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Forouzani‐Moghaddam MJ, Habibi S, Hosseini‐Safa A, Khanaliha K, Mokarinejad R, Akhoundzadeh F, Oshaghi M. Rapid detection of major enterotoxin genes and antibiotic resistance of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from raw milk in the Yazd province, Iran. Vet Med Sci 2024; 10:e1407. [PMID: 38519836 PMCID: PMC10959825 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.1407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Raw milk is a nutrient-rich food, but it may harbour harmful bacteria, such as enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), which can cause staphylococcal food poisoning. Antibiotic resistance of S. aureus in raw milk can increase the risk of such infections, particularly among susceptible individuals. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of enterotoxin genes a, d, g, i and j and the antibiotic resistance of S. aureus isolated from raw milk samples. METHODS During a 6-month sampling period, 60 raw milk specimens were obtained from diverse locations in Yazd province, Iran. Antibiogram profiling was conducted via the disc diffusion method. In addition, staphylococcal enterotoxin (SE) genes a, d, g, i, and j were detected through real-time PCR analysis. RESULTS Bacteriological assays confirmed the presence of S. aureus in 11 samples (18.3%). All isolates demonstrated 100% resistance to penicillin G but exhibited sensitivity to vancomycin, while resistance to other antibiotics ranged from 36.4% to 45.5%. The prevalence of enterotoxin genes in these strains showed variable distribution, with sea being the predominant SE (45.5%), followed by sed (36.4%), seg (18.2), sej and sei (9.1% each). CONCLUSIONS This study discovered the presence of multiple enterotoxins in S. aureus strains obtained from raw milk samples. These strains also demonstrated resistance to a variety of antibiotics. Since enterotoxigenic S. aureus is known to cause human food poisoning, monitoring food hygiene practices, especially during raw milk production, is critical.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sina Habibi
- Department of Medical Laboratory SciencesFaculty of Allied MedicineIran University of Medical SciencesTehranIran
- Department of Hematology and Blood Banking, Faculty of Allied MedicineIran University of Medical SciencesTehranIran
| | - Ahmad Hosseini‐Safa
- Department of Medical Laboratory SciencesFaculty of Allied MedicineIran University of Medical SciencesTehranIran
| | - Khadijeh Khanaliha
- Research Center of Pediatric Infectious DiseasesInstitute of Immunology and Infectious DiseasesIran University of Medical SciencesTehranIran
| | - Roya Mokarinejad
- Department of Medical Laboratory SciencesFaculty of Allied MedicineIran University of Medical SciencesTehranIran
| | - Fatemeh Akhoundzadeh
- Department of Medical Laboratory SciencesFaculty of Allied MedicineIran University of Medical SciencesTehranIran
| | - Mojgan Oshaghi
- Department of Medical Laboratory SciencesFaculty of Allied MedicineIran University of Medical SciencesTehranIran
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Ma T, Huang K, Cheng N. Recent Advances in Nanozyme-Mediated Strategies for Pathogen Detection and Control. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:13342. [PMID: 37686145 PMCID: PMC10487713 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241713342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogen detection and control have long presented formidable challenges in the domains of medicine and public health. This review paper underscores the potential of nanozymes as emerging bio-mimetic enzymes that hold promise in effectively tackling these challenges. The key features and advantages of nanozymes are introduced, encompassing their comparable catalytic activity to natural enzymes, enhanced stability and reliability, cost effectiveness, and straightforward preparation methods. Subsequently, the paper delves into the detailed utilization of nanozymes for pathogen detection. This includes their application as biosensors, facilitating rapid and sensitive identification of diverse pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and plasmodium. Furthermore, the paper explores strategies employing nanozymes for pathogen control, such as the regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), HOBr/Cl regulation, and clearance of extracellular DNA to impede pathogen growth and transmission. The review underscores the vast potential of nanozymes in pathogen detection and control through numerous specific examples and case studies. The authors highlight the efficiency, rapidity, and specificity of pathogen detection achieved with nanozymes, employing various strategies. They also demonstrate the feasibility of nanozymes in hindering pathogen growth and transmission. These innovative approaches employing nanozymes are projected to provide novel options for early disease diagnoses, treatment, and prevention. Through a comprehensive discourse on the characteristics and advantages of nanozymes, as well as diverse application approaches, this paper serves as a crucial reference and guide for further research and development in nanozyme technology. The expectation is that such advancements will significantly contribute to enhancing disease control measures and improving public health outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyi Ma
- Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (T.M.); (K.H.)
| | - Kunlun Huang
- Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (T.M.); (K.H.)
- Key Laboratory of Safety Assessment of Genetically Modified Organism (Food Safety), Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Nan Cheng
- Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (T.M.); (K.H.)
- Key Laboratory of Safety Assessment of Genetically Modified Organism (Food Safety), Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100083, China
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Noli Truant S, Redolfi DM, Sarratea MB, Malchiodi EL, Fernández MM. Superantigens, a Paradox of the Immune Response. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14110800. [PMID: 36422975 PMCID: PMC9692936 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14110800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcal enterotoxins are a wide family of bacterial exotoxins with the capacity to activate as much as 20% of the host T cells, which is why they were called superantigens. Superantigens (SAgs) can cause multiple diseases in humans and cattle, ranging from mild to life-threatening infections. Almost all S. aureus isolates encode at least one of these toxins, though there is no complete knowledge about how their production is triggered. One of the main problems with the available evidence for these toxins is that most studies have been conducted with a few superantigens; however, the resulting characteristics are attributed to the whole group. Although these toxins share homology and a two-domain structure organization, the similarity ratio varies from 20 to 89% among different SAgs, implying wide heterogeneity. Furthermore, every attempt to structurally classify these proteins has failed to answer differential biological functionalities. Taking these concerns into account, it might not be appropriate to extrapolate all the information that is currently available to every staphylococcal SAg. Here, we aimed to gather the available information about all staphylococcal SAgs, considering their functions and pathogenicity, their ability to interact with the immune system as well as their capacity to be used as immunotherapeutic agents, resembling the two faces of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.
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Draft Genome Sequences of 62 Staphylococcus aureus Isolates Associated with Four Foodborne Outbreaks in the United States. Microbiol Resour Announc 2021; 10:10/10/e00118-21. [PMID: 33707328 PMCID: PMC7953291 DOI: 10.1128/mra.00118-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus bacteria are ranked among the top five foodborne pathogens in the United States. Here, we report the draft genome sequences of 62 S. aureus isolates that originated from the manufacturing environment of an Illinois bakery and were associated with outbreaks between 2010 and 2011 in the United States. Staphylococcus aureus bacteria are ranked among the top five foodborne pathogens in the United States. Here, we report the draft genome sequences of 62 S. aureus isolates that originated from the manufacturing environment of an Illinois bakery and were associated with outbreaks between 2010 and 2011 in the United States.
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Grispoldi L, Massetti L, Sechi P, Iulietto MF, Ceccarelli M, Karama M, Popescu PA, Pandolfi F, Cenci-Goga BT. Short communication: Characterization of enterotoxin-producing Staphylococcus aureus isolated from mastitic cows. J Dairy Sci 2018; 102:1059-1065. [PMID: 30591337 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2018-15373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is not only a common cause of bovine mastitis, but also an agent of food poisoning in humans. In an attempt to determine whether staphylococci causing bovine mastitis could also cause food poisoning, 60 isolates of presumed S. aureus were isolated in the period between March and August 2017 from 3,384 routine, composite, quarter milk samples of individual cows raised on 12 dairy farms in central Italy. Seventeen out of 60 isolates were confirmed as S. aureus after coagulase, thermonuclease, and biochemical tests. These isolates were analyzed by PCR for the presence of the nuc, sea, seb, sec, sed, and see genes. The positive isolates were nuc, 100% (17); sea, 35.29% (6); seb, 5.88% (1); sec, 5.88% (1); sed, 29.41% (5); and see, 47.06% (8). The isolates were also tested with 2 enzyme immunoassay diagnostic kits, one for the screening detection of the production of staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEA, SEB, SEC, SED, SEE) and one for the detection of specific enterotoxin produced by each isolate. Seven out of 17 (41.18%) were enterotoxin producers: 7 produced SEA (41.18%), 1 SEB (5.88%), 1 SEC (5.88%), 5 SED (29.41%), and 6 SEE (35.29%). To further characterize the isolates, they were analyzed by the Kirby Bauer test for susceptibility to 13 antimicrobials (ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, kanamycin, tetracycline, gentamicin, methicillin, nalidixic acid, erythromycin, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, streptomycin, vancomycin, neomycin, and enrofloxacin), and we detected resistance to ampicillin (52.94%), nalidixic acid (70.59%), erythromycin (5.88%), and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (17.65%). The isolates were sensitive to the main classes of antimicrobials used for the treatment of bovine subclinical mastitis. The presence of enterotoxin-producing isolates of S. aureus in bovine milk means that a temperature abuse or a breakdown in the thermal treatment of the milk could present a food safety risk, particularly if all enterotoxigenic isolates could potentially produce SEA in milk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Grispoldi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratorio di Ispezione degli alimenti di origine animale, University of Perugia, Perugia, 06126, Italy.
| | - Luca Massetti
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratorio di Ispezione degli alimenti di origine animale, University of Perugia, Perugia, 06126, Italy
| | - Paola Sechi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratorio di Ispezione degli alimenti di origine animale, University of Perugia, Perugia, 06126, Italy
| | - Maria F Iulietto
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratorio di Ispezione degli alimenti di origine animale, University of Perugia, Perugia, 06126, Italy
| | - Margherita Ceccarelli
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratorio di Ispezione degli alimenti di origine animale, University of Perugia, Perugia, 06126, Italy
| | - Musafiri Karama
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
| | - Paul A Popescu
- Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Agronomic Science and Veterinary Medicine, Bucharest, 011464, Romania
| | | | - Beniamino T Cenci-Goga
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
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Denayer S, Delbrassinne L, Nia Y, Botteldoorn N. Food-Borne Outbreak Investigation and Molecular Typing: High Diversity of Staphylococcus aureus Strains and Importance of Toxin Detection. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E407. [PMID: 29261162 PMCID: PMC5744127 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9120407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Revised: 12/15/2017] [Accepted: 12/16/2017] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is an important aetiological agent of food intoxications in the European Union as it can cause gastro-enteritis through the production of various staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) in foods. Reported enterotoxin dose levels causing food-borne illness are scarce and varying. Three food poisoning outbreaks due to enterotoxin-producing S. aureus strains which occurred in 2013 in Belgium are described. The outbreaks occurred in an elderly home, at a barbecue event and in a kindergarten and involved 28, 18, and six cases, respectively. Various food leftovers contained coagulase positive staphylococci (CPS). Low levels of staphylococcal enterotoxins ranging between 0.015 ng/g and 0.019 ng/g for enterotoxin A (SEA), and corresponding to 0.132 ng/g for SEC were quantified in the food leftovers for two of the reported outbreaks. Molecular typing of human and food isolates using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and enterotoxin gene typing, confirmed the link between patients and the suspected foodstuffs. This also demonstrated the high diversity of CPS isolates both in the cases and in healthy persons carrying enterotoxin genes encoding emetic SEs for which no detection methods currently exist. For one outbreak, the investigation pointed out to the food handler who transmitted the outbreak strain to the food. Tools to improve staphylococcal food poisoning (SFP) investigations are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Denayer
- Scientific Service of Food borne Pathogens, Scientific Institute of Public Health (WIV-ISP), 1050 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Laurence Delbrassinne
- Scientific Service of Food borne Pathogens, Scientific Institute of Public Health (WIV-ISP), 1050 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Yacine Nia
- Laboratory for Food Safety, Anses, Université Paris-Est, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | - Nadine Botteldoorn
- Scientific Service of Food borne Pathogens, Scientific Institute of Public Health (WIV-ISP), 1050 Brussels, Belgium.
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Kashuba E, Dmitriev AA, Kamal SM, Melefors O, Griva G, Römling U, Ernberg I, Kashuba V, Brouchkov A. Ancient permafrost staphylococci carry antibiotic resistance genes. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY IN HEALTH AND DISEASE 2017; 28:1345574. [PMID: 28959177 PMCID: PMC5614383 DOI: 10.1080/16512235.2017.1345574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2017] [Accepted: 06/14/2017] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Background: Permafrost preserves a variety of viable ancient microorganisms. Some of them can be cultivated after being kept at subzero temperatures for thousands or even millions of years. Objective: To cultivate bacterial strains from permafrost. Design: We isolated and cultivated two bacterial strains from permafrost that was obtained at Mammoth Mountain in Siberia and attributed to the Middle Miocene. Bacterial genomic DNA was sequenced with 40-60× coverage and high-quality contigs were assembled. The first strain was assigned to Staphylococcus warneri species (designated MMP1) and the second one to Staphylococcus hominis species (designated MMP2), based on the classification of 16S ribosomal RNA genes and genomic sequences. Results: Genomic sequence analysis revealed the close relation of the isolated ancient bacteria to the modern bacteria of this species. Moreover, several genes associated with resistance to different groups of antibiotics were found in the S. hominis MMP2 genome. Conclusions: These findings supports a hypothesis that antibiotic resistance has an ancient origin. The enrichment of cultivated bacterial communities with ancient permafrost strains is essential for the analysis of bacterial evolution and antibiotic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Kashuba
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Laboratory of Cancer Genetics, R.E. Kavetsky Institute of Experimental Pathology, Oncology and Radiobiology, NASU, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Alexey A Dmitriev
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Shady Mansour Kamal
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Pharmaceutical Industries, Future University in Egypt, New Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ojar Melefors
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gennady Griva
- Siberian Branch of RAS, Institute of the Earth Cryosphere, Tyumen, Russia
| | - Ute Römling
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ingemar Ernberg
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Vladimir Kashuba
- Department of Molecular Oncogenetics, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, NASU, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Anatoli Brouchkov
- Faculty of Geology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
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Martinović T, Andjelković U, Gajdošik MŠ, Rešetar D, Josić D. Foodborne pathogens and their toxins. J Proteomics 2016; 147:226-235. [PMID: 27109345 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2016.04.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Revised: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Foodborne pathogens, mostly bacteria and fungi, but also some viruses, prions and protozoa, contaminate food during production and processing, but also during storage and transport before consuming. During their growth these microorganisms can secrete different components, including toxins, into the extracellular environment. Other harmful substances can be also liberated and can contaminate food after disintegration of food pathogens. Some bacterial and fungal toxins can be resistant to inactivation, and can survive harsh treatment during food processing. Many of these molecules are involved in cellular processes and can indicate different mechanisms of pathogenesis of foodborne organisms. More knowledge about food contaminants can also help understand their inactivation. In the present review the use of proteomics, peptidomics and metabolomics, in addition to other foodomic methods for the detection of foodborne pathogenic fungi and bacteria, is overviewed. Furthermore, it is discussed how these techniques can be used for discovering biomarkers for pathogenicity of foodborne pathogens, determining the mechanisms by which they act, and studying their resistance upon inactivation in food of animal and plant origin. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE Comprehensive and comparative view into the genome and proteome of foodborne pathogens of bacterial or fungal origin and foodomic, mostly proteomic, peptidomic and metabolomic investigation of their toxin production and their mechanism of action is necessary in order to get further information about their virulence, pathogenicity and survival under stress conditions. Furthermore, these data pave the way for identification of biomarkers to trace sources of contamination with food-borne microorganisms and their endo- and exotoxins in order to ensure food safety and prevent the outbreak of food-borne diseases. Therefore, detection of pathogens and their toxins during production, transport and before consume of food produce, as well as protection against food spoilage is a task of great social, economic and public health importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Martinović
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Rijeka, Radmile Matejčić 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Uroš Andjelković
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Rijeka, Radmile Matejčić 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Martina Šrajer Gajdošik
- Department of Chemistry, University of J. J. Strossmayer, Cara Hadrijana 8/A, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Dina Rešetar
- Centre of High-throughput Technologies, Department of Biotechnology, University of Rijeka, Radmile Matejčić 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Djuro Josić
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Rijeka, Radmile Matejčić 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; Warren Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Reginald Bennett
- Food and Drug Administration; 5100 Paint Branch Parkway College Park MD 20740
| | - Jennifer Hait
- Food and Drug Administration; 5100 Paint Branch Parkway College Park MD 20740
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