Fast and reversible neural inactivation in macaque cortex by optogenetic stimulation of GABAergic neurons

Multimodal Correspondence between Optogenetic fMRI, Electrophysiology, and Anatomical Maps of the Secondary Somatosensory Cortex in Nonhuman Primates

Optogenetic neuromodulation combined with functional MRI (opto-fMRI) enables noninvasive monitoring of brain-wide activity and probes causal connections. In this study, we focused on the secondary somatosensory (S2) cortex, a hub for integrating tactile and nociceptive information. By selectively stimulating excitatory neurons in the S2 cortex of monkeys using optogenetics, we observed widespread opto-fMRI activity in regions beyond the somatosensory system, as well as a strong spatial correspondence between opto-fMRI activity map and anatomical connections of the S2 cortex. Locally, optogenetically evoked fMRI BOLD signals from putative excitatory neurons exhibited standard hemodynamic response function. At low laser power, graded opto-fMRI signal changes are closely correlated with increases in local field potential (LFP) signals, but not with spiking activity. This indicates that LFP changes in excitatory neurons more accurately reflect the opto-fMRI signals than spikes. In summary, our optogenetic fMRI and anatomical findings provide causal functional and anatomical evidence supporting the role of the S2 cortex as a critical hub connecting sensory regions to higher-order cortical and subcortical regions involved in cognition and emotion. The electrophysiological basis of the opto-fMRI signals uncovered in this study offers novel insights into interpreting opto-fMRI results. Nonhuman primates are an invaluable intermediate model for translating optogenetic preclinical findings to humans.

Optogenetic modulation of long-range cortical circuits in awake nonhuman primates

Causal control of short- and long-range projections between networks is necessary to study complex cognitive processes and cortical computations. Neural circuits can be studied via optogenetic approaches, which provide excellent genetic and temporal control and electrophysiological recordings. However, in nonhuman primates (NHPs), these approaches are commonly performed at a single location, missing out on the potential to test connections between separate networks. We have recently developed an approach for optogenetic manipulation in NHPs which targets intra- and interareal cortical projections. Here we describe the combination of optogenetic stimulation with standard chamber-based electrophysiological recordings in awake NHPs to monitor and manipulate both short- and long-range feedforward and feedback circuits. We describe the injection of viral constructs, the simultaneous electrophysiological recordings with the optical stimulation of neurons at various cortical distances and the evaluation of gene expression using a focal biopsy technique. We focus on details that are specific to NHP preparations, such as the precise targeting of injection sites, choosing appropriate viral constructs and considerations for behavioral measures. When combined with laminar electrode configurations (to functionally identify cortical layers) and complex cognitive behavioral tasks, our approach can be used to investigate an array of systems neuroscience questions, such as the role of feedback circuits in attention and the role of lateral connections in contrast normalization. The procedure requires 2-3 active days and 45 waiting days to transduce selected neural circuits and several weeks to complete experiments. The procedure is appropriate for users with expertise in in vivo, awake electrophysiology with NHPs.

Preferential transduction of parvalbumin-expressing cortical neurons by AAV-mDLX5/6 vectors

A major goal of modern neuroscience is to understand the functions of the varied neuronal types that comprise the mammalian brain. Toward this end, some types of neurons can be targeted and manipulated with enhancer-bearing AAV vectors. These vectors hold great promise to advance basic and translational neuroscience, but to realize this potential, their selectivity must be characterized. In this study, we investigated the selectivity of AAV vectors carrying an enhancer of the murine Dlx5 and Dlx6 genes. Vectors were injected into the visual cortex of two macaque monkeys, the frontal cortex of two others, and the somatosensory/motor cortex of three rats. Post-mortem immunostaining revealed that parvalbumin-expressing neurons were transduced efficiently in all cases but calretinin-expressing neurons were not. We speculate that this specificity is a consequence of differential activity of this DLX5/6 enhancer in adult neurons of different developmental lineages.

Circuit-specific gene therapy reverses core symptoms in a primate Parkinson's disease model

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disorder. Its symptoms are typically treated with levodopa or dopamine receptor agonists, but its action lacks specificity due to the wide distribution of dopamine receptors in the central nervous system and periphery. Here, we report the development of a gene therapy strategy to selectively manipulate PD-affected circuitry. Targeting striatal D1 medium spiny neurons (MSNs), whose activity is chronically suppressed in PD, we engineered a therapeutic strategy comprised of a highly efficient retrograde adeno-associated virus (AAV), promoter elements with strong D1-MSN activity, and a chemogenetic effector to enable precise D1-MSN activation after systemic ligand administration. Application of this therapeutic approach rescues locomotion, tremor, and motor skill defects in both mouse and primate models of PD, supporting the feasibility of targeted circuit modulation tools for the treatment of PD in humans.

Genetic Approaches for Neural Circuits Dissection in Non-human Primates

Genetic tools, which can be used for the morphology study of specific neurons, pathway-selective connectome mapping, neuronal activity monitoring, and manipulation with a spatiotemporal resolution, have been widely applied to the understanding of complex neural circuit formation, interactions, and functions in rodents. Recently, similar genetic approaches have been tried in non-human primates (NHPs) in neuroscience studies for dissecting the neural circuits involved in sophisticated behaviors and clinical brain disorders, although they are still very preliminary. In this review, we introduce the progress made in the development and application of genetic tools for brain studies on NHPs. We also discuss the advantages and limitations of each approach and provide a perspective for using genetic tools to study the neural circuits of NHPs.

Enhancer-AAVs allow genetic access to oligodendrocytes and diverse populations of astrocytes across species

Proper brain function requires the assembly and function of diverse populations of neurons and glia. Single cell gene expression studies have mostly focused on characterization of neuronal cell diversity; however, recent studies have revealed substantial diversity of glial cells, particularly astrocytes. To better understand glial cell types and their roles in neurobiology, we built a new suite of adeno-associated viral (AAV)-based genetic tools to enable genetic access to astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. These oligodendrocyte and astrocyte enhancer-AAVs are highly specific (usually > 95% cell type specificity) with variable expression levels, and our astrocyte enhancer-AAVs show multiple distinct expression patterns reflecting the spatial distribution of astrocyte cell types. To provide the best glial-specific functional tools, several enhancer-AAVs were: optimized for higher expression levels, shown to be functional and specific in rat and macaque, shown to maintain specific activity in epilepsy where traditional promoters changed activity, and used to drive functional transgenes in astrocytes including Cre recombinase and acetylcholine-responsive sensor iAChSnFR. The astrocyte-specific iAChSnFR revealed a clear reward-dependent acetylcholine response in astrocytes of the nucleus accumbens during reinforcement learning. Together, this collection of glial enhancer-AAVs will enable characterization of astrocyte and oligodendrocyte populations and their roles across species, disease states, and behavioral epochs.

Behavioral optogenetics in nonhuman primates; a psychological perspective

Optogenetics has been a promising and developing technology in systems neuroscience throughout the past decade. It has been difficult though to reliably establish the potential behavioral effects of optogenetic perturbation of the neural activity in nonhuman primates. This poses a challenge on the future of optogenetics in humans as the concepts and technology need to be developed in nonhuman primates first. Here, I briefly summarize the viable approaches taken to improve nonhuman primate behavioral optogenetics, then focus on one approach: improvements in the measurement of behavior. I bring examples from visual behavior and show how the choice of method of measurement might conceal large behavioral effects. I will then discuss the "cortical perturbation detection" task in detail as an example of a sensitive task that can record the behavioral effects of optogenetic cortical stimulation with high fidelity. Finally, encouraged by the rich scientific landscape ahead of behavioral optogenetics, I invite technology developers to improve the chronically implantable devices designed for simultaneous neural recording and optogenetic intervention in nonhuman primates.

Optogenetics in primate cortical networks

The implementation of optogenetics in studies on non-human primates has generally proven quite difficult, but recent successes have paved the way for its rapid increase. Limitations in the genetic tractability in primates, have been somewhat overcome by implementing tailored vectors and promoters to maximize expression and specificity in primates. More recently, implantable devices, including microLED arrays, have made it possible to deliver light deeper into brain tissue, allowing targeting of deeper structures. However, the greatest limitation in applying optogenetics to the primate brain is the complex connections that exist within many neural circuits. In the past, relatively cruder methods such as cooling or pharmacological blockade have been used to examine neural circuit functions, though their limitations were well recognized. In some ways, similar shortcomings remain for optogenetics, with the ability to target a single component of complex neural circuits being the greatest challenge in applying optogenetics to systems neuroscience in primate brains. Despite this, some recent approaches combining Cre-expressing and Cre-dependent vectors have overcome some of these limitations. Here we suggest that optogenetics provides its greatest advantage to systems neuroscientists when applied as a specific tool to complement the techniques of the past, rather than necessarily replacing them.

Optogenetic stimulation of the primary visual cortex drives activity in the visual association cortex

Developing optogenetic methods for research in non-human primates (NHP) is important for translational neuroscience and for delineating brain function with unprecedented specificity. Here we assess, in macaque monkeys, the selectivity by which optogenetic stimulation of the primary visual cortex (V1) drives the local laminar and widespread cortical connectivity related to visual perception. Towards this end, we transfected neurons with light-sensitive channelrhodopsin in dorsal V1. fMRI revealed that optogenetic stimulation of V1 using blue light at 40 Hz increased functional activity in the visual association cortex, including areas V2/V3, V4, motion-sensitive area MT and frontal eye fields, although nonspecific heating and eye movement contributions to this effect could not be ruled out. Neurophysiology and immunohistochemistry analyses confirmed optogenetic modulation of spiking activity and opsin expression with the strongest expression in layer 4-B in V1. Stimulating this pathway during a perceptual decision task effectively elicited a phosphene percept in the receptive field of the stimulated neurons in one monkey. Taken together, our findings demonstrate the great potential of optogenetic methods to drive the large-scale cortical circuits of the primate brain with high functional and spatial specificity.

Advances in AAV technology for delivering genetically encoded cargo to the nonhuman primate nervous system

Modern neuroscience approaches including optogenetics, calcium imaging, and other genetic manipulations have facilitated our ability to dissect specific circuits in rodent models to study their role in neurological disease. These approaches regularly use viral vectors to deliver genetic cargo (e.g., opsins) to specific tissues and genetically-engineered rodents to achieve cell-type specificity. However, the translatability of these rodent models, cross-species validation of identified targets, and translational efficacy of potential therapeutics in larger animal models like nonhuman primates remains difficult due to the lack of efficient primate viral vectors. A refined understanding of the nonhuman primate nervous system promises to deliver insights that can guide the development of treatments for neurological and neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we outline recent advances in the development of adeno-associated viral vectors for optimized use in nonhuman primates. These tools promise to help open new avenues for study in translational neuroscience and further our understanding of the primate brain.

Head-mounted optical imaging and optogenetic stimulation system for use in behaving primates

Advances in optical technology have revolutionized studies of brain function in freely behaving mice. Here, we describe an optical imaging and stimulation device for use in primates that easily attaches to an intracranial chamber. It consists of affordable commercially available or 3D-printed components: a monochromatic camera, a small standard lens, a wireless μLED stimulator powered by an induction coil, and an LED array for illumination. We show that the intrinsic imaging performance of this device is comparable to a standard benchtop system in revealing the functional organization of the visual cortex for awake macaques in a primate chair or under anesthesia. Imaging revealed neural modulatory effects of wireless focal optogenetic stimulation aimed at identified functional domains. With a 1 to 2 cm field of view, 100× larger than previously used in primates without head restraint, our device permits widefield optical imaging and optogenetic stimulation for ethological studies in primates.

Visualizing advances in the future of primate neuroscience research

Future neuroscience and biomedical projects involving non-human primates (NHPs) remain essential in our endeavors to understand the complexities and functioning of the mammalian central nervous system. In so doing, the NHP neuroscience researcher must be allowed to incorporate state-of-the-art technologies, including the use of novel viral vectors, gene therapy and transgenic approaches to answer continuing and emerging research questions that can only be addressed in NHP research models. This perspective piece captures these emerging technologies and some specific research questions they can address. At the same time, we highlight some current caveats to global NHP research and collaborations including the lack of common ethical and regulatory frameworks for NHP research, the limitations involving animal transportation and exports, and the ongoing influence of activist groups opposed to NHP research.

Ultra-high field (10.5T) diffusion-weighted MRI of the macaque brain

Diffu0sion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI) is a non-invasive imaging technique that provides information about the barriers to the diffusion of water molecules in tissue. In the brain, this information can be used in several important ways, including to examine tissue abnormalities associated with brain disorders and to infer anatomical connectivity and the organization of white matter bundles through the use of tractography algorithms. However, dMRI also presents certain challenges. For example, historically, the biological validation of tractography models has shown only moderate correlations with anatomical connectivity as determined through invasive tract-tracing studies. Some of the factors contributing to such issues are low spatial resolution, low signal-to-noise ratios, and long scan times required for high-quality data, along with modeling challenges like complex fiber crossing patterns. Leveraging the capabilities provided by an ultra-high field scanner combined with denoising, we have acquired whole-brain, 0.58 mm isotropic resolution dMRI with a 2D-single shot echo planar imaging sequence on a 10.5 Tesla scanner in anesthetized macaques. These data produced high-quality tractograms and maps of scalar diffusion metrics in white matter. This work demonstrates the feasibility and motivation for in-vivo dMRI studies seeking to benefit from ultra-high fields.

Dissecting the Prefrontal Network With Pathway-Selective Manipulation in the Macaque Brain-A Review

Macaque monkeys are prime animal models for studying the neural mechanisms of decision-making because of their close kinship with humans. Manipulation of neural activity during decision-making tasks is essential for approaching the causal relationship between the brain and its functions. Conventional manipulation methods used in macaque studies are coarse-grained, and have worked indiscriminately on mutually intertwined neural pathways. To systematically dissect neural circuits responsible for a variety of functions, it is essential to analyze changes in behavior and neural activity through interventions in specific neural pathways. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have applied optogenetics and chemogenetics to achieve fine-grained pathway-selective manipulation in the macaque brain. Here, we review the developments in macaque studies involving pathway-selective operations, with a particular focus on applications to the prefrontal network. Pathway selectivity can be achieved using single viral vector transduction combined with local light stimulation or ligand administration directly into the brain or double-viral vector transduction combined with systemic drug administration. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these methods. We also highlight recent technological developments in viral vectors that can effectively infect the macaque brain, as well as the development of methods to deliver photostimulation or ligand drugs to a wide area to effectively manipulate behavior. The development and dissemination of such pathway-selective manipulations of macaque prefrontal networks will enable us to efficiently dissect the neural mechanisms of decision-making and innovate novel treatments for decision-related psychiatric disorders.

Modelling behaviors relevant to brain disorders in the nonhuman primate: Are we there yet?

Recent years have seen a profound resurgence of activity with nonhuman primates (NHPs) to model human brain disorders. From marmosets to macaques, the study of NHP species offers a unique window into the function of primate-specific neural circuits that are impossible to examine in other models. Examining how these circuits manifest into the complex behaviors of primates, such as advanced cognitive and social functions, has provided enormous insights to date into the mechanisms underlying symptoms of numerous neurological and neuropsychiatric illnesses. With the recent optimization of modern techniques to manipulate and measure neural activity in vivo, such as optogenetics and calcium imaging, NHP research is more well-equipped than ever to probe the neural mechanisms underlying pathological behavior. However, methods for behavioral experimentation and analysis in NHPs have noticeably failed to keep pace with these advances. As behavior ultimately lies at the junction between preclinical findings and its translation to clinical outcomes for brain disorders, approaches to improve the integrity, reproducibility, and translatability of behavioral experiments in NHPs requires critical evaluation. In this review, we provide a unifying account of existing brain disorder models using NHPs, and provide insights into the present and emerging contributions of behavioral studies to the field.

Marmosets: a promising model for probing the neural mechanisms underlying complex visual networks such as the frontal-parietal network

The technology, methodology and models used by visual neuroscientists have provided great insights into the structure and function of individual brain areas. However, complex cognitive functions arise in the brain due to networks comprising multiple interacting cortical areas that are wired together with precise anatomical connections. A prime example of this phenomenon is the frontal–parietal network and two key regions within it: the frontal eye fields (FEF) and lateral intraparietal area (area LIP). Activity in these cortical areas has independently been tied to oculomotor control, motor preparation, visual attention and decision-making. Strong, bidirectional anatomical connections have also been traced between FEF and area LIP, suggesting that the aforementioned visual functions depend on these inter-area interactions. However, advancements in our knowledge about the interactions between area LIP and FEF are limited with the main animal model, the rhesus macaque, because these key regions are buried in the sulci of the brain. In this review, we propose that the common marmoset is the ideal model for investigating how anatomical connections give rise to functionally-complex cognitive visual behaviours, such as those modulated by the frontal–parietal network, because of the homology of their cortical networks with humans and macaques, amenability to transgenic technology, and rich behavioural repertoire. Furthermore, the lissencephalic structure of the marmoset brain enables application of powerful techniques, such as array-based electrophysiology and optogenetics, which are critical to bridge the gaps in our knowledge about structure and function in the brain.

Non-linear dimensionality reduction on extracellular waveforms reveals cell type diversity in premotor cortex

Cortical circuits are thought to contain a large number of cell types that coordinate to produce behavior. Current in vivo methods rely on clustering of specified features of extracellular waveforms to identify putative cell types, but these capture only a small amount of variation. Here, we develop a new method (WaveMAP) that combines non-linear dimensionality reduction with graph clustering to identify putative cell types. We apply WaveMAP to extracellular waveforms recorded from dorsal premotor cortex of macaque monkeys performing a decision-making task. Using WaveMAP, we robustly establish eight waveform clusters and show that these clusters recapitulate previously identified narrow- and broad-spiking types while revealing previously unknown diversity within these subtypes. The eight clusters exhibited distinct laminar distributions, characteristic firing rate patterns, and decision-related dynamics. Such insights were weaker when using feature-based approaches. WaveMAP therefore provides a more nuanced understanding of the dynamics of cell types in cortical circuits.

Injections of AAV Vectors for Optogenetics in Anesthetized and Awake Behaving Non-Human Primate Brain

Optogenetic techniques have revolutionized neuroscience research and are poised to do the same for neurological gene therapy. The clinical use of optogenetics, however, requires that safety and efficacy be demonstrated in animal models, ideally in non-human primates (NHPs), because of their neurological similarity to humans. The number of candidate vectors that are potentially useful for neuroscience and medicine is vast, and no high-throughput means to test these vectors yet exists. Thus, there is a need for techniques to make multiple spatially and volumetrically accurate injections of viral vectors into NHP brain that can be identified unambiguously through postmortem histology. Described herein is such a method. Injection cannulas are constructed from coupled polytetrafluoroethylene and stainless-steel tubes. These cannulas are autoclavable, disposable, and have low minimal-loading volumes, making them ideal for the injection of expensive, highly concentrated viral vector solutions. An inert, red-dyed mineral oil fills the dead space and forms a visible meniscus with the vector solution, allowing instantaneous and accurate measurement of injection rates and volumes. The oil is loaded into the rear of the cannula, reducing the risk of co-injection with the vector. Cannulas can be loaded in 10 min, and injections can be made in 20 min. This procedure is well suited for injections into awake or anesthetized animals. When used to deliver high-quality viral vectors, this procedure can produce robust expression of optogenetic proteins, allowing optical control of neural activity and behavior in NHPs.

Combining brain perturbation and neuroimaging in non-human primates

Brain perturbation studies allow detailed causal inferences of behavioral and neural processes. Because the combination of brain perturbation methods and neural measurement techniques is inherently challenging, research in humans has predominantly focused on non-invasive, indirect brain perturbations, or neurological lesion studies. Non-human primates have been indispensable as a neurobiological system that is highly similar to humans while simultaneously being more experimentally tractable, allowing visualization of the functional and structural impact of systematic brain perturbation. This review considers the state of the art in non-human primate brain perturbation with a focus on approaches that can be combined with neuroimaging. We consider both non-reversible (lesions) and reversible or temporary perturbations such as electrical, pharmacological, optical, optogenetic, chemogenetic, pathway-selective, and ultrasound based interference methods. Method-specific considerations from the research and development community are offered to facilitate research in this field and support further innovations. We conclude by identifying novel avenues for further research and innovation and by highlighting the clinical translational potential of the methods.

Neurochemical changes in the primate lateral geniculate nucleus following lesions of striate cortex in infancy and adulthood: implications for residual vision and blindsight

Following lesions of the primary visual cortex (V1), the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) undergoes substantial cell loss due to retrograde degeneration. However, visually responsive neurons remain in the degenerated sector of LGN, and these have been implicated in mediation of residual visual capacities that remain within the affected sectors of the visual field. Using immunohistochemistry, we compared the neurochemical characteristics of LGN neurons in V1-lesioned marmoset monkeys (Callithrix jacchus) with those of non-lesioned control animals. We found that GABAergic neurons form approximately 6.5% of the neuronal population in the normal LGN, where most of these cells express the calcium-binding protein parvalbumin. Following long-term V1 lesions in adult monkeys, we observed a marked increase (~ sevenfold) in the proportion of GABA-expressing neurons in the degenerated sector of the LGN, indicating that GABAergic cells are less affected by retrograde degeneration in comparison with magno- and parvocellular projection neurons. In addition, following early postnatal V1 lesions and survival into adulthood, we found widespread expression of GABA in putative projection neurons, even outside the degenerated sectors (lesion projection zones). Our findings show that changes in the ratio of GABAergic neurons in LGN need to be taken into account in the interpretation of the mechanisms of visual abilities that survive V1 lesions in primates.

An Open Resource for Non-human Primate Optogenetics

Optogenetics has revolutionized neuroscience in small laboratory animals, but its effect on animal models more closely related to humans, such as non-human primates (NHPs), has been mixed. To make evidence-based decisions in primate optogenetics, the scientific community would benefit from a centralized database listing all attempts, successful and unsuccessful, of using optogenetics in the primate brain. We contacted members of the community to ask for their contributions to an open science initiative. As of this writing, 45 laboratories around the world contributed more than 1,000 injection experiments, including precise details regarding their methods and outcomes. Of those entries, more than half had not been published. The resource is free for everyone to consult and contribute to on the Open Science Framework website. Here we review some of the insights from this initial release of the database and discuss methodological considerations to improve the success of optogenetic experiments in NHPs.

Exciting inhibition in primates

A new genetic marker enables precise control over a group of inhibitory neurons in monkeys.