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Drwiega EN, Danziger LH, Burgos RM, Michienzi SM. Commonly Reported Mosquito-Borne Viruses in the United States: A Primer for Pharmacists. J Pharm Pract 2024; 37:741-752. [PMID: 37018738 DOI: 10.1177/08971900231167929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/07/2023]
Abstract
Mosquito-borne diseases are a public health concern. Pharmacists are often a patient's first stop for health information and may be asked questions regarding transmission, symptoms, and treatment of mosquito borne viruses (MBVs). The objective of this paper is to review transmission, geographic location, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of MBVs. We discuss the following viruses with cases in the US in recent years: Dengue, West Nile, Chikungunya, LaCrosse Encephalitis, Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus, and Zika. Prevention, including vaccines, and the impact of climate change are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily N Drwiega
- College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Larry H Danziger
- College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Rodrigo M Burgos
- College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Sarah M Michienzi
- College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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2
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Dominguez F, Palchevska O, Frolova EI, Frolov I. Alphavirus-based replicons demonstrate different interactions with host cells and can be optimized to increase protein expression. J Virol 2023; 97:e0122523. [PMID: 37877718 PMCID: PMC10688356 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01225-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Alphavirus replicons are being developed as self-amplifying RNAs aimed at improving the efficacy of mRNA vaccines. These replicons are convenient for genetic manipulations and can express heterologous genetic information more efficiently and for a longer time than standard mRNAs. However, replicons mimic many aspects of viral replication in terms of induction of innate immune response, modification of cellular transcription and translation, and expression of nonstructural viral genes. Moreover, all replicons used in this study demonstrated expression of heterologous genes in cell- and replicon's origin-specific modes. Thus, many aspects of the interactions between replicons and the host remain insufficiently investigated, and further studies are needed to understand the biology of the replicons and their applicability for designing a new generation of mRNA vaccines. On the other hand, our data show that replicons are very flexible expression systems, and additional modifications may have strong positive impacts on protein expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Dominguez
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Oksana Palchevska
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Elena I. Frolova
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Ilya Frolov
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
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3
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Armstrong PM, Andreadis TG. Ecology and Epidemiology of Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus in the Northeastern United States: An Historical Perspective. J Med Entomol 2022; 59:1-13. [PMID: 34734628 PMCID: PMC8755988 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjab077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
In the current review, we examine the regional history, ecology, and epidemiology of eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) to investigate the major drivers of disease outbreaks in the northeastern United States. EEEV was first recognized as a public health threat during an outbreak in eastern Massachusetts in 1938, but historical evidence for equine epizootics date back to the 1800s. Since then, sporadic disease outbreaks have reoccurred in the Northeast with increasing frequency and northward expansion of human cases during the last 20 yr. Culiseta melanura (Coquillett) (Diptera: Culicidae) serves as the main enzootic vector that drives EEEV transmission among wild birds, but this mosquito species will occasionally feed on mammals. Several species have been implicated as bridge vectors to horses and humans, with Coquilletstidia perturbans (Walker) as a leading suspect based on its opportunistic feeding behavior, vector competence, and high infection rates during recent disease outbreaks. A diversity of bird species are reservoir competent, exposed to EEEV, and serve as hosts for Cs. melanura, with a few species, including the wood thrush (Hlocichia mustelina) and the American robin (Turdus migratorius), contributing disproportionately to virus transmission based on available evidence. The major factors responsible for the sustained resurgence of EEEV are considered and may be linked to regional landscape and climate changes that support higher mosquito densities and more intense virus transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip M Armstrong
- Center for Vector Biology and Zoonotic Diseases, Department of Environmental Sciences, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, P.O. Box 1106. 123 Huntington Street, New Haven, CT 06504, USA
| | - Theodore G Andreadis
- Center for Vector Biology and Zoonotic Diseases, Department of Environmental Sciences, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, P.O. Box 1106. 123 Huntington Street, New Haven, CT 06504, USA
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Burkett-Cadena ND, Day JF, Unnasch TR. Ecology of Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus in the Southeastern United States: Incriminating Vector and Host Species Responsible for Virus Amplification, Persistence, and Dispersal. J Med Entomol 2022; 59:41-48. [PMID: 34734635 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjab076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV; family Togaviridae, genus Alphavirus) is a mosquito-borne pathogen found in eastern North America that causes severe disease in humans and horses. The mosquito Culiseta melanura (Coquillett) (Diptera: Culicidae) is the primary enzootic vector of EEEV throughout eastern North America while several mosquito species belonging to diverse genera serve as bridge vectors. The ecology of EEEV differs between northern and southern foci, with respect to phenology of outbreaks, important vertebrate hosts, and bridge vector species. Active transmission is limited to roughly half of the year in northern foci (New York, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut), while year-round transmission occurs in the southeastern region (particularly Florida). Multiple phylogenetic analyses indicate that EEEV strains circulating in northern foci are likely transported from southern foci by migrating birds. Bird species that overwinter or migrate through Florida, are bitten by Cs. melanura in late spring, and arrive at northern breeding grounds in May are the most likely candidates to disperse EEEV northward. Available data indicate that common yellowthroat and green heron satisfy these criteria and could serve as virus dispersers. Understanding the factors that drive the phenology of Cs. melanura reproduction in the south and the timing of avian migration from southern foci could provide insight into how confluence of these biological phenomena shapes outbreaks of EEE throughout its range. This information could be used to develop models predicting the likelihood of outbreaks in a given year, allowing vector control districts to more efficiently marshal resources necessary to protect their stakeholders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan D Burkett-Cadena
- Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, University of Florida IFAS, 200 9th Street SE, Vero Beach, FL 32962, USA
| | - Jonathan F Day
- Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, University of Florida IFAS, 200 9th Street SE, Vero Beach, FL 32962, USA
| | - Thomas R Unnasch
- Center for Global Health Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Blvd., Suite 304, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
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Hasan SS, Dey D, Singh S, Martin M. The Structural Biology of Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus, an Emerging Viral Threat. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10080973. [PMID: 34451437 PMCID: PMC8400090 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10080973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Alphaviruses are arboviruses that cause arthritis and encephalitis in humans. Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus (EEEV) is a mosquito-transmitted alphavirus that is implicated in severe encephalitis in humans with high mortality. However, limited insights are available into the fundamental biology of EEEV and residue-level details of its interactions with host proteins. In recent years, outbreaks of EEEV have been reported mainly in the United States, raising concerns about public safety. This review article summarizes recent advances in the structural biology of EEEV based mainly on single-particle cryogenic electron microscopy (cryoEM) structures. Together with functional analyses of EEEV and related alphaviruses, these structural investigations provide clues to how EEEV interacts with host proteins, which may open avenues for the development of therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Saif Hasan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 108 N. Greene Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; (D.D.); (S.S.); (M.M.)
- Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 9600 Gudelsky Drive, Rockville, MD 20850, USA
- University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Cancer Center, University of Maryland Medical Center, 22. S. Greene St., Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
- Correspondence:
| | - Debajit Dey
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 108 N. Greene Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; (D.D.); (S.S.); (M.M.)
| | - Suruchi Singh
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 108 N. Greene Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; (D.D.); (S.S.); (M.M.)
| | - Matthew Martin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 108 N. Greene Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; (D.D.); (S.S.); (M.M.)
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Zhang L, Richard AS, Jackson CB, Ojha A, Choe H. Phosphatidylethanolamine and Phosphatidylserine Synergize To Enhance GAS6/AXL-Mediated Virus Infection and Efferocytosis. J Virol 2020; 95:e02079-20. [PMID: 33115868 DOI: 10.1128/JVI.02079-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphatidylserine (PS) receptors mediate clearance of apoptotic cells-efferocytosis-by recognizing the PS exposed on those cells. They also mediate the entry of enveloped viruses by binding PS in the virion membrane. Here, we show that phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) synergizes with PS to enhance PS receptor-mediated efferocytosis and virus entry. The presence of PE on the same surface as PS dramatically enhances recognition of PS by PS-binding proteins such as GAS6, PROS, and TIM1. Liposomes containing both PE and PS bound to GAS6 and were engulfed by AXL-expressing cells much more efficiently than those containing PS alone. Further, infection of AXL-expressing cells by infectious Zika virus or Ebola, Chikungunya, or eastern equine encephalitis pseudoviruses was inhibited with greater efficiency by the liposomes containing both PS and PE compared to a mixture of liposomes separately composed of PS and PE. These data demonstrate that simultaneous recognition of PE and PS maximizes PS receptor-mediated virus entry and efferocytosis and underscore the important contribution of PE in these major biological processes.IMPORTANCE Phosphatidylserine (PS) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) are usually sequestered to the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane of the healthy eukaryotic cells. During apoptosis, these phospholipids move to the cell's outer leaflet where they are recognized by so-called PS receptors on surveilling phagocytes. Several pathogenic families of enveloped viruses hijack these PS receptors to gain entry into their target cells. Here, we show that efficiency of these processes is enhanced, namely, PE synergizes with PS to promote PS receptor-mediated virus infection and clearance of apoptotic cells. These findings deepen our understanding of how these fundamental biological processes are executed.
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Abstract
Background: Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) is a mosquito-borne virus that is primarily found in North America and the Caribbean. Over the past decade there has been an increase in virus activity, including large outbreaks in human and horse populations. Predicted climate change is expected to affect the range of mosquitoes including vectors of EEEV, which may alter disease risk posing a public health concern. Methods: A scoping review (ScR) was conducted to identify and characterize the global evidence on EEEV. A thorough search was conducted in relevant bibliographic databases and government websites. Two reviewers screened titles and abstracts for relevance and the characteristics of relevant articles were extracted using a uniformly implemented data collection form. The study protocol was developed a priori and described the methods and tools used and this article follows the PRISMA-ScR guidelines for reporting ScRs. Results: The ScR included 718 relevant research articles. The majority of the articles originated from North America (97%) between 1933 and 2019. EEEV has been identified in 35 species of mosquitoes, over 200 species of birds, various domestic animals, wild mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. Articles identified in this ScR primarily covered three topic areas: epidemiology of hosts and vectors (344 articles) including surveillance results (138), pathogenesis of EEEV in hosts (193), and in vitro studies characterizing EEEV (111). Fewer articles evaluated the accuracy of diagnostic tests (63), the efficacy of mitigation strategies (62), transmission dynamics (56), treatment of EEEV in hosts (10), societal knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions (4), and economic burden (2). Conclusion: With the projected impact of climate change on mosquito populations, it is expected that the risk of EEEV could change resulting in higher disease burden or spread into previously unaffected areas. Future research efforts should focus on closing some of the important knowledge gaps identified in this ScR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tricia Corrin
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Canada
| | - Rachel Ackford
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Canada
| | - Mariola Mascarenhas
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Canada
| | - Judy Greig
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Canada
| | - Lisa A Waddell
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Canada
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Abstract
Domestic arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) are single-stranded RNA viruses, the most common of which include the mosquito-borne West Nile virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, La Crosse virus, Jamestown Canyon virus, and eastern equine encephalitis virus, as well as the tick-borne Powassan virus. Previously considered rare infections, they have been detected with increasing frequency over the past 2 decades. Here, we present an overview of the domestic arboviruses listed above and describe the modalities employed to diagnose infection. Global arboviruses, including dengue virus, Zika virus, and chikungunya virus, have also been increasingly detected in the United States within the last 5 years but are not a focus of this minireview. Typical manifestations of arbovirus infection range from no symptoms, to meningitis or encephalitis, to death. Serologies are the standard means of diagnosis in the laboratory, since most viruses have a short period of replication, limiting the utility of molecular tests. The interpretation of serologies is confounded by antibody cross-reactivity with viruses belonging to the same serogroup and by long-lasting antibodies from prior infections. Next-generation assays have improved performance by increasing antigen purity, selecting optimal epitopes, and improving interpretive algorithms, but challenges remain. Due to cross-reactivity, a positive first-line serology test requires confirmation by either a plaque reduction neutralization test or detection of seroconversion or a 4-fold rise in virus-specific IgM or IgG antibody titers from acute- and convalescent-phase sera. The use of molecular diagnostics, such as reverse transcription PCR or unbiased metagenomic sequencing, is limited to the minority of patients who present with ongoing viremia or central nervous system replication. With the continued expansion of vector range, the diagnosis of domestic arboviruses will become an increasingly important task for generalists and specialists alike.
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Raabe V, Lai L, Xu Y, Huerta C, Wang D, Pouch SM, Burke CW, Piper AE, Gardner CL, Glass PJ, Mulligan MJ. The Immune Response to Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus Acquired Through Organ Transplantation. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:561530. [PMID: 33072022 PMCID: PMC7541818 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.561530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The human immune response to eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) infection is poorly characterized due to the rarity of infection. We examined the humoral and cellular immune response to EEEV acquired from an infected donor via liver transplantation. Both binding and highly neutralizing antibodies to EEEV as well as a robust EEEV-specific IgG memory B cell response were generated. Despite triple-drug immunosuppressive therapy, a virus-specific CD4+ T cell response, predominated by interferon-γ production, was generated. T cell epitopes on the E2 envelope protein were identified by interferon-γ ELISpot. Although these results are from a single person who acquired EEEV by a non-traditional mechanism, to our knowledge this work represents the first analysis of the human cellular immune response to EEEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Raabe
- Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Lilin Lai
- Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Yong Xu
- Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Chris Huerta
- Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Dongli Wang
- Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Stephanie M Pouch
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Crystal W Burke
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Ashley E Piper
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Christina L Gardner
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Pamela J Glass
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Mark J Mulligan
- Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
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Pouch SM, Katugaha SB, Shieh WJ, Annambhotla P, Walker WL, Basavaraju SV, Jones J, Huynh T, Reagan-Steiner S, Bhatnagar J, Grimm K, Stramer SL, Gabel J, Lyon GM, Mehta AK, Kandiah P, Neujahr DC, Javidfar J, Subramanian RM, Parekh SM, Shah P, Cooper L, Psotka MA, Radcliffe R, Williams C, Zaki SR, Staples JE, Fischer M, Panella AJ, Lanciotti RS, Laven JJ, Kosoy O, Rabe IB, Gould CV. Transmission of Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus From an Organ Donor to 3 Transplant Recipients. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 69:450-458. [PMID: 30371754 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciy923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In fall 2017, 3 solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients from a common donor developed encephalitis within 1 week of transplantation, prompting suspicion of transplant-transmitted infection. Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) infection was identified during testing of endomyocardial tissue from the heart recipient. METHODS We reviewed medical records of the organ donor and transplant recipients and tested serum, whole blood, cerebrospinal fluid, and tissue from the donor and recipients for evidence of EEEV infection by multiple assays. We investigated blood transfusion as a possible source of organ donor infection by testing remaining components and serum specimens from blood donors. We reviewed data from the pretransplant organ donor evaluation and local EEEV surveillance. RESULTS We found laboratory evidence of recent EEEV infection in all organ recipients and the common donor. Serum collected from the organ donor upon hospital admission tested negative, but subsequent samples obtained prior to organ recovery were positive for EEEV RNA. There was no evidence of EEEV infection among donors of the 8 blood products transfused into the organ donor or in products derived from these donations. Veterinary and mosquito surveillance showed recent EEEV activity in counties nearby the organ donor's county of residence. Neuroinvasive EEEV infection directly contributed to the death of 1 organ recipient and likely contributed to death in another. CONCLUSIONS Our investigation demonstrated EEEV transmission through SOT. Mosquito-borne transmission of EEEV to the organ donor was the likely source of infection. Clinicians should be aware of EEEV as a cause of transplant-associated encephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie M Pouch
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Shalika B Katugaha
- Infectious Diseases Physicians, Inc, Inova Fairfax Hospital Heart and Vascular Institute, Falls Church, Virginia
| | - Wun-Ju Shieh
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Pallavi Annambhotla
- Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - William L Walker
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado.,Epidemic Intelligence Service, Center for Surveillance, Epidemiology and Laboratory Services, CDC, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Sridhar V Basavaraju
- Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jefferson Jones
- Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Thanhthao Huynh
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Sarah Reagan-Steiner
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Julu Bhatnagar
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Kacie Grimm
- American Red Cross, Gaithersburg, Maryland, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Susan L Stramer
- American Red Cross, Gaithersburg, Maryland, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Julie Gabel
- Georgia Department of Public Health, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - G Marshall Lyon
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Aneesh K Mehta
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Prem Kandiah
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - David C Neujahr
- Division of Pulmonary Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jeffrey Javidfar
- Department of Surgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Ram M Subramanian
- Division of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Samir M Parekh
- Division of Digestive Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Palak Shah
- Department of Heart Failure and Transplantation, Inova Fairfax Hospital Heart and Vascular Institute, Falls Church, Virginia
| | - Lauren Cooper
- Department of Heart Failure and Transplantation, Inova Fairfax Hospital Heart and Vascular Institute, Falls Church, Virginia
| | - Mitchell A Psotka
- Department of Heart Failure and Transplantation, Inova Fairfax Hospital Heart and Vascular Institute, Falls Church, Virginia
| | - Rachel Radcliffe
- Division of Acute Disease Epidemiology, South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control, Columbia
| | | | - Sherif R Zaki
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - J Erin Staples
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Marc Fischer
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Amanda J Panella
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | | | - Janeen J Laven
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Olga Kosoy
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Ingrid B Rabe
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Carolyn V Gould
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, NCEZID, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado
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Chen R, Mukhopadhyay S, Merits A, Bolling B, Nasar F, Coffey LL, Powers A, Weaver SC, Ictv Report Consortium. ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Togaviridae. J Gen Virol 2018; 99:761-762. [PMID: 29745869 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The Togaviridae is a family of small, enveloped viruses with single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genomes of 10-12 kb. Within the family, the genus Alphavirus includes a large number of diverse species, while the genus Rubivirus includes the single species Rubella virus. Most alphaviruses are mosquito-borne and are pathogenic in their vertebrate hosts. Many are important human and veterinary pathogens (e.g. chikungunya virus and eastern equine encephalitis virus). Rubella virus is transmitted by respiratory routes among humans. This is a summary of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) Report on the taxonomy of the Togaviridae, which is available at www.ictv.global/report/togaviridae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubing Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | | | - Andres Merits
- Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, Nooruse 1, 50411 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Bethany Bolling
- Arbovirus Laboratory, Texas Department of State Health Services, 1100 West 49th Street, Austin, TX 78714, USA
| | - Farooq Nasar
- Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1425 Porter Street, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Lark L Coffey
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Ann Powers
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA
| | - Scott C Weaver
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
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12
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Abstract
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is a New World alphavirus that is vectored by mosquitos and cycled in rodents. It can cause disease in equines and humans characterized by a febrile illness that may progress into encephalitis. Like the capsid protein of other viruses, VEEV capsid is an abundant structural protein that binds to the viral RNA and interacts with the membrane-bound glycoproteins. It also has protease activity, allowing cleavage of itself from the growing structural polypeptide during translation. However, VEEV capsid protein has additional nonstructural roles within the host cell functioning as the primary virulence factor for VEEV. VEEV capsid inhibits host transcription and blocks nuclear import in mammalian cells, at least partially due to its complexing with the host CRM1 and importin α/β1 nuclear transport proteins. VEEV capsid also shuttles between the nucleus and cytoplasm and is susceptible to inhibitors of nuclear trafficking, making it a promising antiviral target. Herein, the role of VEEV capsid in viral replication and pathogenesis will be discussed including a comparison to proteins of other alphaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay Lundberg
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA.
| | - Brian Carey
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA.
| | - Kylene Kehn-Hall
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA.
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Frolov I, Kim DY, Akhrymuk M, Mobley JA, Frolova EI. Hypervariable Domain of Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus nsP3 Redundantly Utilizes Multiple Cellular Proteins for Replication Complex Assembly. J Virol 2017; 91:e00371-17. [PMID: 28468889 DOI: 10.1128/JVI.00371-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2017] [Accepted: 04/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) is a representative member of the New World alphaviruses. It is pathogenic for a variety of vertebrate hosts, in which EEEV induces a highly debilitating disease, and the outcomes are frequently lethal. Despite a significant public health threat, the molecular mechanism of EEEV replication and interaction with hosts is poorly understood. Our previously published data and those of other teams have demonstrated that hypervariable domains (HVDs) of the alphavirus nsP3 protein interact with virus-specific host factors and play critical roles in assembly of viral replication complexes (vRCs). The most abundantly represented HVD-binding proteins are the FXR and G3BP family members. FXR proteins drive the assembly of vRCs of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), and G3BPs were shown to function in vRC assembly in the replication of chikungunya and Sindbis viruses. Our new study demonstrates that EEEV exhibits a unique level of redundancy in the use of host factors in RNA replication. EEEV efficiently utilizes both the VEEV-specific FXR protein family and the Old World alphavirus-specific G3BP protein family. A lack of interaction with either FXRs or G3BPs does not affect vRC formation; however, removal of EEEV's ability to interact with both protein families has a deleterious effect on virus growth. Other identified EEEV nsP3 HVD-interacting host proteins are also capable of supporting EEEV replication, albeit with a dramatically lower efficiency. The ability to use a wide range of host factors with redundant functions in vRC assembly and function provides a plausible explanation for the efficient replication of EEEV and may contribute to its highly pathogenic phenotype.IMPORTANCE Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) is one of the most pathogenic New World alphaviruses. Despite the continuous public health threat, to date, the molecular mechanisms of its very efficient replication and high virulence are not sufficiently understood. The results of this new study demonstrate that North American EEEV exhibits a high level of redundancy in using host factors in replication complex assembly and virus replication. The hypervariable domain of the EEEV nsP3 protein interacts with all of the members of the FXR and G3BP protein families, and only a lack of interaction with both protein families strongly affects virus replication rates. Other identified HVD-binding factors are also involved in EEEV replication, but their roles are not as critical as those of FXRs and G3BPs. The new data present a plausible explanation for the exceptionally high replication rates of EEEV and suggest a new means of its attenuation and new targets for screening of antiviral drugs.
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Elias SP, Keenan P, Kenney JL, Morris SR, Covino KM, Robinson S, Foss KA, Rand PW, Lubelczyk C, Lacombe EH, Mutebi JP, Evers D, Smith RP. Seasonal Patterns in Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus Antibody in Songbirds in Southern Maine. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2017; 17:325-330. [PMID: 28287934 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2016.2029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The intent of this study was to assess passerine eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEv) seroprevalence during the breeding season in southern Maine by testing songbird species identified in the literature as amplifying hosts of this virus. In 2013 and 2014, we collected serum samples from songbirds at a mainland site and an offshore island migratory stopover site, and screened samples for EEEv antibodies using plaque reduction neutralization tests. We compared seasonal changes in EEEv antibody seroprevalence in young (hatched in year of capture) and adult birds at the mainland site, and also compared early season seroprevalence in mainland versus offshore adult birds. EEEv seroprevalence did not differ significantly between years at either site. During the early season (May), EEEv antibody seroprevalence was substantially lower (9.6%) in the island migrant adults than in mainland adults (42.9%), 2013-2014. On the mainland, EEEv antibody seroprevalence in young birds increased from 12.9% in midseason (June-August) to 45.6% in late season (September/October), 2013-2014. Seroprevalence in adult birds did not differ between seasons (48.8% vs. 53.3%). EEEv activity in Maine has increased in the past decade as measured by increased virus detection in mosquitoes and veterinary cases. High EEEv seroprevalence in young birds-as compared to that of young birds in other studies-corresponded with two consecutive active EEEv years in Maine. We suggest that young, locally hatched songbirds be sampled as a part of long-term EEEv surveillance, and provide a list of suggested species to sample, including EEEv "superspreaders."
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan P Elias
- 1 Vector-Borne Disease Laboratory, Maine Medical Center Research Institute , Scarborough, Maine
| | | | - Joan L Kenney
- 3 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Sara R Morris
- 4 Department of Biology, Canisius College , Buffalo, New York.,5 Shoals Marine Laboratory , Portsmouth, New Hampshire
| | - Kristen M Covino
- 4 Department of Biology, Canisius College , Buffalo, New York.,5 Shoals Marine Laboratory , Portsmouth, New Hampshire.,6 Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi , Hattiesburg, Mississippi
| | - Sara Robinson
- 7 Maine Center for Disease Control and Prevention , Augusta, Maine
| | | | - Peter W Rand
- 1 Vector-Borne Disease Laboratory, Maine Medical Center Research Institute , Scarborough, Maine
| | - Charles Lubelczyk
- 1 Vector-Borne Disease Laboratory, Maine Medical Center Research Institute , Scarborough, Maine
| | - Eleanor H Lacombe
- 1 Vector-Borne Disease Laboratory, Maine Medical Center Research Institute , Scarborough, Maine
| | - John-Paul Mutebi
- 3 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - David Evers
- 2 Biodiversity Research Institute , Portland, Maine
| | - Robert P Smith
- 1 Vector-Borne Disease Laboratory, Maine Medical Center Research Institute , Scarborough, Maine
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15
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Garlick J, Lee TJ, Shepherd P, Linam WM, Pastula DM, Weinstein S, Schexnayder SM. Locally Acquired Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus Disease, Arkansas, USA. Emerg Infect Dis 2016; 22:2216-2217. [PMID: 27662563 PMCID: PMC5189158 DOI: 10.3201/eid2212.160844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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16
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Silva MLCR, Auguste AJ, Terzian ACB, Vedovello D, Riet-Correa F, Macário VMK, Mourão MPG, Ullmann LS, Araújo JP, Weaver SC, Nogueira ML. Isolation and Characterization of Madariaga Virus from a Horse in Paraíba State, Brazil. Transbound Emerg Dis 2015; 64:990-993. [PMID: 26608567 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Madariaga virus (MADV), the new species designation for the South American isolates of eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), is genetically divergent and substantially different in ecology and pathogenesis from North American EEEV strains. We isolated and characterized a MADV isolate obtained from a horse in Brazil. Our results support previous phylogenetic studies showing there are three genetically distinct MADV lineages. The MADV isolate from Paraíba State belongs to the South American lineage III and is closely related to Peruvian, Colombian and Venezuelan isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- M L C R Silva
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Doutor Heitor Vieira Dourado, Bolsista DCR/FAPEAM, Manaus, Brazil
| | - A J Auguste
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA.,Departments of Pathology, and Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - A C B Terzian
- Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto, São José do Rio Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - D Vedovello
- Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto, São José do Rio Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - F Riet-Correa
- Centro de Saúde e Tecnologia Rural, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande, Patos, Brazil
| | - V M K Macário
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Doutor Heitor Vieira Dourado, Bolsista DCR/FAPEAM, Manaus, Brazil
| | - M P G Mourão
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Doutor Heitor Vieira Dourado, Bolsista DCR/FAPEAM, Manaus, Brazil
| | - L S Ullmann
- Universidade Estadual Paulista, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - J P Araújo
- Universidade Estadual Paulista, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - S C Weaver
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA.,Departments of Pathology, and Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - M L Nogueira
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Doutor Heitor Vieira Dourado, Bolsista DCR/FAPEAM, Manaus, Brazil.,Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto, São José do Rio Preto, SP, Brazil
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17
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Molaei G, Armstrong PM, Graham AC, Kramer LD, Andreadis TG. Insights into the recent emergence and expansion of eastern equine encephalitis virus in a new focus in the Northern New England USA. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:516. [PMID: 26453283 PMCID: PMC4600208 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-1145-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 10/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus (EEEV) causes a highly pathogenic zoonosis that circulates in an enzootic cycle involving the ornithophagic mosquito, Culiseta melanura, and wild passerine birds in freshwater hardwood swamps in the northeastern U.S. Epidemic/epizootic transmission to humans/equines typically occurs towards the end of the transmission season and is generally assumed to be mediated by locally abundant and contiguous mammalophagic "bridge vector" mosquitoes. METHODS Engorged mosquitoes were collected using CDC light, resting box, and gravid traps during epidemic transmission of EEEV in 2012 in Addison and Rutland counties, Vermont. Mosquitoes were identified to species and blood meal analysis performed by sequencing mitochondrial cytochrome b gene polymerase chain reaction products. Infection status with EEEV in mosquitoes was determined using cell culture and RT-PCR assays, and all viral isolates were sequenced and compared to other EEEV strains by phylogenetic analysis. RESULTS The host choices of 574 engorged mosquitoes were as follows: Cs. melanura (n = 331, 94.3 % avian-derived, 5.7 % mammalian-derived); Anopheles quadrimaculatus (n = 164, 3.0 % avian, 97.0 % mammalian); An. punctipennis (n = 56, 7.2 % avian, 92.8 % mammalian), Aedes vexans (n = 9, 22.2 % avian, 77.8 % mammalian); Culex pipiens s.l. n = 6, 100 % avian); Coquillettidia perturbans (n = 4, 25.0 % avian, 75.0 % mammalian); and Cs. morsitans (n = 4, 100 % avian). A seasonal shift in blood feeding by Cs. melanura from Green Heron towards other avian species was observed. EEEV was successfully isolated from blood-fed Cs. melanura and analyzed by phylogenetic analysis. Vermont strains from 2012 clustered with viral strains previously isolated in Virginia yet were genetically distinct from an earlier EEEV isolate from Vermont during 2011. CONCLUSIONS Culiseta melanura acquired blood meals primarily from birds and focused feeding activity on several competent species capable of supporting EEEV transmission. Culiseta melanura also occasionally obtained blood meals from mammalian hosts including humans. This mosquito species serves as the primary vector of EEEV among wild bird species, but also is capable of occasionally contributing to epidemic/epizootic transmission of EEEV to humans/equines. Other mosquito species including Cq. perturbans that feed more opportunistically on both avian and mammalian hosts may be important in epidemic/epizootic transmission under certain conditions. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that EEEV was independently introduced into Vermont on at least two separate occasions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Goudarz Molaei
- Center for Vector Biology & Zoonotic Diseases, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 123 Huntington Street, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA.
| | - Philip M Armstrong
- Center for Vector Biology & Zoonotic Diseases, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 123 Huntington Street, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA.
| | - Alan C Graham
- Vermont Agency of Agriculture, 322 Industrial Lane, Barre, VT, 05641, USA.
| | - Laura D Kramer
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, 5668 State Farm Rd, Slingerlands, NY, 12159, USA.
| | - Theodore G Andreadis
- Center for Vector Biology & Zoonotic Diseases, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 123 Huntington Street, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA.
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Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) has become established across the Americas with recent heightened activity causing significant human illness. Surveillance methods to predict the risk of human infection are urgently needed to initiate timely preventative measures and justify the expense of implementing costly or unpopular control measures, such as aerial spraying or curfews. We quantified the links between mosquito surveillance data and the spatiotemporal patterns of 3,827 human WNV cases reported over 5 years in Colorado from 2003 to 2007. Mosquito data were strongly predictive of variation in the number of human WNV infections several weeks in advance in both a spatiotemporal statewide analysis and temporal variation within counties with substantial numbers of human cases. We outline several ways to further improve the predictive power of these data and we quantify the loss of information if no funds are available for testing mosquitoes for WNV. These results demonstrate that mosquito surveillance provides a valuable public health tool for assessing the risk of human arboviral infections, allocating limited public health resources, and justifying emergency control actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Marm Kilpatrick
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 1156 High Street, University of California-Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.
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VANDER KELEN PATRICKT, DOWNS JONIA, BURKETT-CADENA NATHAND, OTTENDORFER CHRISTYL, HILL KEVIN, SICKERMAN STEPHEN, HERNANDEZ JOSÉ, JINRIGHT JOSEPH, HUNT BRENDA, LUSK JOHN, HOOVER VICTOR, ARMSTRONG KEITH, UNNASCH ROBERTS, STARK LILLIANM, UNNASCH THOMASR. Habitat associations of eastern equine encephalitis transmission in Walton County Florida. J Med Entomol 2012; 49:746-56. [PMID: 22679885 PMCID: PMC3552394 DOI: 10.1603/me11224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Eastern Equine Encephalitis virus (EEEV; family Togaviridae, genus Alphavirus) a highly pathogenic mosquito-borne virus is endemic to eastern North America. The ecology of EEEV in Florida differs from that in other parts of the United States; EEEV in the northeastern United States is historically associated with freshwater wetlands. No formal test of habitat associations of EEEV in Florida has been reported. Geographical Information Sciences (GIS) was used in conjunction with sentinel chicken EEEV seroconversion rate data as a means to examine landscape features associated with EEEV transmission in Walton County, FL. Sentinel sites were categorized as enzootic, periodically enzootic, and negative based on the number of chicken seroconversions to EEEV from 2005 to 2009. EEEV transmission was then categorized by land cover usage using Arc GIS 9.3. The land classification data were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis test for each land use class to determine which habitats may be associated with virus transmission as measured by sentinel chicken seroconversion rates. The habitat class found to be most significantly associated with EEEV transmission was tree plantations. The ecological factor most commonly associated with reduced levels of EEEV transmission was vegetated nonforest wetlands. Culiseta melanura (Coquillett), the species generally considered to be the major enzootic EEEV vector, was relatively evenly distributed across all habitat classes, while Aedes vexans (Meigen) and Anopheles crucians Weidemann were most commonly associated with tree plantation habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- PATRICK T. VANDER KELEN
- Global Health Infectious Disease Research Program, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Blvd., Tampa, FL 33612
| | - JONI A. DOWNS
- Department of Geography, Environment, and Planning, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave., Tampa, FL 33620
| | - NATHAN D. BURKETT-CADENA
- Global Health Infectious Disease Research Program, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Blvd., Tampa, FL 33612
| | - CHRISTY L. OTTENDORFER
- Global Health Infectious Disease Research Program, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Blvd., Tampa, FL 33612
| | - KEVIN HILL
- Global Health Infectious Disease Research Program, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Blvd., Tampa, FL 33612
| | - STEPHEN SICKERMAN
- South Walton County Mosquito Control District, 774 North County Highway 393, Santa Rosa Beach, FL 32459
| | - JOSÉ HERNANDEZ
- South Walton County Mosquito Control District, 774 North County Highway 393, Santa Rosa Beach, FL 32459
| | - JOSEPH JINRIGHT
- South Walton County Mosquito Control District, 774 North County Highway 393, Santa Rosa Beach, FL 32459
| | - BRENDA HUNT
- North Walton Mosquito Control District, 129 Montgomery Circle, DeFuniak Springs, FL 32435
| | - JOHN LUSK
- North Walton Mosquito Control District, 129 Montgomery Circle, DeFuniak Springs, FL 32435
| | - VICTOR HOOVER
- North Walton Mosquito Control District, 129 Montgomery Circle, DeFuniak Springs, FL 32435
| | - KEITH ARMSTRONG
- North Walton Mosquito Control District, 129 Montgomery Circle, DeFuniak Springs, FL 32435
| | | | - LILLIAN M. STARK
- Florida Department of Health, Bureau of Laboratories-Tampa, 3602 Spectrum Blvd., Tampa, FL 33612
| | - THOMAS R. UNNASCH
- Global Health Infectious Disease Research Program, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Blvd., Tampa, FL 33612
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20
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Abstract
Bioterrorism is the deliberate release of biological toxins, pathogenic viruses, bacteria, parasites, or other infectious agents into the public sphere with the objective of causing panic, illness, and/or death on a local, regional, or possibly national scale. The list of potential biological agents compiled by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is long and diverse. However, a trait common to virtually all the potential bioterrorism agents is the fact that they are likely to be disseminated by either aerosol or in food/water supplies with the intention of targeting the mucosal surfaces of the respiratory or gastrointestinal tracts, respectively. In some instances, inhalation or ingestion would mimic the natural route by which humans are exposed to these agents. In other instances, (e.g., the inhalation of a toxin is normally associated with food borne illness), it would represent an unnatural route of exposure. For most potential bioterrorism agents, the respiratory or gastrointestinal mucosa may simply serve as a route of entry by which they gain access to the systemic compartment where intoxication/replication occurs. For others, however, the respiratory or gastrointestinal mucosa is the primary tissue associated with pathogenesis, and therefore, the tissue for which countermeasures must be developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela A. Kozlowski
- , Louisiana Gene Therapy Research Consorti, LSU Health Sciences Center, Poydras Street 1615, New Orleans, 70112 Louisiana USA
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Hull R, Nattanmai S, Kramer LD, Bernard KA, Tavakoli NP. A duplex real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction assay for the detection of St. Louis encephalitis and eastern equine encephalitis viruses. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2008; 62:272-9. [PMID: 18715737 PMCID: PMC2615585 DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2008.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2008] [Revised: 07/09/2008] [Accepted: 07/09/2008] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
A duplex TaqMan real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay was developed for the detection of St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) and eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), for use in human and vector surveillance. The respective targets selected for the assay were the conserved NS5 and E1 genes of the 2 viruses. Because of the insufficient number of NS5 sequences from SLEV strains in the GenBank database, we determined the sequence of an approximately 1-kb region for each of 25 strains of SLEV to select primers and probes in a conserved region. Our assay has a sensitivity of 5 gene copies (gc)/reaction for EEEV and 10 gc/reaction for SLEV, and its performance is linear for at least 6 log(10) gc. The assay is specific and detected all strains of SLEV (69) and EEEV (12) that were tested. An internal control ensures detection of efficient nucleic acid extraction and possible PCR inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rene Hull
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY 12208, USA
| | - Seela Nattanmai
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY 12208, USA
| | - Laura D. Kramer
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY 12208, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Public Health, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, USA
| | - Kristen A. Bernard
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY 12208, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Public Health, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, USA
| | - Norma P. Tavakoli
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY 12208, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Public Health, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, USA
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