Investigation of the efficacy of mycotoxin-detoxifying additive on health and growth of newly-weaned pigs under deoxynivalenol challenges

Deoxynivalenol triggers mitotic catastrophe and apoptosis in C2C12 myoblasts

Deoxynivalenol (DON), commonly known as vomitoxin, is a mycotoxin produced by fungi and is frequently found as a contaminant in various cereal-based food worldwide. While the harmful effects of DON have been extensively studied in different tissues, its specific impact on the proliferation of skeletal muscle cells remains unclear. In this study, we utilized murine C2C12 myoblasts as a model to explore the influence of DON on their proliferation. Our observations indicated that DON exhibits dose-dependent toxicity, significantly inhibiting the proliferation of C2C12 cells. Through the application of RNA-seq analysis combined with gene set enrichment analysis, we identified a noteworthy downregulation of genes linked to the extracellular matrix (ECM) and condensed chromosome. Concurrently with the reduced expression of ECM genes, immunostaining analysis revealed notable changes in the distribution of fibronectin, a vital ECM component, condensing into clusters and punctate formations. Remarkably, the exposure to DON induced the formation of multipolar spindles, leading to the disruption of the normal cell cycle. This, in turn, activated the p53-p21 signaling pathway and ultimately resulted in apoptosis. These findings contribute significant insights into the mechanisms through which DON induces toxicity within skeletal muscle cells.

The inflammatory injury of porcine small intestinal epithelial cells induced by deoxynivalenol is related to the decrease in glucose transport

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of deoxynivalenol (DON) stimulation on inflammatory injury and the expression of the glucose transporters sodium-dependent glucose transporter 1 (SGLT1) and glucose transporter protein 2 (GLU2) in porcine small intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2). Additionally, the study aimed to provide initial insights into the connection between the expression of glucose transporters and the inflammatory injury of IPEC-J2 cells. DON concentration and DON treatment time were determined using the CCK‑8 assay. Accordingly, 1.0 µg/mL DON and treatment for 24 h were chosen for subsequent experiments. Then IPEC-J2 cells were treated without DON (CON, N = 6) or with 1 μg/mL DON (DON, N = 6). Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) content, apoptosis rate, and proinflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-1β, Il-6, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) were measured. Additionally, the expression of AMP-activated protein kinase α1 (AMPK-α1), the content of glucose, intestinal alkaline phosphatase (AKP), and sodium/potassium-transporting adenosine triphosphatase (Na+/K+-ATPase) activity, and the expression of SGLT1 and GLU2 of IPEC-J2 cells were also analyzed. The results showed that DON exposure significantly increased LDH release and apoptosis rate of IPEC-J2 cells. Stimulation with DON resulted in significant cellular inflammatory damage, as evidenced by a significant increase in proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α). Additionally, DON caused damage to the glucose absorption capacity of IPEC-J2 cells, indicated by decreased levels of glucose content, AKP activity, Na+/K+-ATPase activity, AMPK-α1 protein expression, and SGLT1 expression. Correlation analysis revealed that glucose absorption capacity was negatively correlated with cell inflammatory cytokines. Based on the findings of this study, it can be preliminarily concluded that the cell inflammatory damage caused by DON may be associated with decreased glucose absorption.

Effects of dietary xylanase supplementation on growth performance, intestinal health, and immune response of nursery pigs fed diets with reduced metabolizable energy

This study aimed to investigate the effects of xylanase on growth performance and intestinal health of nursery pigs fed diets with reduced metabolizable energy (ME). One hundred ninety-two pigs at 8.7 kg ± 0.7 body weight (BW) after 7 d of weaning were allotted in a randomized complete block design with initial BW and sex as blocks. Eight dietary treatments consisted of 5 ME levels (3,400, 3,375, 3,350, 3,325, and 3,300 kcal ME/kg) below the NRC (2012) requirement and 4 levels of xylanase (0, 1,200, 2,400, and 3,600 XU/kg) to a diet with 3,300 kcal ME/kg. All pigs received their respective treatments for 35 d in 2 phases, pre-starter (14 d) and starter (21 d). On day 35, eight pigs in 3,400 kcal/kg (CON), 3,300 kcal/kg (LE), and 3,300 kcal/kg + 3,600 XU xylanase/kg (LEX) were euthanized to collect jejunal tissues and digesta for the evaluation of mucosa-associated microbiota, intestinal immune response, oxidative stress status, intestinal morphology, crypt cell proliferation, and digesta viscosity as well as ileal digesta to measure apparent ileal digestibility. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure on SAS 9.4. The LE increased (P < 0.05) jejunal digesta viscosity, tended to have decreased (P = 0.053) relative abundance of Prevotella, and tended to increase (P = 0.055) Lactobacillus. The LE also increased (P < 0.05) the concentration of protein carbonyl whereas malondialdehyde, villus height (VH), villus height to crypt depth ratio (VH:CD), apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of nutrients, and finally average daily feed intake were decreased (P < 0.05). The LE did not affect average daily gain (ADG). The LEX decreased (P < 0.05) digesta viscosity, increased (P < 0.05) the relative abundance of Prevotella, decreased (P < 0.05) Helicobacter, decreased (P < 0.05) the concentration of protein carbonyl, tended to increase (P = 0.065) VH, and decreased (P < 0.05) VH:CD and crypt cell proliferation. Moreover, LEX increased (P < 0.05) the AID of dry matter and gross energy and tended to increase (P = 0.099; P = 0.076) AID of crude protein, and ether extract. The LEX did not affect ADG but did tend to decrease (P = 0.070) fecal score during the starter phase. Overall, reducing ME negatively affected intestinal health parameters and nutrient digestibility without affecting growth. Supplementation of xylanase mitigated some of the negative effects observed by ME reduction on intestinal health and digestibility of nutrients without affecting growth.

Effects of a Bentonite Clay Product and a Preservative Blend on Ileal and Fecal Nutrient Digestibility in Pigs Fed Wheat Naturally Contaminated with Deoxynivalenol

The objectives were to determine the effects of dietary deoxynivalenol (DON) on apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of nutrients and to evaluate the efficacy of a bentonite (BEN) and a preservative blend (PB) product for alleviating DON effects on the nutrient digestibility of pigs. Twelve crossbred barrows with an initial body weight of 69.4 kg (standard deviation = 3.5) equipped with a T-cannula in the distal ileum were allotted a triplicated 4 × 2 incomplete Latin square design with four dietary treatments and two periods. Dietary treatments were (1) an uncontaminated diet, (2) a contaminated diet (CD) mainly based on contaminated wheat with 1.6 mg/kg DON, (3) CD + 0.25% PB consisting of preservation components as major sources, antioxidants, microorganisms, and amino acids (AA), and (4) CD + 0.25% BEN. The AID and ATTD of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, most minerals, and most AA were not affected by DON contamination. Dietary DON decreased the AID and ATTD of sodium (p < 0.05) but were restored by supplementing the PB product (p < 0.05). The AID of zinc was increased (p < 0.05) by dietary DON, but supplementing BEN decreased zinc digestibility (p < 0.05). The AID of Arg, Ile, Thr, and Asp was decreased (p < 0.05) by BEN addition. In conclusion, dietary DON affected the digestibility of some minerals but not AA in pigs. Supplemental BEN can negatively affect the nutrient digestibility of some minerals and AA in pigs. The addition of a PB product in pig diets can restore digestibility of sodium but not of other nutrients. Based on these observations, feed additives for alleviating DON effects on nutrient digestibility of pigs can be carefully selected by swine diet formulators.

Transcriptome Analysis of Deoxynivalenol (DON)-Induced Hepatic and Intestinal Toxicity in Zebrafish: Insights into Gene Expression and Potential Detoxification Pathways

The effects of deoxynivalenol (DON, 50 µg/mL) on the zebrafish liver and intestine were studied. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) from mRNA and lncRNA were analyzed by RNA seq. Gene Ontology (GO) and signaling pathways were studied where the top 30 DEGs of each type of RNA were involved. The results showed there were 2325 up-regulated and 934 down-regulated DEGs of lncRNA in the intestinal tract, and 95 up-regulated genes and 211 down-regulated genes in the liver, respectively. GO functional annotation analysis showed that lncRNA was enriched in the biological processes, involving the RNA splicing, CSF1-CSF1R complexes, and MAP kinase activity. DEGs of lncRNA located in the KEGG signal pathways include the C-type lectin receptor signaling and the NOD-like receptor signaling pathways. Metabolism involves the biosynthesis of indole alkaloids, cancer pathways for human disease, MAPK and Rap1signaling pathways for environmental information processing, necroptosis and focal adhesion for cell processes. The mRNA gene expression analysis showed there were 1939 up-regulated, 1172 down-regulated genes and 866 up-regulated, 1211 down-regulated genes in the intestine and liver of zebrafish, respectively. This study provides transcriptome analysis and toxicological investigation of DON in the zebrafish liver and intestine, offering insights into gene expression patterns and potential detoxification pathways.

Effects of Mycotoxin-Sequestering Agents on Growth Performance and Nutrient Utilization of Growing Pigs Fed Deoxynivalenol-Contaminated Diets

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of supplemental mycotoxin-sequestering agents on growth performance and nutrient utilization in growing pigs fed deoxynivalenol (DON)-contaminated diets. Twelve barrows with an initial body weight of 35.5 kg (standard deviation = 1.3) were assigned to six dietary treatments in a replicated 6 × 5 incomplete Latin square design. Five experimental diets consisted of an uncontaminated diet (PC), a DON-contaminated diet at 6.89 mg/kg (NC), NC + bentonite 0.5%, NC + yeast cell wall 0.5%, and NC + a mixture product 0.5% which consisted of enzymes, microorganisms, minerals, and plant extracts. Pigs had ad libitum access to the five diets. In the last group, the PC diet was restrictedly provided to pigs at the quantity of feed consumption of the NC group. Average daily gain, average daily feed intake, and gain:feed were not affected by supplemental mycotoxin-sequestering agents except for the mixed product that tended to improve (p = 0.064) gain:feed in pigs fed DON-contaminated diets. The apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of dry matter was not affected by DON contamination or by supplemental mycotoxin-sequestering agents, whereas the ATTD of Ca was decreased (p = 0.032) by supplemental yeast cell wall in pigs fed DON-contaminated diets. The ATTD of P was greater (p = 0.042) in pigs fed the NC diet compared with the pigs fed the restricted amount of the PC diet. In conclusion, bentonite and yeast cell wall did not affect growth performance of pigs fed DON-contaminated diets, but a supplemental mixed product consisting of enzymes, microorganisms, minerals, and plant extracts partially alleviated the negative effects of dietary DON on the gain:feed of pigs. Calcium digestibility was decreased by supplemental yeast cell wall in pigs fed DON-contaminated diets. Based on the present work, the use of a mixed product consisting of enzymes, microorganisms, minerals, and plant extracts is suggested, and the reduction of Ca digestibility by yeast cell wall needs to be considered in diet formulations.

Efficacy of soy protein concentrate replacing animal protein supplements in mucosa-associated microbiota, intestinal health, and growth performance of nursery pigs

This study investigated the effects of using soy protein concentrate (SPC) to replace animal protein supplements on mucosa-associated microbiota, intestinal health, and growth performance of nursery pigs. Fifty-six newly weaned pigs (BW = 6.4 ± 0.6 kg) were allotted to 5 treatments in a randomized complete block design. Pigs were fed for 35 d in 3 phases (P; 1, 2, 3) for 10, 12, 13 d, respectively. Dietary treatments were: (1) basal diet with fish meal (P1: 4%, P2: 2%, and P3: 1%), poultry meal (P1: 10%, P2: 8%, and P3: 4%), and blood plasma (P1: 4%, P2: 2%, and P3: 1%), where SPC replacing none (NC); (2) basal diet with SPC replacing fish meal (RFM); (3) basal diet with SPC replacing poultry meal (RPM); (4) basal diet with SPC replacing blood plasma (RBP); and (5) basal diet with SPC replacing all animal protein supplements (PC). Growth performance was recorded for each phase. Pigs were euthanized on d 35 to collect jejunal mucosa and tissue to evaluate intestinal health and microbiota, and ileal digesta to measure apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of nutrients. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS. Overall, RFM, RPM, and RBP did not affect growth performance, whereas PC decreased (P < 0.05) ADG and ADFI. The RPM increased (P < 0.05) Prevotella stercorea and decreased (P < 0.05) Helicobacter rappini. The PC decreased (P < 0.05) H. rappini, whilst increasing (P < 0.05) Prevotella copri, Propionibacterium acnes, and Pelomonas aquatica. The RFM tended to increase (P = 0.096) immunoglobulin A in the jejunum. The PC tended to decrease (P = 0.078) jejunal crypt cell proliferation. There were no differences in the villus height, AID of nutrients, intestinal inflammation, and intestinal oxidative stress among treatments. In conclusion, SPC can replace fish meal, poultry meal, or blood plasma individually without affecting growth performance and intestinal health, and AID of nutrients of nursery pigs. Particularly SPC replacing poultry meal benefitted intestinal health by reducing H. rappini and increasing P. stercorea. However, SPC replacing all three animal protein supplements reduced growth of nursery pigs mainly by reducing feed intake.

Comparative effects of soy protein concentrate, enzyme-treated soybean meal, and fermented soybean meal replacing animal protein supplements in feeds on growth performance and intestinal health of nursery pigs

BACKGROUND

Soy protein supplements, with high crude protein and less antinutritional factors, are produced from soybean meal by different processes. This study evaluated the comparative effects of various soy protein supplements replacing animal protein supplements in feeds on the intestinal immune status, intestinal oxidative stress, mucosa-associated microbiota, and growth performance of nursery pigs.

METHODS

Sixty nursery pigs (6.6 ± 0.5 kg BW) were allotted to five treatments in a randomized complete block design with initial BW and sex as blocks. Pigs were fed for 39 d in 3 phases (P1, P2, and P3). Treatments were: Control (CON), basal diet with fish meal 4%, 2%, and 1%, poultry meal 10%, 8%, and 4%, and blood plasma 4%, 2%, and 1% for P1, P2, and P3, respectively; basal diet with soy protein concentrate (SPC), enzyme-treated soybean meal (ESB), fermented soybean meal with Lactobacillus (FSBL), and fermented soybean meal with Bacillus (FSBB), replacing 1/3, 2/3, and 3/3 of animal protein supplements for P1, P2, and P3, respectively. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure in SAS 9.4.

RESULTS

The SPC did not affect the BW, ADG, and G:F, whereas it tended to reduce (P = 0.094) the ADFI and tended to increase (P = 0.091) crypt cell proliferation. The ESM did not affect BW, ADG, ADFI, and G:F, whereas tended to decrease (P = 0.098) protein carbonyl in jejunal mucosa. The FSBL decreased (P < 0.05) BW and ADG, increased (P < 0.05) TNF-α, and Klebsiella and tended to increase MDA (P = 0.065) and IgG (P = 0.089) in jejunal mucosa. The FSBB tended to increase (P = 0.073) TNF-α, increased (P < 0.05) Clostridium and decreased (P < 0.05) Achromobacter and alpha diversity of microbiota in jejunal mucosa.

CONCLUSIONS

Soy protein concentrate, enzyme-treated soybean meal, and fermented soybean meal with Bacillus could reduce the use of animal protein supplements up to 33% until 7 kg body weight, up to 67% from 7 to 11 kg body weight, and entirely from 11 kg body weight without affecting the intestinal health and the growth performance of nursery pigs. Fermented soybean meal with Lactobacillus, however, increased the immune reaction and oxidative stress in the intestine consequently reducing the growth performance.

Intestinal Damages by F18+Escherichia coli and Its Amelioration with an Antibacterial Bacitracin Fed to Nursery Pigs

This study investigated intestinal oxidative damage caused by F18⁺Escherichia coli and its amelioration with antibacterial bacitracin fed to nursery pigs. Thirty-six weaned pigs (6.31 ± 0.08 kg BW) were allotted in a randomized complete block design. Treatments were: NC, not challenged/not treated; PC, challenged (F18⁺E. coli at 5.2 × 10⁹ CFU)/not treated; AGP challenged (F18⁺E. coli at 5.2 × 10⁹ CFU)/treated with bacitracin (30 g/t). Overall, PC reduced (p < 0.05) average daily gain (ADG), gain to feed ratio (G:F), villus height, and villus height to crypt depth ratio (VH:CD), whereas AGP increased (p < 0.05) ADG, and G:F. PC increased (p < 0.05) fecal score, F18⁺E. coli in feces, and protein carbonyl in jejunal mucosa. AGP reduced (p < 0.05) fecal score and F18⁺E. coli in jejunal mucosa. PC reduced (p < 0.05) Prevotella stercorea populations in jejunal mucosa, whereas AGP increased (p < 0.05) Phascolarctobacterium succinatutens and reduced (p < 0.05) Mitsuokella jalaludinii populations in feces. Collectively, F18⁺E. coli challenge increased fecal score and disrupted the microbiota composition, harming intestinal health by increasing oxidative stress, and damaging the intestinal epithelium, ultimately impairing growth performance. Dietary bacitracin reduced reduced F18⁺E. coli populations and the oxidative damages they cause, thereby improving intestinal health and the growth performance of nursery pigs.

An In Vitro Study on the Efficacy of Mycotoxin Sequestering Agents for Aflatoxin B1, Deoxynivalenol, and Zearalenone

Simple Summary

Mycotoxins in feeds can cause detrimental effects on the growth performance and health of pigs. One of the methods used to overcome the negative effects of mycotoxins in animal feeds is to add toxin sequestering agents to feed. The present work was conducted to determine the efficacy of mycotoxin sequestering agents using an in vitro method. All mycotoxin sequestering agents effectively bound to aflatoxin B1; only activated charcoal effectively sequestered deoxynivalenol; and a bentonite product, an aluminosilicate product, and activated charcoal effectively sequestered zearalenone.

Abstract

The objective of this study was to determine the efficacy of mycotoxin sequestering agents for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), deoxynivalenol (DON), and zearalenone (ZEA) using an in vitro method. The twelve toxin sequestering agents tested were seven bentonite products (bentonite A, B, C, D, E, F, and G), two aluminosilicate products (aluminosilicate A and B), a heulandite product, an activated charcoal product, and a yeast cell wall product. A two-step in vitro procedure was employed to mimic the conditions of temperature, pH, and digestive enzymes in the stomach and small intestine of pigs. All mycotoxin sequestering agents tested were able to bind to AFB1 with a high efficacy (>92%). The DON sequestering rate of activated charcoal (99.1%) was greater (p < 0.05) than that of other products. The ZEA sequestering rate of bentonite F (97.0%), aluminosilicate A (99.6%), and activated charcoal (100.0%) was the greatest (p < 0.05) among the tested mycotoxin sequestering agents. Overall, most mycotoxin sequestering agents had the ability to bind to AFB1, but most products, except activated charcoal, failed to sequester DON and ZEA.

Mycotoxin deoxynivalenol affects myoblast differentiation via downregulating cytoskeleton and ECM-integrin-FAK-RAC-PAK signaling pathway

As a common mycotoxin, deoxynivalenol (DON) contaminates cereal grains and feed in field or during processing and storage. DON elicits a spectrum of adverse effects in animals including anorexia and growth retardation. Especially, the presence of DON has also been detected in muscle, suggesting that DON may has the potential to affect the development of muscle. However, the relevant research is very rare and the molecular mechanism remains unclear. Myoblasts differentiation into multinucleated myotubes is one of the crucial steps of skeletal muscle development. In the present study, we investigated the effects of DON on differentiation of myoblasts using murine C2C12 cells model. The results indicated that DON dose-dependent inhibited the formation of myotubes in C2C12 cells. After performing omics techniques, a total of 149 differentially expressed genes were identified. The expression of cytoskeleton proteins and extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins were downregulated by DON. Furthermore, DON significantly downregulated the expression of integrin αv and integrin β5, leading to inhibition of the ECM-integrin receptor interaction. The focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and phosphorylated forms, ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate (RAC) and p21-activated kinases 1 (PAK1) were also downregulated by DON. Taken together, our findings suggest that DON has the potent to affect the differentiation of myoblasts via downregulating of cytoskeleton and ECM-integrin-FAK-RAC-PAK signaling pathway.

Mycotoxins—Prevention, Detection, Impact on Animal Health

Mycotoxins are defined as secondary metabolites of some species of mold fungi. They are present in many foods consumed by animals. Moreover, they most often contaminate products of plant and animal origin. Fungi of genera Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillum are most often responsible for the production of mycotoxins. They release toxic compounds that, when properly accumulated, can affect many aspects of breeding, such as reproduction and immunity, as well as the overall liver detoxification performance of animals. Mycotoxins, which are chemical compounds, are extremely difficult to remove due to their natural resistance to mechanical, thermal, and chemical factors. Modern methods of analysis allow the detection of the presence of mycotoxins and determine the level of contamination with them, both in raw materials and in foods. Various food processes that can affect mycotoxins include cleaning, grinding, brewing, cooking, baking, frying, flaking, and extrusion. Most feeding processes have a variable effect on mycotoxins, with those that use high temperatures having the greatest influence. Unfortunately, all these processes significantly reduce mycotoxin amounts, but they do not completely eliminate them. This article presents the risks associated with the presence of mycotoxins in foods and the methods of their detection and prevention.

The administration of diets contaminated with low to intermediate doses of deoxynivalenol and supplemented with antioxidants and binding agents slightly affects the growth, antioxidant status, and vaccine response in weanling pigs

This study aimed to evaluate the impact of grading levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) in the diet of weaned pigs, as well as the effects of a supplementation with antioxidants (AOX), hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicates (HSCAS), and their combination on the growth, AOX status, and immune and vaccine responses against the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2). At weaning, 336 piglets were allocated to six dietary treatments according to a randomized complete block design. Treatments were as follows: basal diet (CTRL); basal diet containing DON at 1.2 mg/kg (DON1.2); basal diet containing DON at 2.4 mg/kg (DON2.4); DON2.4 diet + a mix of AOX which included vitamins A and E at 20,000 IU and 200 IU/kg feed respectively, selenized yeast at 0.3 mg/kg, and a grape seed extracts at 100 mg/kg feed (DON2.4 + AOX); DON2.4 diet + the mix of AOX and the modified HSCAS mentioned above (DON2.4 + AOX + HSCAS); DON2.4 + AOX + HSCAS. Pigs were vaccinated against PRRSV and PCV2 at 7 d; on 0, 14, and 35 d, growth performance was recorded, and blood samples were collected in order to evaluate the oxidative status, inflammatory blood markers, lymphocyte blastogenic response, and vaccine antibody response. Increasing intake of DON resulted in a quadratic effect at 35 d in the lymphocyte proliferative response to concanavalin A and PCV2 as well as in the anti-PRRSV antibody response, whereas the catalase activity decreased in DON2.4 pigs compared with the CTRL and DON1.2 groups (P ≤ 0.05). Compared with the DON2.4 diet, the AOX supplementation slightly reduced gain to feed ratio (P = 0.026) and increased the ferric reducing ability of plasma as well as α-tocopherol concentration (P < 0.05), whereas the association of AOX + HSCAS increased the anti-PRRSV IgG (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the HSCAS supplement reduced haptoglobin levels in serum at 14 d compared with the DON2.4 group; however, its concentration decreased in all the experimental treatments from 14 to 35 d and particularly in the DON2.4 + AOX pigs, whereas a different trend was evidenced in the DON2.4 + HSCAS group, where over the same period haptoglobin concentration increased (P < 0.05). Overall, our results show that the addition of AOX and HSCAS in the diet may alleviate the negative effects due to DON contamination on the AOX status and immune response of vaccinated weanling pigs.

Detoxification of aflatoxin B1 in broiler chickens by a triple-action feed additive

The aim of this study was to evaluate the detoxification of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) in vitro and in broiler chickens using a triple-action compound mycotoxin detoxifier (CMD). Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to evaluate AFB1 detoxification in artificial gastrointestinal fluid (AGIF) in vitro. The AFB₁-degradation rate was 41.5% (P < .05) when using a compound probiotic (CP) in which the visible counts of Bacillus subtilis, Lactobacillus casein, Enterococcus faecalis and Candida utilis were 1.0 × 10⁵, 1.0 × 10⁵, 1.0 × 10⁷ and 1.0 × 10⁵ CFU/mL, respectively. When CP was combined with 0.1% AFB₁-degrading enzyme to give CPADE, the AFB₁-degradation rate was increased to 55.28% (P < .05). The AFB₁-removal rate was further increased to above 90% when CPADE was combined with 0.03% montmorillonite to make CMD. In vivo, a total of 150 one-day-old Ross broilers were allotted to 3 groups, 5 replications for each group, 10 broilers in each replication. Group A: basal diet, Group B: basal diet with 40 μg/kg AFB₁, Group C: basal diet with 40 μg/kg AFB₁ plus CMD. The feeding experiment period was 21 d. The results showed that broiler growth was increased, and AFB₁ residues in serum, excreta and liver were decreased by CMD addition in broiler diet (P < .05). In conclusion, CMD was able to remove AFB₁ efficiently in vitro and to increase broiler production performance and reduce AFB₁ residues in the chickens.

Phytobiotics with Adsorbent to Mitigate Toxicity of Multiple Mycotoxins on Health and Growth of Pigs

Phytobiotics with a mycotoxin adsorbent were used to mitigate negative effects of multiple mycotoxins in diets fed to pigs. In experiment 1, 120 pigs (11.6 kg body weight; BW) were assigned to five treatments (three pigs/pen) and fed for 28 days. Treatments were CON (control), MTD (CON + 2.5 mg/kg of deoxynivalenol), DP (MTD + phytobiotics at 0.1%), and DPA1 and DPA2 (MTD + phytobiotics and adsorbent at 0.1% and 0.2%, respectively). In experiment 2, 96 pigs (28.5 kg BW) were assigned to four treatments (three pigs/pen) and fed for 26 days. Treatments were CON, MTAF (CON + 0.19 mg/kg of aflatoxin and 8 mg/kg of fumonisins), AFP (MTAF + phytobiotics at 0.1%), and AFPA (MTAF + phytobiotics and adsorbent at 0.1%). Growth performance was measured weekly, and blood was sampled at the end of study to measure hepatic function and inflammatory status (TNF-α). Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure. In experiment 1, pigs fed MTD, DP, DPA1, and DPA2 had smaller (p < 0.05) BW than CON. Pigs fed DPA2 had greater (p < 0.05) BW than MTD. Pigs fed DP and DPA2 tended to have lower (p < 0.1) serum total protein than CON. Pigs fed MTD and DPA2 tended to have higher (p < 0.1) alanine aminotransferase than CON. Similarly, pigs fed MTD, DP, and DPA2 tended to have higher (p < 0.1) urea nitrogen/creatinine than CON. In experiment 2, pigs fed MTAF, AFP, and AFPA had smaller (p < 0.05) BW than CON. Pigs fed MTAF, AFP, and AFPA had smaller (p < 0.05) ADFI than CON. Pigs fed AFPA had higher (p < 0.05) aspartate aminotransferase than CON and MTAF. Pigs fed AFP and AFPA had higher (p < 0.05) alanine aminotransferase than CON. Pigs fed MTAF, AFP, and AFPA had lower (p < 0.05) urea nitrogen/creatinine than CON. Pigs fed AFPA had higher (p < 0.05) TNF-α than CON and MTAF. In conclusion, feeding an additional 2.5 mg/kg of deoxynivalenol or 0.19 mg/kg of aflatoxin with 8 mg/kg of fumonisins reduced the growth of pigs. Deoxynivalenol compromised the hepatic function of pigs. Phytobiotics with adsorbent could partly overcome the detrimental effects of mycotoxins.