Admission variables predictive of academic struggle in a PharmD program

Impact of Prematriculation Course Withdrawals on First Year Pharmacy School Success

OBJECTIVE

Determine the impact of prematriculation course withdrawals on first year pharmacy school (P1) success, defined as on-time progression to the second (P2) year without remediation.

METHODS

A retrospective review of students matriculating to a four-year private institution from 2018 to 2021 was conducted. Potential predictors of P1 year success including age, sex, highest degree achieved, prematriculation grade point average (GPA), and course withdrawals were collected.

RESULTS

Bivariate analysis indicates that age, cumulative GPA, science GPA, and prematriculation course withdrawals were significantly different between students who were successful vs unsuccessful in the first year of pharmacy school. Out of 220 students analyzed, 40.9% (n = 90) were unsuccessful in the first year. Of those 90 P1 students, 52% did not progress to the P2 year, and 48% progressed but required course remediation. Multivariate analysis demonstrated that independent predictors of P1 success included cumulative GPA and having less than two prematriculation course withdrawals. In addition, the number of prematriculation course withdrawals, cumulative GPA, and having a bachelor's degree or higher were independent predictors of P1 GPA.

CONCLUSION

Prematriculation course withdrawal was an independent predictor of both P1 success and P1 GPA. Students with less than two prematriculation course withdrawals were more likely to be successful during the first year of pharmacy school. College of pharmacy admission committees may consider prematriculation course withdrawal frequency when making admission decisions or to identify students that may need additional academic support during the first year of pharmacy school.

Design and Evaluation of an APPE Readiness Dashboard Tool

OBJECTIVE

To describe the design and evaluation of a dashboard tool to assess the readiness for advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs).

METHODS

The investigators developed a dashboard tool for the appraisal of APPE readiness consisting of indicators of pharmacy student knowledge, skills, and noncognitive attributes. For the 2018-2019 and 2019-2020 rotation years, a panel of stakeholders used the dashboard to evaluate APPE readiness. Students deemed not ready (5 or more dashboard indicators) had a remediation experience before the APPEs. The investigators monitored the students who were deemed ready but at risk for substandard performance (3 or 4 indicators or completion of remediation experience) and tracked the incidence of substandard performance for all APPE students. The outcomes were presented using descriptive statistics. Performance of the tool between years was compared using the χ2 test.

RESULTS

For 2 APPE rotation cycles, the investigators evaluated readiness in 499 students. A total of 3 students were deemed not ready, and 78 students were considered at risk for substandard performance. The tool predicted 52.1% of students who experienced a substandard performance. It had a negative predictive value of 93.6% and a positive predictive value of 38.5% for substandard performance. The predictive value was similar across the risk categories of knowledge, skills, and noncognitive attributes.

CONCLUSION

A dashboard tool facilitating holistic evaluation of APPE readiness was helpful in identifying students who were not ready for APPEs or at risk for substandard performance. The next steps include refinement of the tool through the evaluation of characteristics of students who experienced substandard performance and were not identified by the tool.

A Monitoring and Early Intervention Program for At-Risk Students on Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences

Objective. To describe a monitoring and early intervention process for students at risk of substandard performance on advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs).Methods. Using a dashboard of key indicators, students with potential deficits in knowledge, skills, or noncognitive attributes were identified as at risk of substandard performance on APPEs and placed on a list of students to be monitored during the APPE year. Employing a traffic light-based approach, at-risk students were initially designated with a monitoring status of red. If no issues were identified, students were de-escalated to yellow status and, subsequently, to green status. Monitored students who had issues or received a substandard evaluation on APPEs had a deficit-specific action plan implemented.Results. For the 2018-2019 and 2019-2020 academic years, 87 of 499 students entering APPEs were monitored. Of those 87 students, 77 (88.5%) completed experiences successfully on the first attempt, but 66 (75.9%) did require extended higher-level (red or yellow) monitoring. Over these two years, 54 (62.1%) of the 87 students deemed at risk did not have a substandard performance on APPEs, with 26 in the 2018-2019 year and 28 in the 2019-2020 year.Conclusion. A student monitoring and early intervention process may be beneficial in assisting at-risk students to successfully complete APPEs.

Motivation, satisfaction, and future career intentions of pharmacy students: A cross-sectional preliminary analysis

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the pharmacy profession has undergone many changes that impacted pharmacy educational programs and students' needs and experiences. In Lebanon, no previous studies have addressed students' perspectives of pharmacy studies and their future aspirations.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was randomly sent to all pharmacy students at the main campus of the Lebanese International University. Questions included demographics, students' reasons for choosing pharmacy, satisfaction regarding choice of pharmacy, and future career plans.

RESULTS

Pharmacy as a study major was the first choice for 61% of respondents, and reasons for this choice were family recommendations (87%), friends' encouragement (26%), and schoolteachers' endorsements (20%). Looking for a job with various career opportunities, flexible working hours, security, good salary, and wishing to provide public service and improve health were the main incentives to join the pharmacy program. Concerning their satisfaction, 88% were proud of studying pharmacy and 66% would choose to study pharmacy if they were to select their program of study again. As for career intentions, 68% were considering community pharmacy, 66% hospital pharmacy, and 60% academic pharmacy.

CONCLUSIONS

While the attitudes, perceptions, and career intentions of the respondents were variable, the majority were aspired by family or societal factors to study pharmacy, were satisfied by their choice, and intended to work in the community pharmacy sector. Pharmacy curricula should be regularly assessed to meet students' expectations and society's needs.

Predicting the Success of International Pharmacists in a Distance-Based US Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) Program: Results from a 5-Year Cohort

Background: To establish the predictors of success in an international-trained PharmD (ITPD) program between admission criteria and academic performance. Methods: The primary outcome of this study was the correlation of admission criteria with didactic and experiential grade point averages (GPA) for the first 5 years. Candidates meeting the minimum criteria completed a competency exam or the US-Foreign Pharmacy Graduate Equivalency Exam (US-FPGEE). Tests of English language proficiency (TOEFL(R) and ACTFL’s Oral Proficiency Interview) plus interview with faculty, students, and alumni were also required. Scores were correlated with both didactic and experiential GPAs. Results: The 23 students admitted to the ITPD program had a cumulative GPA of 3.72. There was a significant correlation between total admissions score and the median pharmacy and healthcare course category GPA (ρ 0.53), but not other categories. The composite TOEFL did not predict any performance but TOEFL writing and speaking did correlate with advanced pharmacy practice experience (APPE) performance. The OPI scores were associated with higher GPAs overall, in advanced integrated clinical sciences, and APPEs. The admission interview scores consistently and significantly correlated with preceptor-rated APPE GPA, practitioner skills, and professionalism (ρ > 0.5; p < 0.05). Performance in early courses significantly predicted the performance in advanced courses and experiential performance (ρ 0.48−0.61). Conclusion: The correlations between early and late course performance demonstrated the cohesiveness of this program. Further study is needed between the predictors of success using non-cognitive admission criteria.

Developing a Framework of Relationships Among Noncognitive Factors in Doctor of Pharmacy Students' Academic Performance

Objective. To develop a framework of the effects of select noncognitive factors (grit, perceived stress, internal locus of control, and select Big Five personality traits) on pharmacy students' academic performance.Methods. A survey measuring select noncognitive factors was administered to two cohorts of first professional year (P1) pharmacy students (entering classes of 2019 and 2020, n=374) during fall orientation. Demographics, pre-pharmacy GPA, and P1 fall semester GPA were collected from student records. Structural equation modeling was conducted to assess the proposed framework.Results. Academic performance was directly influenced by students' (n=367; 98.1%) perceived stress and neuroticism and indirectly influenced by internal locus of control and neuroticism (via perceived stress as mediator). Neuroticism has a complex relationship in the models as it was directly and positively associated with academic performance, and indirectly contributed to decreased academic performance via a positive association with perceived stress. Squared multiple correlations indicated 13% and 9% of the variance in academic performance in the first final model (academic performance measured by pre-pharmacy GPA and P1 fall GPA) and second final model (academic performance measured by P1 fall GPA), respectively, were explained by the predictor variables.Conclusion. Evidence provided by structural equation modeling supports the conclusion that select noncognitive factors, namely perceived stress, neuroticism, and internal locus of control, have direct and indirect effects on the academic success of P1 students. The model variances of 9% and 13% represent 36% to 52% of the predictive value of the most accepted cognitive measures used to determine students' potential for academic success.

Resilience and First-Year Pharmacy Students' Academic Performance in a Pharmacy Math Course

Objective. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between academic resilience and academic success in Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) students.Methods. A cross-sectional survey using the Academic Pharmacy Resilience Scale (APRS-16) was conducted in two cohorts of first year pharmacy (P1) students (n = 374) during fall orientation in 2019 and 2020. The following data were also collected from student records: demographics, pre-pharmacy grade point average (GPA), Pharmacy Math outcome (passing or failing the course), and Pharmacy Math final numerical grade. Academic success was defined as achieving a passing grade in a Pharmacy Math course. Correlational, multiple logistic regression, and multiple linear regression analysis were conducted.Results. The survey response rate was 98.1%, and approximately 95% of participants passed Pharmacy Math. No significant correlations were found between Pharmacy Math final pass/fail outcome or Pharmacy Math final numerical grade and APRS-16 overall and subscale scores. In multiple logistic regression, neither pre-pharmacy GPA nor APRS overall scale or subscale scores were significantly associated with final Pharmacy Math outcome (passing/failing). In multiple linear regression, pre-pharmacy GPA was significantly associated with Pharmacy Math final numerical grade, but APRS-16 overall score and subscale scores were not.Conclusion. First-year pharmacy students' performance in Pharmacy Math was not influenced by academic resilience. Studies like this one examining the relationship between pharmacy students' resilience and academic performance are lacking. Future studies should assess whether academic resilience may affect performance in other courses as well as performance in the PharmD curriculum.

A Pre-matriculation Success Program to Improve Pharmacy Students' Academic Performance at a Historically Black University

Objective. The Pharmacy Biomedical Preview program is a five-week summer academic reinforcement program held for students entering the Howard University College of Pharmacy. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of the program and preadmission factors on pharmacy students' first semester academic performance.Methods. A retrospective cohort study was conducted of students entering the preview program from 2012 to 2015. The primary outcome assessed was first semester grade point average (GPA). Descriptive statistics of all study variables were conducted. Bivariable analyses were used to compare students by program status. Pearson correlations and point biserial R were conducted to evaluate which factors were associated with the first semester GPA. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to evaluate whether participation in the preview program predicted GPA during the first semester in pharmacy school after adjusting for other factors. All analyses were conducted using SPSS, version 23, at an alpha of .05.Results. Incoming overall undergraduate GPA was the strongest predictor of students' first semester GPA in pharmacy school, followed by participation in the Pharmacy Biomedical Preview Program. After adjusting for other factors, mandatory participation in the program was associated with a higher first semester GPA, and voluntary participation in the program was also associated with a first semester GPA that was higher.Conclusion. Findings from this study indicated that implementation of a pre-matriculation success program at a college of pharmacy in a historically Black institution is a viable strategy to improve students' academic success in the first year.

Examination of the Relationship between Health-related Quality of Life and Academic Performance Among Student Pharmacists

INTRODUCTION

First-year student pharmacists (P1s) may experience a number of stressors that may affect academic performance due to the transition into a professional program. Study objectives were to evaluate student demographic and pre-pharmacy factors associated with perceived stress among P1s, analyze relative change in perceived stress over the P1 year, and assess associations between perceived stress and academic performance.

METHODS

The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) was administered three times to P1s: during orientation, midpoint of fall semester, and midpoint of spring semester. Data were also collected using school records, including demographics, P1 fall grade point average (GPA), P1 spring GPA, and P1 year GPA. Paired-sample t-tests, independent samples t-tests, Analysis of Variance, correlational analysis, and multiple linear regression were conducted.

RESULTS

Of 202 P1s, 201 (99.5%) completed the orientation survey administration and 110 (54.5%) completed all three administrations. PSS-10 score significantly increased across survey administrations. Differences in PSS-10 scores at orientation were noted based on gender and race/ethnicity (P < .05), with female and minority students experiencing greater levels of stress. PSS-10 score (spring administration) was significantly, inversely correlated to P1 fall GPA, spring GPA, and year GPA (P < .05). Undergraduate science GPA, PSS-10 score (orientation administration), and age were included in the final version of the regression model as significant predictors of P1 year GPA.

CONCLUSIONS

Perceived stress increased over the P1 year, and higher perceived stress was associated with lower P1 academic performance. Future studies should examine strategies to assist P1s in managing stress.

Predictors of Student Failure or Poor Performance on Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences

Objective. To determine factors predictive of student failure or poor performance on advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs) at a single pharmacy program. Methods. This retrospective cohort evaluated students entering the Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) program from 2012-2014 at St. Louis College of Pharmacy. Students who received a grade of F for one or more APPEs (failure group) were compared to all other students (non-failure group). A secondary evaluation compared students with a C or F on one or more APPEs (poor performers) to all other students (non-poor performers). Data were collected on didactic and experiential performance, identifiable professionalism issues from introductory pharmacy practice experiences (IPPEs), and academic honor code violations. Univariable and multivariable logistic regressions were performed to determine factors associated with APPE failure and poor performance. Results. A total of 669 students were analyzed. Twenty-eight students (4.2%) failed one or more APPEs and 81 students (12.1%) were identified as poor performers (grade of C or F). For the primary outcome, professional grade point average (GPA) of less than 2.7, practicum failure, IPPE professionalism issue(s), and pharmacotherapy course failure were identified for inclusion in the multivariable analysis. The IPPE professionalism issue(s) (HR 4.8 [95% CI 1.9-12.4]) and pharmacotherapy course failure (HR 4.2 [95% CI, 1.6-11.1]) were associated with APPE failure on multivariable regression. On the secondary analysis, the same variables were identified for multivariable regression, with professional GPA of less than 2.7 (HR 2.7 [95% CI 1.5-5]), IPPE professionalism issue(s) (HR 3.9 [95% CI 2.2-6.9]), and pharmacotherapy course failure (HR 2.0 [95% CI 1.1-3.7]) associated with poor performance. Conclusion. Poor academic performance and/or identified unprofessional behavior while completing IPPEs are associated with APPE failure and poor performance. Interventions should be aimed at identifying at-risk students and addressing risk factors prior to APPEs.

Admissions criteria as predictors of first-term success at a chiropractic institution

OBJECTIVE

To determine the relationship between admissions criteria and grade point average (GPA) at the conclusion of the first-term of study at a chiropractic institution.

METHODS

Secondary data analysis was used on the Fall 2017 entering cohort of doctor of chiropractic students. Independent samples t-tests and ordinary least squares linear regression were used to explain the extent to which incoming undergraduate GPA, undergraduate chemistry grade, undergraduate anatomy and physiology grade, and age, respectfully, influenced the end-of-trimester GPA.

RESULTS

Linear regression found each of the four independent variables (undergraduate GPA, undergraduate chemistry grade, undergraduate anatomy and physiology grade, and age) to be significant influencers of end-of-trimester-1 GPA with undergraduate GPA being the most statistically significant predictor (p < .001).The difference in mean end-of-trimester GPAs for male and female students was not statistically significant. There also was no difference in mean end-of-trimester GPAs by race/ethnicity.

CONCLUSION

Current admissions requirements may need to emphasize incoming undergraduate GPA and target student support for older students. This study should be repeated for increased sample size, be performed at other chiropractic institutions, and consider additional cohorts to strengthen results.

Development and evaluation of additional college of pharmacy admittance variables: Life experiences and holistic composite scores

INTRODUCTION

This study aimed to develop and evaluate new variables for assessment of doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) program candidates.

METHODS

Two new admissions variables were created. The life experiences variable included number of awards, letter of reference scores, degree attainment, publications, prior academic suspension, leadership experience, work experience, and a diversity score. The holistic composite variable consisted of Pharmacy College Admission Test score, pre-pharmacy grade point average (GPA), interview score, and the new life experiences score. Variables were retroactively applied to prior admissions data, and scores of successful applicants were compared to scores of unsuccessful applicants.

RESULTS

A total of 968 applicants from the 2015 and 2016 applicant pools were included in the evaluation analysis. Applicants offered admission had higher average scores for life experiences and holistic composite variables compared to those that were not offered admission (63.6 vs. 59.95 and 77.3 vs. 64, respectively). The life experiences and holistic composite scores were positively correlated with an offer of admission (0.142 and 0.547, respectively) and post-admission GPA (0.211 and 0.433, respectively) and negatively correlated with applicants accepting the offer of admission (-0.158 and - 0.25, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The holistic composite score was strongly predictive of an offer for admission and post-admission academic success, indicating that it may be a useful tool in assessing applicants. As new data becomes available, revisions could be considered to the life experiences score to better predict offer of an interview, offer of admission, and post-admission academic success.

Factors Associated with Student Pharmacists' Academic Progression and Performance on the National Licensure Examination

Objective. To examine predictors of Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) students' on-time graduation, dismissal from pharmacy school, and scores on their first attempt at taking the North American Pharmacist Licensure Examination (NAPLEX). Methods. A retrospective review of student records for the graduating classes of 2015-2018 at a college of pharmacy was performed. Data on the following were collected: student demographics/characteristics (age, gender, race/ethnicity, financial need), having an undergraduate degree, undergraduate science grade point average (GPA), Pharmacy College Admission Test composite score percentile, pharmacy school GPAs for the didactic portion of the curriculum, Pre-NAPLEX score, on-time graduation from pharmacy school, dismissal from pharmacy school, and outcome (pass/fail) of first-attempt at taking the NAPLEX. Binary logistic regression analysis was conducted. Results. Of the 657 students whose records were included in the study, the majority were female (60%) and non-Hispanic white (70%). Higher first-year GPA was associated with increased likelihood of on-time graduation, while increased age and having an undergraduate degree were associated with a decreased likelihood of on-time graduation. A higher first-year GPA was associated with decreased likelihood of being dismissed from pharmacy school. Appearing before the Academic Standing and Promotion Review Committee for unsatisfactory academic performance was associated with decreased likelihood of passing the NAPLEX. Conclusion. First-year pharmacy school GPA is a critical predictor for student pharmacists in terms of on-time graduation and dismissal, and may have consequences for later NAPLEX outcome. Pharmacy schools should closely monitor students' performance during the first year and provide support to students experiencing academic difficulties.

Time Spent at Work and Its Impact on the Academic Performance of Pharmacy Students

The objective of this study was to determine the impact of time spent at work (workload) on the academic performance of pharmacy students. A cross-sectional 12-item survey was administered to pharmacy students at the end of the spring 2011 semester to primarily assess the type of employment and their weekly workload during the 2010–2011 academic year. Academic performance was determined by semester and cumulative grade point average (GPA). Descriptive statistics were performed. Stratified multiple linear regression models were obtained to assess the association between students’ workload and GPA. Analysis of covariance was used to compare academic performance by workload after accounting for work type and potential covariates. Statistical significance was defined a priori as p < 0.05. For both fall and spring semesters, nonpharmacy-related work was significant and positively associated with GPA. Both semester GPAs were fairly similar among three student classifications (P1–P3). However, GPAs across both semesters varied by classification. The negative association of workload on GPA was significant in the fall but not in the spring semester. Although workload matters, future studies using a mixed-method approach might help explain the role of workload on the academic performance of pharmacy during the first three years of their professional training.

Predicting success in pharmaceutical calculations

INTRODUCTION

Understanding preadmission predictors of success in pharmacy calculations, an important aspect of pharmacy practice, could impact admissions selection and advising practices. The objective of this study was to determine which student specific preadmission variables best predict success in a pharmaceutical calculations course.

METHODS

Preadmission data from 388 students who completed a one semester pharmaceutical calculations course between 2013 and 2016 were evaluated. This retrospective analysis was performed to determine which of the independent preadmission variables were positively correlated to the pharmaceutical calculations course grade. Fifteen preadmission variables, including demographics, grade point average (GPA), Pharmacy College Admission Test (PCAT) score, prior degrees, and number of pre-professional credit hours completed, were evaluated. Descriptive statistics were used for baseline characteristics and relative importance analysis was used to examine association between the dependent and independent variables.

RESULTS

The relative importance analysis revealed eight of the fifteen preadmission variables were significantly correlated with final grades in pharmaceutical calculations. Overall, 26.1% of the variance was explained by these variables. GPA (cumulative and science specific) and PCAT (quantitative and verbal) were the strongest indicators.

CONCLUSIONS

Preadmission GPA and PCAT scores were the best predictors of success in a pharmaceutical calculations course. About one quarter of the variance was explained by the identified predictive variables, therefore other factors, not evaluated in this study, likely influence the success in pharmaceutical calculations and should be investigated to determine a more dependable set of predictors.

Impact of Completion of a Pre-Pharmacy Biochemistry Course and Competency Levels in Pre-Pharmacy Courses on Pharmacy Student Performance

Poor performance in foundational science courses, which are usually taken during the first or second year of pharmacy school, can have several negative consequences including increases in student drop-out rates and increases in the number of dismissals and remediating students. The primary goal of the current study was to determine whether completion of a pre-pharmacy biochemistry course and/or performance on a biochemistry competency test (administered at the beginning of the pharmacy program) are associated with pharmacy student performance in foundational science courses and overall academic performance. A secondary goal was to determine whether performance in pre-pharmacy courses and/or student demographics are associated with pharmacy student performance. Prospective univariate analyses (n = 75) determined that completion of a pre-pharmacy biochemistry course is not associated with pharmacy student performance. However, performance on a biochemistry competency test was associated with performance in Biochemistry and Cell&Molecular Biology (p = 0.002). Furthermore, post-hoc analyses determined that pre-pharmacy cumulative chemistry GPA correlates with performance in both the Biochemistry and Cell&Molecular Biology and Medicinal Chemistry foundational science courses (p = 0.002 and p = 0.04, respectively) and can predict first year GPA (p = 0.002). The combined data indicate that further assessment of the impact of pre-pharmacy competency in biochemistry and chemistry on pharmacy student success is warranted.

A brief history of pharmacy admissions in North America

The move from a Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy to a Doctor of Pharmacy degree, both in the United States and in Canada, has been accompanied by a general move towards increased prepharmacy admission requirements and longer pharmacy programs. Historically, the most thoroughly researched pharmacy admissions variables include grade point average (GPA), Pharmacy College Admissions Test (PCAT), interviews and critical thinking tests. Most programs now require a combination of academic (GPA ± PCAT) and nonacademic characteristics (e.g., interviews, volunteering, critical thinking tests, essays). This review focuses on GPA and the PCAT as academic admissions measures and the interview (both traditional and the multiple mini-interview) and critical thinking tests as nonacademic measures. There is evidence that prepharmacy GPA, the PCAT and admissions interviews are correlated with academic success in a pharmacy program. Repeating a prepharmacy course is a negative predictor of academic success. The multiple mini-interview and various critical thinking tests have been studied in pharmacy admissions, but the evidence to date does not support their use for predicting success. Several areas require further research, including finding an effective measure of reasoning and critical thinking skills. The relationship between admission test scores and clinical performance also requires further study, as academic achievement in pharmacy programs has been the main measure of success to date.

Predictive validity of a Uniform Entrance Test for the health professionals

Objective

To investigate the predictive validity of Uniform Entrance Test for academic performance in the first two years in various health science degree programs.

Methods

A retrospective analysis of admissions data and academic performance of students admitted in under-graduate programs of medicine, dentistry and pharmacy of three cohorts was taken. The independent and dependent variables were entry test scores and semester scores respectively. Spearman's Correlation co-efficient was computed to determine the association between entrance test scores and semester scores for three groups.

Results

Majority of the students were from the MBBS degree program (61%) with majority of female students (65%) in all three programs. In MBBS the highest correlation coefficient between entry test and semester scores was observed for semester one rs = 0.334 and lowest in semester four rs= 0.208. In BDS degree program both highest and lowest correlations were in semester one. In the Pharm-D degree program, a significant correlation was only seen in cohort 1 but not in the subsequent cohorts.

Conclusion

The uniform entrance test has an incremental predictive validity for the MBBS and BDS programs as compared to Pharm-D. Better performance in the entrance test predicts higher semester scores and more likelihood of achieving higher scores in the first year as compared to the second year.

Association Between Prerequisites and Academic Success at a Canadian University's Pharmacy Program

Objective. To identify pharmacy prerequisites associated with academic success in the current Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy (BSP) program and anticipated success in the planned Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) program at the University of Saskatchewan. Methods. Statistical analysis was conducted on retrospective data of the grades of 1,236 pharmacy students admitted from 2002 to 2015. BSP success was calculated using a weighted average of all required courses within the BSP program. Anticipated success in the PharmD program was calculated from the BSP grades after excluding PharmD prerequisites currently part of the BSP. Models of BSP and PharmD prerequisites and demographic variables associated with pharmacy program success were constructed using stepwise and forced linear regression. Results. For the current BSP program, modelling explained more than half of academic success in year 1. Explicable variance declined each year, explaining less than 20% in year 4. After removing PharmD prerequisites from the program, the BSP prerequisites associated with success were the same as the first model but explained less of the variance in years 1 and 2. Using both BSP and the new PharmD prerequisites explained nearly three-quarters of the variance in year 1 for the remaining pharmacy courses. Explicable variance increased slightly in year 2, declined to approximately two-thirds in year 3 and just over one-half in year 4. Conclusion. Consistency of instructor and course content, along with instructional design and higher-level learning, may explain these stronger associations for the PharmD prerequisites.

Impact of Students' Strengths, Critical Thinking Skills and Disposition on Academic Success in the First Year of a PharmD Program

Objective. To determine the critical thinking skills, critical thinking disposition, and personal strengths that contribute to student success and excellence in the first year of a doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) program. Methods. Student pharmacists from three cohorts completed the Health Sciences Reasoning Test (HSRT) to assess their critical thinking skills, the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI) to assess their critical thinking disposition, and the StrengthsFinder 2.0 assessment to determine their top five Signature Themes. HSRT overall categories, CCTDI subcategories, and top five Signature Themes were analyzed to determine both independent predictors and a logistic regression model of success and excellence. Results. HSRT and the Signature Theme of Consistency were independently associated with both success and excellence. CCTDI Open-mindedness and the Signature Themes of Achiever and Learner were also independent predictors of excellence. Age and several Signature Themes were negative independent predictors of success. In a multiple logistic regression model, HSRT overall category and the absence of Signature Themes Command and Woo predicted success and HSRT overall category predicted excellence. Conclusion. This is the first model to determine performance in the first year of PharmD program using Signature Themes. Critical thinking skills, the critical thinking disposition of Open-mindedness and the Signature Themes of Achiever, Consistency, and Learner are associated with the highest student performance.

Predictors of on-site interview selection and admission for a doctor of pharmacy program using the pharmacy college application service (PharmCAS) variables

INTRODUCTION

The study aimed to identify predictors of selection for on-site interview and admission into the doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) program using variables from the Pharmacy College Application Service (PharmCAS).

METHODS

Admission data (de-identified) was obtained from University of Houston's College of Pharmacy for the years 2015 and 2016. The data consisted of relevant variables from the PharmCAS application system for all applicants during 2015 and 2016 admission cycles. Primary dependent variables were the admission committee decisions of (i) selection for on-site interview and (ii) admission into PharmD program. Descriptive frequency distributions, bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses were conducted to identify the predictors of admission decisions.

RESULTS

A total of 968 completed application records were obtained out of which 651 were selected for on-site interview and 413 were offered admission into the PharmD program. The logistic regression analyses indicated that as compared to pre-pharmacy grade-point-average (GPA) score of <3.2, applicants with a score of 3.2-3.49 (C.I 2.52-9.66) and ≥3.5 (C.I. 2.49-12.42) were more likely to be selected for interview. Applicants with pharmacy college admissions test (PCAT) score of 70-79 (C.I. 3.37-13.96) and ≥80 (C.I. 7.73-33.83) were more likely to be selected for interview as compared to those with PCAT < 70. With respect to admissions, female gender (C.I. 1.01-2.12), pre-pharmacy GPA ≥ 3.5 (C.I. 1.62-4.82), PCAT ≥ 80 (C.I. 2.33-6.61), letters of reference score ≥ 3.7 (C.I. 1.04-2.29) and at least one known additional language (C.I. 0.47-0.99) influenced the likelihood of being admitted into the PharmD program.

CONCLUSION

The study findings can be used to optimize the applicant review process by assigning more weightage to the significant predictors in decision making towards admission into PharmD programs. Future studies evaluating the influence of the predictors on academic performance are warranted.

The Relationship Between Prior Experiences in Mathematics and Pharmacy School Success

Objective. To assess students' pre-pharmacy math experiences, confidence in math ability, and relationship between experiences, confidence, and grades in math-based pharmacy courses. Methods. A cross-sectional survey of first year to third year pharmacy students was conducted. Students reported type of pre-pharmacy math courses taken, when they were taken [high school (HS) vs. college] and year of HS and college graduation. Students rated their confidence in math ability using the previously validated 11-item Fogerty Math Confidence Scale (Cronbach alpha=0.92). Math grade point average (GPA), Pharmacy College Admission Test quantitative (PCAT quant) scores, and grades (calculations and kinetics) were obtained from transcripts and school records. Spearman correlation and multivariate linear regression were used to compare math experiences, confidence, and grades. Results. There were 198 students who reported taking math courses 7.1 years since HS graduation and 2.9 years since their last schooling prior to pharmacy school. Students who took math courses with more time since HS/last schooling had lower calculations and kinetics grades. Students reporting having taken more HS math courses had better calculations grades. Students with higher math GPA, and PCAT quant scores also had higher calculations and kinetics grades. Greater confidence in math ability was associated with higher calculations grades. In multivariate regressions, PCAT quant scores and years since HS independently predicted calculations grades, and PCAT quant scores independently predicted kinetics grades. Conclusion. The number of pre-pharmacy math courses and time elapsed since they were taken are important factors to consider when predicting a pharmacy student's success in math-based pharmacy school courses.

Predicting performance in health professions education programs from admissions information - Comparisons of other health professions with pharmacy

BACKGROUND

The goal of the present review was to assess the state of performance prediction in healthcare programs generally, versus performance prediction in pharmacy schools, using didactic and non-didactic admissions measures. This is important because clinical success represents a combination of skills that are not fully predicted by either type of measure alone.

METHODS

PubMed searches were conducted focusing on work published from 2000 onwards, since it is during this period that non-didactic admissions measures have come to be incorporated into the applicant evaluation process. Relevant free full text papers available were used. When these papers were not available by direct import into EndNote, we went directly to the journal to try to retrieve the paper.

RESULTS

We acknowledge that health professions programs have been successful in recruiting excellent candidates into their schools. However, based on the modest amount of healthcare program performance accounted for by didactic measures, admissions committees should consider expanding their holistic evaluation of applicants. Schools would benefit from using two-step screening phases in the application process - perhaps evaluating didactic potential in phase 1 and experiential in phase 2. Using combination measures throughout the admission process should help ensure admission of students more likely to be successful throughout their healthcare practice.

IMPLICATIONS

Future investigations of the prediction of healthcare program performance by formal combinations of didactic and non-didactic admissions measures are imperative. In addition, it is likely that combination admission measures will incorporate more metrics of critical thinking than do simpler approaches. Furthermore, systematic evaluation of the usefulness of the two-step screening approaches to admissions used by most competitive health professions programs also needs to be done.

Predicting student success in nurse practitioner programs

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Criteria for admission to nurse practitioner (NP) and other professional programs provide a snapshot of students' potential for success in those programs. Critical examination of admission criteria is a vital component of ensuring timely matriculation and completion of NP programs. The purpose of the current study was to examine the relationship between admission criteria and student progression and completion of NP programs.

METHODS

A retrospective review of 150 randomly selected student records from a total of 232 available records was conducted. A predictive correlational design was used to examine factors that influence success in NP programs.

CONCLUSIONS

Statistically significant relationships existed among type of admission status, change in program concentration, age, Graduate Record Examination (GRE) verbal score, GRE quantitative score, total GRE scores, and program progression and completion.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Data collection from this and related research is paramount in developing information infrastructures that support consistent evaluation and revision of admission criteria and program curricula. Leaders in academia can use these data to achieve instructional excellence, improve education systems, and ensure timely matriculation through NP programs. This facilitates workforce planning and supports efforts to meet the expanding need for primary care providers.

Predicting Student Success Using In-Program Monitoring

Objective. To determine whether admissions data alone adequately predicts student success in the first-year doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) curriculum or whether academic monitoring and intervention has greater value toward successful completion of first-year coursework. Methods. A systematic evaluation of the literature assessing student success was performed to ascertain historical evidence of student success metrics. We then retrospectively analyzed internal admissions data and first-year outcomes for our pharmacy classes of 2016-2019 using available data. We conducted an interim evaluation of voluntary academic monitoring and mentoring with the hypothesis that admission data alone cannot predict student success in early foundational coursework, and intentional intervention might improve success. Results. Pre-pharmacy grade point average (GPA), science GPA, Pharmacy College Admission Test (PCAT) score, and prior degree status each retain some predictive value regarding success, and combinations of these factors may improve the ability to predict student success in early foundational coursework. There remains a significant, and perhaps insurmountable, gap in identifying quantitative metrics that forecast student success. Although admission data can stratify incoming students based on predicted academic ability, early monitoring and intervention provide an actionable means for enhancing student success in first-year coursework. Conclusion. Quantitative academic measures, such as PCAT scores and GPA, historically have demonstrated limited value in predicting student success. While these measures allow stratification of predicted academic performance among incoming students, monitoring of first-year, institution-specific data, such as midterm grades, can direct intentional intervention and remediation strategies that may provide more benefit to ensure students succeed.

Predictors of student performance on the Pharmacy Curriculum Outcomes Assessment at a new school of pharmacy using admissions and demographic data

OBJECTIVES

To characterize student performance on the Pharmacy Curriculum Outcomes Assessment (PCOA) and to determine the significance of specific admissions criteria and pharmacy school performance to predict student performance on the PCOA during the first through third professional years.

METHODS

Multivariate linear regression models were developed to study the relationships between various independent variables and students' PCOA total scores during the first through third professional years.

RESULTS

To date, four cohorts have successfully taken the PCOA examination. Results indicate that the Pharmacy College Admissions Test (PCAT), the Health Science Reasoning Test (HSRT), and cumulative pharmacy grade point average were the only consistent significant predictors of higher PCOA total scores across all students who have taken the exam at our school of pharmacy.

CONCLUSION

The school should examine and clarify the role of PCOA within its curricular assessment program. Results suggest that certain admissions criteria and performance in pharmacy school are associated with higher PCOA scores.

Students' Opinions on Summative Team Assessments in a Three-Year Concentrated Pharmacy Curriculum

Objective. To investigate student opinions of team assessment. Methods. University of Maryland Eastern Shore School of Pharmacy first-year (P1) to third-year (P3) students (n=125) completed an online survey regarding team assessments. Students rated their opinions on a Likert scale. Responses were examined using Mann-Whitney U test with respect to academic performance and class. Results. One hundred twenty-five students (75%) completed the survey. A majority of students agreed that team assessment was beneficial (90%). In contrast, 78% of the students perceived that the discussion helped clarify misconceptions. Students were not in agreement on occurrence of free riders (51%) and the use of peer evaluation (38%). Overall, students ranked the benefits of team assessment as improving individual score, then promoting collaboration, followed by enhancing understanding of material. Conclusion. Students had favorable opinions regarding team assessment. Educational benefits of team assessments include enhanced understanding of the material, being a meaningful activity for promoting collaboration, and developing communication skills.

Preadmission Predictors of On-time Graduation in a Doctor of Pharmacy Program

Objective. To determine which preadmission variables or combination of variables are able to predict on-time graduation in a doctor of pharmacy program. Methods. Transcripts and student files were reviewed for 460 students who entered the college between 2007 and 2009. Results. The preadmission variables with significant correlations to on-time graduation included having a prior degree, student type, the number of unsatisfactory grades (nonscience and math-science courses, and the combination), prepharmacy cumulative grade point average (GPA), and math-science GPA. Of these variables, the significant predictors of on-time graduation were prior degree, the presence of no unsatisfactory grades in nonscience courses, and prepharmacy cumulative GPA. Conclusion. Having a prior degree, lack of unsatisfactory grades in nonscience courses, and prepharmacy GPA were identified as significant predictors of on-time graduation.

Multiple Mini-Interview Performance Predicts Academic Difficulty in the PharmD Curriculum

Objective. To identify admissions variable prognostics for academic difficulty in the PharmD curriculum to use for admissions determinations and early identification of at-risk students. Methods. Retrospective multivariate analysis of 2008-2012 admission data were linked with academic records to identify students with academic difficulty (ie, those with Ds, Fs, delayed progression). The influence of prepharmacy grade point average (GPA), composite Pharmacy College Admission Test (PCAT) score, multiple-mini interview (MMI) score, age, credit hours, state residence, and prior degree on academic difficulty was estimated using multivariate logistic regression. Results. Students' (n=587) prepharmacy GPA, composite PCAT score, mean MMI score, and age were 3.6, 72.0, 5.5, 22.8 (SD=4.14 years), respectively. Students having a GPA <3.25, PCAT score <60th percentile, or MMI score <4.5, were approximately 12-, 7-, and 3-times more likely, respectively, to experience academic difficulty than those with a GPA ≥ 3.75, PCAT score >90, or MMI score of 5-6. Conclusion. Using GPA, PCAT, and MMI performance can predict academic difficulty and assist in the early identification of academically at-risk PharmD students.

Admissions Criteria as Predictors of Academic Performance in a Three-Year Pharmacy Program at a Historically Black Institution

OBJECTIVE

To determine the ability of University of Maryland Eastern Shore School of Pharmacy's admissions criteria to predict students' academic performance in a 3-year pharmacy program and to analyze transferability to African-American students.

METHODS

Statistical analyses were conducted on retrospective data for 174 students. Didactic and experiential scores were used as measures of academic performance.

RESULTS

Pharmacy College Admission Test (PCAT), grade point average (GPA), interview, and observational scores combined with previous pharmacy experience and biochemistry coursework predicted the students' academic performance except second-year (P2) experiential performance. For African-American students, didactic performance positively correlated with PCAT writing subtests, while the experiential performance positively correlated with previous pharmacy experience and observational score. For nonAfrican-American students, didactic performance positively correlated with PCAT multiple-choice subtests, and experiential performance with interview score. The prerequisite GPA positively correlated with both of the student subgroups' didactic performance.

CONCLUSION

Both PCAT and GPA were predictors of didactic performance, especially in nonAfrican-Americans. Pharmacy experience and observational scores were predictors of experiential performance, especially in African-Americans.

Relationship of Prepharmacy Repeat Course History to Students' Early Academic Difficulty in a Pharmacy Curriculum

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relationship between students' prepharmacy repeat course history and their academic difficulties early in a professional pharmacy program in conjunction with other prerequisite success variables known to predict academic difficulty.

METHODS

For students admitted to a pharmacy program in 2010 and 2011 (n=160), admission variables [eg, prepharmacy coursework, grade point average (GPA)] and pharmacy program academic difficulty data (ie, academic difficulty defined as a pharmacy GPA in the bottom quartile of the class after 3 semesters of pharmacy course work) were extracted. Regression analysis was employed to examine the relationship between admission variables and academic difficulty.

RESULTS

Twenty-six percent of the students (n=42) repeated a course, and 50% of these students (n=21) repeated more than one course. All of the admissions variables studied were found to individually increase the odds of a student having academic difficulty early in the pharmacy program. Specifically, repeat of a prepharmacy course increased the odds of academic difficulty threefold.

CONCLUSION

Repeating prepharmacy coursework appears to be a strong indicator of future academic difficulties early in a professional pharmacy program.

Relationship between student selection criteria and learner success for medical dosimetry students

Medical dosimetry education occupies a specialized branch of allied health higher education. Noted international shortages of health care workers, reduced university funding, limitations on faculty staffing, trends in learner attrition, and increased enrollment of nontraditional students force medical dosimetry educational leadership to reevaluate current admission practices. Program officials wish to select medical dosimetry students with the best chances of successful graduation. The purpose of the quantitative ex post facto correlation study was to investigate the relationship between applicant characteristics (cumulative undergraduate grade point average (GPA), science grade point average (SGPA), prior experience as a radiation therapist, and previous academic degrees) and the successful completion of a medical dosimetry program, as measured by graduation. A key finding from the quantitative study was the statistically significant positive correlation between a student׳s previous degree and his or her successful graduation from the medical dosimetry program. Future research investigations could include a larger research sample, representative of more medical dosimetry student populations, and additional studies concerning the relationship of previous work as a radiation therapist and the effect on success as a medical dosimetry student. Based on the quantitative correlation analysis, medical dosimetry leadership on admissions committees could revise student selection rubrics to place less emphasis on an applicant׳s undergraduate cumulative GPA and increase the weight assigned to previous degrees.

The Impact of Prematriculation Admission Characteristics on Graduation Rates in an Accelerated Doctor of Pharmacy Program

Objective. To evaluate the impact of admission characteristics on graduation in an accelerated doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) program. Methods. Selected prematriculation characteristics of students entering the graduation class years of 2009-2012 on the Worcester and Manchester campuses of MCPHS University were analyzed and compared for on-time graduation. Results. Eighty-two percent of evaluated students (699 of 852) graduated on time. Students who were most likely to graduate on-time attended a 4-year school, previously earned a bachelor's degree, had an overall prematriculation grade point average (GPA) greater than or equal to 3.6, and graduated in the spring just prior to matriculating to the university. Factors that reduced the likelihood of graduating on time were also identified. Work experience had a marginal impact on graduating on time. Conclusion. Although there is no certainty in college admission decisions, prematriculation characteristics can help predict the likelihood for academic success of students in an accelerated PharmD program.

An International Perspective on Pharmacy Student Selection Policies and Processes

Objective. To reflect on selection policies and procedures for programs at pharmacy schools that are members of an international alliance of universities (Universitas 21). Methods. A questionnaire on selection policies and procedures was distributed to admissions directors at participating schools. Results. Completed questionnaires were received from 7 schools in 6 countries. Although marked differences were noted in the programs in different countries, there were commonalities in the selection processes. There was an emphasis on previous academic performance, especially in science subjects. With one exception, all schools had some form of interview, with several having moved to multiple mini-interviews in recent years. Conclusion. The majority of pharmacy schools in this survey relied on traditional selection processes. While there was increasing use of multiple mini-interviews, the authors suggest that additional new approaches may be required in light of the changing nature of the profession.

Assessment of Communications-related Admissions Criteria in a Three-year Pharmacy Program

OBJECTIVE

To determine if there is a correlation between TOEFL and other admissions criteria that assess communications skills (ie, PCAT variables: verbal, reading, essay, and composite), interview, and observational scores and to evaluate TOEFL and these admissions criteria as predictors of academic performance.

METHODS

Statistical analyses included two sample t tests, multiple regression and Pearson's correlations for parametric variables, and Mann-Whitney U for nonparametric variables, which were conducted on the retrospective data of 162 students, 57 of whom were foreign-born.

RESULTS

The multiple regression model of the other admissions criteria on TOEFL was significant. There was no significant correlation between TOEFL scores and academic performance. However, significant correlations were found between the other admissions criteria and academic performance.

CONCLUSION

Since TOEFL is not a significant predictor of either communication skills or academic success of foreign-born PharmD students in the program, it may be eliminated as an admissions criterion.