, the censor date for all patients. All patients were offered and agreed to receive serial consultations with the PHOENIx team (NHS Pharmacist prescriber working with Simon Community Scotland (third sector homeless charity worker)). Patients who could not be reached by the PHOENIx team were allocated to the UC group. The PHOENIx intervention included assessment of physical/mental health, addictions, housing, benefits and social activities followed by pharmacist prescribing with referral to other health service specialities as necessary. All participants received primary (including specialist homelessness health service based general practitioner care, mental health and addictions services) and secondary care. Main outcome measures were rates of: recruitment; retention; uptake of the intervention; and completeness of collected data, from recruitment to censor date.

RESULTS

Twenty four patients were offered and agreed to participate; 12 were reached and received the intervention as planned with a median 7.5 consultations (IQR3.0-14.2) per patient. The pharmacist prescribed a median of 2 new (IQR0.3-3.8) and 2 repeat (1.3-7.0) prescriptions per patient; 10(83%) received support for benefits, housing or advocacy. Twelve patients were not subsequently contactable after leaving hospital, despite agreeing to participate, and were assigned to UC. Two patients in the UC group died of drug/alcohol overdose during follow up; no patients in the Intervention group died. All 24 patients were retained in the intervention or UC group until death or censor date and all patient records were accessible at follow up: 11(92%) visited ED in both groups, with 11(92%) hospitalisations in intervention group, 9(75%) UC. Eight (67%) intervention group patients and 3(25%) UC patients attended scheduled out patient appointments.

CONCLUSIONS

Feasibility testing of the PHOENIx intervention suggests merit in a subsequent pilot RCT.

The legal extension of the role of pharmacists in light of the COVID-19 global pandemic

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 epidemic has affected every area of life. The greatest challenge has been to adapt the functioning of the health service to prevent the spread of the epidemic and to help infected patients. This has required the involvement of not only doctors and nurses, but also pharmacists. In the face of this pandemic, governments in many countries have granted pharmacists greater authority.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this paper is to review the legal extension of the role of pharmacists in light of the COVID-19 pandemic. The review considers recent changes in European countries, Canada, and the United States.

METHODS

A literature review was performed to summarise knowledge about the extension of the role of pharmacists during the pandemic period. Key articles were retrieved mainly from PubMed and Google Scholar, using the terms "COVID-19", "2019-nCoV", "coronavirus", and "pandemic" in combination with "pharmacist" as keywords for our search. We included scientific publications from February 1, 2019 to May 15, 2020.

RESULTS

Pharmacists have been given numerous opportunities so that they can actively join in the fight against the virus. Some of the novel legal extensions aimed at aiding overloaded healthcare systems are as follows: authorisation to prepare hand and surface disinfectants, eligibility to renew chronic treatment prescriptions, as well as filling pro auctore and pro familia prescriptions by pharmacists, performing COVID-19, influenza, and Group A Streptococcus screening tests, and vaccine administration. Moreover, many countries have facilitated Internet services, such as virtual medical consultations, e-prescriptions, and home drug delivery - to promote social distancing among patients. To mitigate drug shortages, the following strategies have been implemented: alternative sourcing, strength, generic, or therapeutic substitution, and preparing compounded formulations at the pharmacy.

CONCLUSIONS

Novel legal extensions have allowed exploitation of the full potential ofpharmacists worldwide, aiding the limited resources of overloaded healthcare systems.

The impact of COVID-19 on pharmacy transitions of care services

COVID-19 has necessitated alterations to the delivery of healthcare services. Modifications include those made to improve patient and healthcare worker safety such as the use of personal protective equipment. Pharmacy services, specifically pharmacy transitions of care services have not been immune to change which have brought along their own set of unique challenges to consider. This paper discusses how COVID-19 has impacted the delivery of pharmacy transitions of care services with real world examples from Sharp Grossmont Hospital and Hoag Memorial Hospital Presbyterian. Procedures implemented to minimize the spread and contraction of COVID-19 such as minimized patient contact and altered visitor policies have made it more challenging to obtain a best possible medication list the patient was taking prior to arrival to the hospital which has lead to an increased reliance on secondary sources to complete medication histories. Regarding discharge prescriptions, preference has shifted to the use of electronic vs. hard copy prescriptions, mail order, and utilization of med to bed programs and other hospital medication delivery services to limit patient contact in outpatient pharmacies. An improved effort to resolve medication acquisition issues prior to discharge utilizing patient assistance programs and other hospital programs to cover the cost of medications for COVID positive patients under certain circumstances has been seen. This paper highlights the important role pharmacists can play in providing effective communication, supporting continuity of care, and advocating for patient engagement and empowerment during transitions of care in the COVID-19 pandemic.

When fear and misinformation go viral: Pharmacists' role in deterring medication misinformation during the 'infodemic' surrounding COVID-19

The world has faced an unprecedented challenge when coronavirus (COVID-19) emerged as a pandemic. Millions of people have contracted the virus and a significant number of them lost their lives, resulting in a tremendous social and economic shock across the globe. Amid the growing burden of the pandemic, there are parallel emergencies that need to be simultaneously tackled: the proliferation of fake medicines, fake news and medication misinformation surrounding COVID-19. Pharmacists are key health professionals with the required skills and training to contribute to the fight against these emergencies. Primarily, they can be a relevant source of accurate and reliable information to the public or other fellow health professionals thereby reducing the spread of COVID-19 medication misinformation. This can be achieved by providing accurate and reliable information based on recommendations given by relevant health authorities and professional associations to make sure the community understand the importance of the message and thus minimise the detrimental consequences of the pandemic. This commentary aims to summarise the existing literature in relation to the promising treatments currently under trial, the perils of falsified medications and medicine-related information and the role of pharmacists in taking a leading role in combating these parallel global emergencies.

Management of human resources of a pharmacy department during the COVID-19 pandemic: Take-aways from the first wave

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is the biggest public health threat the world has seen in many years and poses new challenges and opportunities to healthcare systems. The new reality imposed by the pandemic requires a modification of practices to ensure the health and safety of patients and medical teams. The purpose of this article is to share the experiences of the pharmacy department of the Centre hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CHUM) in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Seven of the most important issues will be addressed: crisis management, internal communications, employee stress, reorganisation of workspaces, reorganisation of pharmacist workforce, telework and schedule management. Some of the changes made in human resources deployment will likely remain even post-pandemic.

Hospital pharmacists' pharmaceutical care for hospitalized patients with COVID-19: Recommendations and guidance from clinical experience

OBJECTIVE

To discuss hospital pharmacists' role in providing pharmaceutical care for hospitalized patients with COVID-19 to promote patient care and management during the pandemic.

METHOD

Based on the method of evidence-based pharmacy, clinical evidence of therapeutical drugs for COVID-19 were retrieved and summarized. Based on clinical experience Chinese hospital pharmacists gained from providing pharmaceutical care services during COVID-19 pandemic, taking COVID-19 hospitalized patients' needs into consideration, the methods and strategies hospital pharmacists shall use to provide pharmaceutical care were analyzed and summarized.

RESULTS

Hospital pharmacists shall support pharmaceutical care services by participating in making evidence-based decisions for medication, monitoring and evaluation of medication safety and efficacy, providing strengthened care for special population and patients with combined underlying diseases, monitoring and management of convalescent plasma therapy, providing emotional counselling and psychological support, and providing scientific information about COVID-19 vaccines.

CONCLUSION

The need of pharmaceutical care services in COVID-19 hospitalized patients during this pandemic was quite distinguished from the past. Hospital pharmacists shall join the collaborative multidisciplinary team to improve COVID-19 patients' outcome and reduce mortality, and to facilitate the pandemic control.

COVID-19 related regulatory change for pharmacists - The case for its retention post the pandemic

The delivery of healthcare including the provision of pharmacy services globally is highly regulated internationally in order to protect public health and welfare. However, the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic has precipitated the need internationally to amend the model of regulation in order to ensure that people were able to continue to access a range of healthcare services in a timely and effective manner. Many of the changes introduced to the regulation of pharmacy services in Ireland have been replicated in other countries. These include the introduction of electronic means to transmit prescriptions and other orders for medications, relaxing the legal restrictions in place controlling the emergency supply of prescription only medicines and more fully utilizing the professional competency of pharmacists by empowering them to use their expertise and judgment to support their patients accessing the healthcare services that they need. Many of the regulatory changes that have been introduced to support the COVID-19 public health emergency effort are ones that pharmacists have previously sought to enable them provide a more effective and expanded model of pharmaceutical care to their patients. Accordingly, many pharmacists will want these regulatory changes to be retained and further expanded in the aftermath of the COVID-19 public health emergency in order to extend their scope of practice and support them in the care of their patients.

Pharmacy practice research priorities during the COVID-19 pandemic: Recommendations of a panel of experts convened by FIP Pharmacy Practice Research Special Interest Group

Across the globe, pharmacists on the frontline continue to fight COVID-19 and its continuously evolving physical, mental, and economic consequences armed by their knowledge, professionalism, and dedication. Their need for credible scientific evidence to inform their practice has never been more urgent. Despite the exponentially increasing number of publications since the start of the pandemic, questions remain unanswered, and more are created, than have been resolved by the increasing number of publications. A panel of leading journal editors was convened by the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) Pharmacy Practice Research Special Interest Group to discuss the current status of COVID-19 related research, provide their recommendations, and identify focal points for pharmacy practice, social pharmacy, and education research moving forward. Key priorities identified spanned a wide range of topics, reflecting the need for good quality research to inform practice and education. The panel insisted that a foundation in theory and use of rigorous methods should continue forming the basis of inquiry and its resultant papers, regardless of topic area. From assessing the clinical and cost effectiveness of COVID-19 therapies and vaccines to assessing different models of pharmaceutical services and education delivery, these priorities will ensure that our practice is informed by the best quality scientific evidence at this very challenging time.

Multilevel Engagements of Pharmacists During the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Way Forward

Severe acute respiratory syndrome caused by the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) was first reported in China in December 2019 which was later declared to be a public health emergency of international concern by the World Health Organization (WHO). This virus proved to be very contagious resulting in life-threatening respiratory intricacies posing overall public health and governance challenges. Amid the coronavirus pandemic and the unprecedented increase in healthcare demands, only inventive and adaptive practice among healthcare professionals is the need of the hour. Pharmacy services are an important mainstay in the public health and have considerable potential to combat the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Pharmacists working in several localities and health facilities are linked to patients either directly or indirectly. They can act swiftly in public health response such as drafting professional service guidance to pharmacists working in various healthcare facilities, ensuring effective medicine supply system, monitoring and resolving drug shortage issues, establishing and promoting remote pharmacy services, counseling the public on infection prevention basics, educating about proper use of personal protective equipment, discouraging self-medication, participating in clinical trials, small-scale manufacturing of sanitizers and disinfectants, busting the prevailing myths, and conducting drug evaluation and active surveillance. These interventions will help ease unprecedented burden on healthcare facilities during the ongoing pandemic and eventually will add value to patients and the healthcare system. The current manuscript accentuates the potential roles and activities that pharmacists can initiate in various healthcare facilities to help in relieving pressure on the overwhelmed healthcare system. The information and suggestions offered in this review could help in the restructuring of existing pharmacy services by governments, public health bodies, and policy makers in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, this manuscript will underscore any unrealized potential among pharmacists working in various sectors including community, hospital, industry, and drug regulatory authorities.

Pharmacists providing care in statewide physician organizations: findings from the Michigan Pharmacists Transforming Care and Quality Collaborative

BACKGROUND: Clinical services provided by pharmacists embedded in practices can improve patient outcomes within the primary care setting. Little is known about whether physician organizations (POs) will retain the services of clinical pharmacists after outside funding for a statewide implementation program is ended. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate a statewide program, Michigan Pharmacists Transforming Care and Quality (MPTCQ), that incorporated pharmacists within 17 POs. METHODS: A descriptive study was conducted using data collected from June 2016 to September 2018 from primary care clinical pharmacist encounters in POs participating in MPTCQ. Process outcomes included the number of participating POs, patient encounters, and average visits per patient. Analyses at the encounter level were stratified by 2 encounter types: disease state management (DSM) or comprehensive medication review (CMR). Separately by encounter type, pharmacist effect was described by the number, type, and reasons for medication changes, as well as medication adherence and cost barriers found and addressed. Clinical outcomes included hemoglobin A1c and blood pressure change. Sustainability and patient satisfaction of pharmacists providing clinical services are reported. RESULTS: Across 17 POs, 27 pharmacists participated in the MPTCQ program. Pharmacists completed 24,523 patient encounters for DSM with 5,942 patients, with an average of 5 visits per patient with diabetes and 2 visits for hypertension. Pharmacists made 15,153 therapeutic medication changes during visits for diabetes and hypertension, with approximately 70% related to efficacy. Pharmacists completed 4,203 CMR visits for 3,092 patients. During CMR visits, 1,296 therapeutic medication changes were recommended. Problems with medication cost were identified in 13% of CMR visits. Blood pressure and A1c levels decreased in patients managed by pharmacists. In 157 patients surveyed, 87% rated their pharmacists' care as excellent. Sixteen POs retained their pharmacists at the end of funding. CONCLUSIONS: A statewide provider-payer partnership successfully integrated and retained primary care pharmacists within POs. Pharmacists in the MPTCQ program contributed to improvements in disease control by changing medications to improve patient clinical outcomes. DISCLOSURES: Support for MPTCQ was provided by Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Michigan (BCBSM) as part of the BCBSM Value Partnerships program. Coe was supported by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences of the National Institutes of Health under award number KL2TR002241. Although BCBSM and MPTCQ work collaboratively, the opinions, beliefs, and viewpoints expressed by the authors do not necessarily reflect the opinions, beliefs, and viewpoints of BCBSM or any of its employees. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. The authors have no conflicts of interest to report.

Role of the Ambulatory Care Clinical Pharmacist in Management of a Refugee Patient Population at a University-Based Refugee Healthcare Clinic

BACKGROUND

The International Family Medicine Clinic (IFMC) at University of Virginia Health System serves refugees and special immigrants in Virginia. The IFMC comprises an interprofessional team including a clinical pharmacist.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review of electronic medical records was performed. Adult refugee patients who attended a scheduled clinical pharmacist visit between October 6, 2015 and December 31, 2016 were included. The primary outcome was to characterize interventions made by a clinical pharmacist. Secondary outcomes included describing chronic disease states experienced by certain refugee populations and the clinical impact of pharmacist interventions in diabetes management.

RESULTS

80 refugee patients attended 275 clinical pharmacist visits. On average, visits lasted 30 min. Numerous patient interventions were made, including initiation of 68 new medications, discontinuation of 49 medications, and 66 medication dose changes. An average A1c reduction of 1.8% (p < 0.001) was noted.

DISCUSSION

The clinical pharmacist can play an important role in refugee healthcare.

Highlighting the role of veterinary pharmacists in zoonotic diseases including COVID-19

Veterinary pharmacy is an often unknown and therefore, underrepresented career path for pharmacists. Uniquely, pharmacists-even untrained in veterinary medicine-are the only health professionals legally allowed to provide care for human and nonhuman patients. The 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic is a peculiar situation that, not only highlights veterinary pharmacy as a career path, but stresses the role veterinary pharmacists, trained in both human and veterinary medicine, can play in zoonotic diseases. Specialized training in veterinary medicine allows the pharmacist to serve as a resource for both physicians as well as veterinarians during zoonotic events by helping to ascertain feasibility of therapeutic options given the species. In addition, veterinary pharmacists involved in translational research would be vital for the drug development process as they would be aware of biologic nuances between the species and how they may affect the ultimate therapeutic outcome.

Alaska pharmacists: First responders to the pandemic in the last frontier

Background

Pharmacists are among the nation’s most accessible and underused health professionals. Within their scope of practice, pharmacists can prescribe and administer vaccines, conduct point-of-care testing, and address drug shortages through therapeutic substitutions.

Objectives

To better use pharmacists as first responders to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), we conducted a needs and capacity assessment to (1) determine individual commitment to provide COVID-19 testing and management services, (2) identify resources required to provide these services, and (3) help prioritize unmet community needs that could be addressed by pharmacists.

Methods

In March 2020, pharmacists and student pharmacists within the Alaska Pharmacist Association worked to tailor, administer, and evaluate results from a 10-question survey, including demographics (respondent name, ZIP Code, cell phone, and alternate e-mail). The survey was developed on the basis of published COVID-19 guidelines, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention COVID-19 screening and management guidelines, National Association of Boards of Pharmacy guidance, and joint policy recommendation from pharmacy organizations.

Results

Pharmacies are located in the areas of greatest COVID-19 need in Alaska. Pharmacists are willing and interested in providing support. Approximately 63% of the pharmacists who completed the survey indicated that they were interested in providing COVID-19 nasal testing, 60% were interested in conducting COVID-19 antibody testing, and 93% were interested in prescribing and administering immunizations for COVID-19, as available. When asked about resources needed to enable pharmacists to prescribe antiviral therapy, 37% of the pharmacists indicated they needed additional education or training, and 39% required access to technology to bill and document provided services.

Conclusion

The primary barrier to pharmacists augmenting the current COVID-19 response is an inability to cover the costs of providing these health services. Pharmacists in Alaska are ready to meet COVID-19–related clinical needs if public and private insurers and legislators can help address the barriers to service sustainability.

Perceptions of the Value of Clinical Pharmacy Medication Review for Women During Early Pregnancy

BACKGROUND

The benefit of continuing medications to prevent or treat illness is often overlooked, since pregnant women tend to overestimate the teratogenic risk of medications. Pharmacists can serve as a resource to prescribers and pregnant women with their knowledge of the appropriate use and management of medications during pregnancy. Little information exists on the value women place on pharmacists' medication management during pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE

To assess pregnant women's perceptions of an ambulatory care clinical pharmacist (CP) medication review service during early pregnancy that provided education regarding the risks and benefits of medication use during pregnancy.

METHODS

This was a qualitative study of pregnant women using semistructured telephone interviews performed between December 12, 2018, and January 18, 2019, and conducted in an integrated health care delivery system. Potential participants were identified from CP encounter records. Consented English-speaking women aged ≥ 18 years participated in an up to 30-minute interview within 1 week of the CP encounter. Interviews were professionally transcribed and coded line by line using the constant comparison method with grounded theory used to gain insight into participants' perspectives.

RESULTS

62 women were invited to participate in semistructured telephone interviews of whom 24 (39%) completed the interview. Three main themes emerged from the qualitative analysis: satisfaction with the service, comfort with medication use during pregnancy, and connectedness to the health care team. Overall, the CP medication review and education service was perceived positively by the participants. Participants reported satisfaction in the quality, timeliness, and convenience of the service and found it beneficial to have their medications reviewed early during pregnancy to assist in medication use decisions before their first obstetric visit.

CONCLUSIONS

CP medication review provided a comforting, valuable service for women during early pregnancy when medication-taking decisions can feel exigent.

DISCLOSURES

This study was funded by Kaiser Permanente. The authors have nothing to disclose. Preliminary results were presented at the Mountain States Conference for Residents and Preceptors, May 2019, in Salt Lake City, UT.

Depression screening in adults by pharmacists in the community: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Improving the identification of depression in adults in primary care can produce clinical and economic benefits. Community Pharmacists may play a role in screening for depression.

OBJECTIVE

To systematically review and evaluate the evidence for the feasibility, impact and cost-effectiveness of community pharmacists screening adults for depression.

METHODS

An electronic literature search using the databases EMBASE, PubMed and CINAHL Complete from January 2000 to September 2019 was undertaken to identify studies involving community pharmacists screening for depression. Data relating to sample size, population demographics and medical conditions of adults screened were extracted. Details around the screening model, process-related outcomes, clinical outcomes and economic outcomes were also extracted.

RESULTS

Ten studies using eight unique depression screening tools were identified. Ease of administration was the most common selection criterion (n = 4) while no reason was given in four studies. Seven studies reported that through screening, pharmacists could identify adults with undiagnosed depression. Pharmacists referred adults screening positive for assessment in seven studies and followed up participants in two studies. No study assessed the impact of screening on depressive symptoms or the cost-effectiveness of pharmacists screening for depression.

CONCLUSION

Community pharmacists are able to use depression screening tools to identify undiagnosed adults having symptoms of depression. However, there is little evidence around the impact of this screening on clinical and economic outcomes. Larger, well-designed studies that use a highly accurate, easily administered screening tool and include patient referral and follow-up and pharmacist training are warranted to provide evidence on the impact of community pharmacists screening adults for depression.

Medication Therapy Management: 10 Years of Experience in a Large Integrated Health Care System

BACKGROUND

Medication therapy management (MTM) was officially recognized by the federal government in the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003, which requires Medicare Part D plans that offer prescription drug coverage to establish MTM programs (MTMPs) for eligible beneficiaries. Even though the term "MTM" was first used in 2003, pharmacists have provided similar services since the term "pharmaceutical care" was introduced in 1990. Fairview Health Services, a large integrated health care system, implemented a standardized pharmaceutical care service system in 1998, naming it a pharmaceutical care-based MTM practice in 2006.

OBJECTIVE

To present the clinical, economic, and humanistic outcomes of 10 years of delivering MTM services to patients in a health care delivery system.

METHODS

Data from MTM services provided to 9,068 patients and documented in electronic therapeutic records were retrospectively analyzed over the 10-year period from September 1998 to September 2008 in 1 health system with 48 primary care clinics. Patients eligible for MTM services were aged 21 years or older and either paid for MTM out of pocket or met their health care payer's criteria for MTM reimbursement; the criteria varied for Medicaid, Medicare, and commercially insured enrollees. All MTM was delivered face to face. Health data extracted from the electronic therapeutic record by the present study's investigators included patient demographics, medication list, medical conditions, drug therapy problems identified and addressed, change in clinical status, and pharmacist-estimated cost savings. The clinical status assessment was a comparison of the first and most recent MTM visit to measure whether the patient achieved the goals of therapy for each medical condition (e.g., the blood pressure of a patient with diabetes and hypertension will be less than 130/80 millimeters mercury [mmHg] in 1 month; the patient with allergic rhinitis will be relieved of his complaints of nasal congestion, runny nose, and eye itching within 5 days). Goals were set according to evidence-based literature and patient-specific targets determined cooperatively by pharmacists, patients, and physicians. Cost-savings calculations represented MTM pharmacists' estimates of medical services (e.g., office visits, laboratory services, urgent care visits, emergency room visits) and lost work time avoided by the intervention. All short-term (3-month) estimated health care savings that resulted from addressing drug therapy problems were analyzed. The expenses of these avoided services were calculated using the health system's contracted rates for services provided in the last quarter of 2008. The return on investment (ROI) was calculated by dividing the pharmacist-estimated savings by the cost of MTM services in 2008 (number of MTM encounters times the average cost of an MTM visit). The humanistic impact of MTM services was assessed using the results from the second patient satisfaction survey administered in 2008 (new patients seen from January through December 2008) for the health system's MTM program.

RESULTS

A total of 9,068 patient records were in the documentation system as of September 30, 2008. During the 10-year period, there were 33,706 documented encounters (mean 3.7 encounters per patient). Of 38,631 drug therapy problems identified and addressed by MTM pharmacists, the most frequent were a need for additional drug therapy (n = 10,870, 28.1%) and subtherapeutic dosage (n = 10,100, 26.1%). In the clinical status assessment of the 12,851 medical conditions in 4,849 patients who were not at goal when they enrolled in the program, 7,068 conditions (55.0%) improved, 2,956 (23.0%) were unchanged, and 2,827 (22.0%) worsened during the course of MTM services. Pharmacist-estimated cost savings to the health system over the 10-year period were $2,913,850 ($86 per encounter) and the total cost of MTM was $2,258,302 ($67 per encounter), for an estimated ROI of $1.29 per $1 in MTM administrative costs. In the patient satisfaction survey, 95.3% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that their overall health and well-being had improved because of MTM.

CONCLUSION

Pharmacist estimates of the impact of an MTM program in a large integrated health care system suggest that the program was associated with improved clinical outcomes and cost savings. Patient satisfaction with the program was high.

DISCLOSURES

There was no external funding for this manuscript. The 3 authors are employees of Fairview Pharmacy Services. Ramalho de Oliveira had primary responsibility for the concept and design, writing, and revision of the manuscript, with the assistance of Brummel and Miller. Ramalho de Oliveira performed the data collection, and all 3 authors shared equally in data interpretation.

The pharmacist's role in chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy

The emergence and efficacy of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy in previously incurable malignancies represents a promising paradigm shift in cancer care. However, it is not without significant clinical, operational, and financial considerations. Pharmacists should be prepared to fulfill the various roles in CAR T cell therapy provision including: policy development; electronic medical record build; patient and staff education; patient selection; procurement, storage, and handling; medication administration and supportive care; management of adverse reactions; and quality tracking. Our commentary provides an overview of the opportunities for pharmacy involvement in the implementation and maintenance of a CAR T cell therapy program with an emphasis on the importance of pharmacy involvement as part of a multidisciplinary approach to care. Although some institutions have dedicated a CAR T cell pharmacist to meet the demands of emerging CAR T cell therapy, we believe that clinical pharmacists practicing in hematopoietic stem cell transplant and hematology/oncology have the skills and training to fulfill the pharmacist's role in CAR T cell therapy.

Involving systems thinking and implementation science in pharmacists' emerging role to facilitate the safe and appropriate use of traditional and complementary medicines

The use of traditional and complementary medicines (TM/CMs) has become an increasingly popular part of healthcare and self-care practices across the world. While the benefits and risks of many TM/CMs are yet to be fully evaluated, their prevalent use without consistent oversight has not been fully addressed by the public health sector. Pharmacists play an integral role in contributing to public health. Discussion about integrating TM/CMs into the professional practice of the pharmacist began over two decades ago. Nevertheless, TM/CMs are predominantly managed as "retail products" and are not integrated into pharmaceutical care and practice. While some isolated measures towards integration have been proposed, there remains no consensus on how to deliver pharmaceutical care in a coordinated, systematic manner. Systems thinking approaches are needed to formulate and implement strategies that change pharmacists' practice related to TM/CMs. Such approaches will ultimately reduce risk, optimize patient care, and result in better health outcomes.

A pharmacist-managed dosing algorithm for darbepoetin alfa and iron sucrose in hemodialysis patients: A randomized, controlled trial

The attainment of target hemoglobin levels in hemodialysis patients is low. Several factors play a role, such as hyporesponsiveness to erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESA), but also suboptimal prescribing of ESA and iron. The goal of this study was to investigate if a pharmacist-managed dosing algorithm for darbepoetin alfa (DA) and iron sucrose improves the attainment of target hemoglobin levels. In this randomized controlled trial, 200 hemodialysis patients from a Dutch teaching hospital were included. In the intervention group (n = 100), a pharmacist monthly provided dose recommendations for DA and iron sucrose based on dosing algorithms. The control group (n = 100) received usual care. In the intervention group, the percentage per patient within the target range (PTR) for hemoglobin (target range 6.8-7.4 mmol/L) and iron status was higher than in the control group (for hemoglobin median 38.5% vs 23.1%, P = .001 and for iron status median 21.1% vs 8.3%, P = .003). The percentage of high hemoglobin levels (>8.1 mmol/L) was lower in the intervention group (median 0.0% vs 7.7%, P = .034). The weekly dose of DA was lower in the intervention group (median 34.0 vs 46.9 mcg, P = .020), whereas iron dose was higher (median 75 vs 0 mg). No difference was found for the percentage of hemoglobin levels below the target range. In conclusion, a pharmacist-managed dosing algorithm for DA and iron sucrose increased the attainment of target levels for hemoglobin and iron status, reduced the percentage of high hemoglobin levels, and was associated with a lower DA and a higher iron sucrose dose.

A novel approach to medicines optimisation post-discharge from hospital: pharmacist-led medicines optimisation clinic

Background There is a major drive within healthcare to reduce patient readmissions, from patient care and cost perspectives. Pharmacist-led innovations have been demonstrated to enhance patient outcomes. Objective To assess the impact of a post-discharge, pharmacist-led medicines optimisation clinic on readmission parameters. Assessment of the economic, clinical and humanistic outcomes were considered. Setting Respiratory and cardiology wards in a district general hospital in Northern Ireland. Method Randomised, controlled trial. Blinded random sequence generation; a closed envelope-based system, with block randomisation. Adult patients with acute unplanned admission to medical wards subject to inclusion criteria were invited to attend clinic. Analysis was carried out for intention-to-treat and per-protocol perspectives. Main Outcome Measure 30-day readmission rate. Results Readmission rate reduction at 30 days was 9.6% (P = 0.42) and the reduction in multiple readmissions over 180-days was 29.1% (P = 0.003) for the intention-to-treat group (n = 31) compared to the control group (n = 31). Incidence rate ratio for control patients for emergency department visits was 1.65 (95% CI 1.05-2.57, P = 0.029) compared with the intention-to-treat group. For unplanned GP consultations the equivalent incident rate ratio was 2.00 (95% CI 1.18-3.58, P = 0.02). Benefit to cost ratio in the intention-to-treat and per-protocol groups was 20.72 and 21.85 respectively. Patient Health Related Quality of Life was significantly higher at 30-day (P < 0.001), 90-day (P < 0.001) and 180-day (P = 0.036) time points. A positive impact was also demonstrated in relation to patient beliefs about their medicines and medication adherence. Conclusion A pharmacist-led post-discharge medicines optimisation clinic was beneficial from a patient care and cost perspective.

Factors associated with work impairment and productivity among Lebanese community pharmacists

Background Community pharmacists provide an essential service by promoting, maintaining and improving the health of the community. However, factors affecting community pharmacists' work productivity remain poorly studied. Objective Our study aimed to assess, on a national level, work productivity components and its correlates among Lebanese community pharmacists. Methods: The study was carried out between March and July 2018, using a representative sample of community pharmacies from all districts of Lebanon. Main outcome measure: The work productivity components were assessed using the Work Productivity and Activity Impairment questionnaire. Results The study included 435 community pharmacists, the prevalence of sickness presenteeism and sickness absenteeism reached 91% and 45%, respectively. Presenteeism was positively associated with reporting higher depression score (β = 0.26) and insomnia (β = 0.20) whereas better mental (β = - 0.35) and physical health (β = - 0.38) were negatively associated with presenteeism. Absenteeism was positively associated with male gender (adjusted OR 2.05, 95% CI 1.14-3.70), reporting higher depression score (adjusted OR = 1.07, 95% CI 1.02-1.11) and negatively associated with better mental and physical health (adjusted OR = 0.93, 95% CI 0.90-0.96 and adjusted OR = 0.96, 95% CI 0.93-0.99; respectively). Activity impairment was positively associated with depression (β = 0.16) and insomnia (β = 0.12) and negatively associated with better mental (β = - 0.22) and physical health (β = - 0.015). Conclusion This is the first study assessing work productivity and activity impairment among Lebanese community pharmacists. Further research is needed to predict sickness absenteeism and presenteeism and this information will be useful to ensure quality of care is delivered.

Evaluation of the General Practice Pharmacist (GPP) intervention to optimise prescribing in Irish primary care: a non-randomised pilot study

OBJECTIVE

Limited evidence suggests integration of pharmacists into the general practice team could improve medicines management for patients, particularly those with multimorbidity and polypharmacy. This study aimed to develop and assess the feasibility of an intervention involving pharmacists, working within general practices, to optimise prescribing in Ireland.

DESIGN

Non-randomised pilot study.

SETTING

Primary care in Ireland.

PARTICIPANTS

Four general practices, purposively sampled and recruited to reflect a range of practice sizes and demographic profiles.

INTERVENTION

A pharmacist joined the practice team for 6 months (10 hours/week) and undertook medication reviews (face to face or chart based) for adult patients, provided prescribing advice, supported clinical audits and facilitated practice-based education.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Anonymised practice-level medication (eg, medication changes) and cost data were collected. Patient-reported outcome measure (PROM) data were collected on a subset of older adults (aged ≥65 years) with polypharmacy using patient questionnaires, before and 6 weeks after medication review by the pharmacist.

RESULTS

Across four practices, 786 patients were identified as having 1521 prescribing issues by the pharmacists. Issues relating to deprescribing medications were addressed most often by the prescriber (59.8%), compared with cost-related issues (5.8%). Medication changes made during the study equated to approximately €57 000 in cost savings assuming they persisted for 12 months. Ninety-six patients aged ≥65 years with polypharmacy were recruited from the four practices for PROM data collection and 64 (66.7%) were followed up. There were no changes in patients' treatment burden or attitudes to deprescribing following medication review, and there were conflicting changes in patients' self-reported quality of life.

CONCLUSIONS

This non-randomised pilot study demonstrated that an intervention involving pharmacists, working within general practices is feasible to implement and has potential to improve prescribing quality. This study provides rationale to conduct a randomised controlled trial to evaluate the clinical and cost-effectiveness of this intervention.

Community pharmacy response to infection control during COVID-19. A cross-sectional survey

Pharmacies have been practicing innovative infection control measures during COVID-19. This article seeks to explore the current activities undertaken across various community pharmacy settings in relation to the safety of the workplace environment for staff and patients.

Methods

An online cross-sectional survey was conducted in Australia during the COVID-19 outbreak from 1st to 30^th April 2020, addressing community pharmacist's awareness and response to infection and sanitation control.

Results

A total of 137 pharmacists took part in the survey. Regular cleaning took place in the pharmacy, but the use of gloves while cleaning was not regularly practice (48.18%). In addition, only 46.72% of respondents reported observing script baskets being cleaned and disinfected. About one-third (37.96%) of pharmacists were aware of the two-step cleaning and disinfecting process, with only 18.98% of pharmacist practicing such cleaning procedures. More than half of surveyed pharmacists reported having difficulty keeping up with pharmacy practice and infection control guidelines during the pandemic.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that the majority of pharmacists are not fully aware of the proper infection control measures needed in a community pharmacy setting. Pharmacists must play a bigger role in infection control measures to ensure staff and public health safety.

Provision of community pharmacy services during COVID-19 pandemic: a cross sectional study of community pharmacists' experiences with preventative measures and sources of information

Background An infectious disease caused by a novel coronavirus (later called COVID-19) reached pandemic levels in 2020 and community pharmacists were involved in responding to this pandemic, also in Kosovo. Objectives To explore the experiences of community pharmacists in relation to provision of community pharmacy services during COVID-19 pandemic. Setting Community pharmacists in Kosovo. Methods This was a cross-sectional study where data was collected via a self-administered online questionnaire, from 264 pharmacists actively practicing in Kosovo during the pandemic. The questionnaire consisted of a combination of closed and open-ended questions, optional statements and statements on a five-point Likert scale, derived at least in part from the Transtheoretical Model. One-way analysis of variance was used to analyze differences in responses to Likert-type items whereas categorical variables were analyzed using Chi square testing. Main outcome measures Community pharmacists’ perceptions on COVID-19 related preventative measures. Results A response rate of 40.6% was achieved. Sufficient and adequate COVID-19-related preventative measures were being implemented by a majority of pharmacies (n = 232; 87.9%), and over two-thirds of respondents agreed/strongly agreed that their pharmacies were sufficiently prepared with protective equipment for their personnel. Implementation of preventative measures was associated with respondents’ perception that pharmacists and the pharmacy profession were valued more by patients during the pandemic and to a lesser degree, by other health professionals. Most commonly stated pros dealt with employee and patient safety, while key cons dealt with increased costs and running out of the necessary protective equipment. Key barriers to pharmacy activities were price increases by wholesalers, and patients’ panic and excessive buying, whereas drivers dealt with professional obligation to assist and opportunity to prove inseparable to other health professionals. The most popular means of accessing COVID-19 related information by pharmacists was via mobile devices and information from professional organizations was considered most useful by pharmacists. Conclusions Community pharmacies actively implemented various measures as precautions to mitigate the spread of COVID-19. Our findings highlight the value of continuous provision of information by professional organizations and use of mobile devices as key means to access information by pharmacists.

[Medication adherence and physician-pharmacist collaboration. Focus on the patient with diabetic nephropathy]

Polypharmacy is common in patients with a chronic disease. It is appropriate when both the patient and the physician discuss the goal of each prescribed medication with a motivated patient capable of managing his/her medication. It can however be inappropriate when treatment becomes too complex for the frail patient. The risk is non-adherence to therapy, which often results in an intensification of treatment due to unmet therapeutic goals. Collaboration between physicians and pharmacists is therefore essential for the educational support of patients with polypharmacy. In this article, we review the studies examining the impact of a physician-pharmacist collaboration on the medication adherence of diabetic patients with renal impairment.

On-ward participation of clinical pharmacists in a Chinese intensive care unit for patients with COVID-19: A retrospective, observational study

BACKGROUND

The practical experiences of active pharmacists involved in managing critically ill patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have been rarely reported.

OBJECTIVE

This work aimed to share professional experiences on medication optimization and provide a feasible reference for the pharmaceutical care of critically ill patients with COVID-19.

METHODS

This study was conducted in a COVID-19-designated hospital in China. A group of dedicated clinical pharmacists participated in multidisciplinary rounds to optimize the treatments for critically ill patients with COVID-19. Consensus on medication recommendations was reached by a multidisciplinary team through bi-daily discussion. Related drug, classification, cause, and adjustment content for recommendations were recorded and reviewed.

RESULTS

A total of 111 medication recommendations were supplied for 22 out of 33 (56.7%) critically ill patients from 1 February 2020 to 18 March 2020, and 106 (95.5%) of these were accepted. Among these recommendations, 64 (67.7%), 32 (28.8%), and 15 (13.5%) were related to antibiotics and antifungals, antiviral agents, and other drugs, respectively. Recommendation types significantly differed for different anti-infectives (p < 0.05). For antibiotics and antifungals, treatment effectiveness accounted for 60.9% of recommendation types, with 15 (38.5%) cases related to untreated infections. For antiviral agents, adverse drug events were the most common recommendation types (84.4%), with 20 (74.1%) cases related to liver function dysfunction. Discontinuation of suspected antiviral agents (66.7%) was usually recommended after the occurrence of adverse events that may progress and bring poor outcomes.

CONCLUSION

Forceful and extensive on-ward participation is recommended for clinical pharmacists in managing critically ill patients. Our experiences highlight the need for special attention toward untreated infections and adverse events related to antiviral agents.

[Pharmacogenetics in daily practice]

With the exception of a few medical specialties, the implementation of pharmacogenetic tests in daily practice has thus far been limited. The Royal Dutch Pharmacists Association (KNMP) has developed pharmacogenetics-based therapeutic doserecommendations for 80 medicinal product combinations on the basis of a systematic literature review. Genotyping of patients can take place on a reactive or pre-emptive basis; the advantage of pre-emptive genotyping is that it provides genetic information the moment a medicinal product is prescribed. Clinical decision support software is crucial to implement pharmacogenetics into daily practice.