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Joly-Tonetti N, Legouffe R, Tomezyk A, Gumez C, Gaudin M, Bonnel D, Schaller M. Penetration Profiles of Four Topical Antifungals in Mycotic Human Toenails Quantified by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Imaging. Infect Dis Ther 2024:10.1007/s40121-024-00978-3. [PMID: 38704491 DOI: 10.1007/s40121-024-00978-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Onychomycosis is a fungal infection of the nails that can be challenging to treat. Here, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (MALDI-FTICR) imaging was applied to the quantitative analysis of the penetration profile of the antifungal compound, amorolfine, in human mycotic toenails. The amorolfine profile was compared with those of three other antifungals, ciclopirox, naftifine, and tioconazole. METHODS Antifungal compounds (amorolfine 5% lacquer, ciclopirox 8% lacquer, naftifine 1% solution, and tioconazole 28% solution) were applied to mycotic nails (n = 42). Nail sections were prepared, and MALDI-FTICR analysis was performed on the sections at a spatial resolution of 70 μm to compare the distribution profiles. Based on the minimum inhibitory concentrations of the four test compounds needed to kill 90% (MIC90) of the fungal organism, Trichophyton rubrum, the fold differences between the MIC90 and the antifungal concentrations in the nails (termed the multiplicity of the MIC90) were calculated for each. RESULTS The penetration profiles indicated higher concentrations of amorolfine and ciclopirox in the deeper layers of the nails 3 h after treatment, compared with naftifine and tioconazole. The mean concentrations across the entire nail sections at 3 h were significantly different among the four antifungals: amorolfine, 2.46 mM; ciclopirox, 0.95 mM; naftifine, 0.63 mM; and tioconazole, 1.36 mM (p = 0.016; n = 8 per compound). The median multiplicity of the MIC90 at 3 h was 191-fold for amorolfine, tenfold for ciclopirox, 52-fold for naftifine, and 208-fold for tioconazole. CONCLUSION In this study, MALDI-FTICR was successfully applied to the quantitative analysis of antifungal distribution in human mycotic nails. The findings suggest that amorolfine penetrates deeper layers of the nail and accumulates at concentrations far exceeding the MIC needed to exert antimycotic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Raphael Legouffe
- Aliri, Parc Eurasanté, 152 Rue du Dr Yersin, 59120, Loos, France
| | - Aurore Tomezyk
- Aliri, Parc Eurasanté, 152 Rue du Dr Yersin, 59120, Loos, France
| | - Clémence Gumez
- Aliri, Parc Eurasanté, 152 Rue du Dr Yersin, 59120, Loos, France
| | - Mathieu Gaudin
- Aliri, Parc Eurasanté, 152 Rue du Dr Yersin, 59120, Loos, France
| | - David Bonnel
- Aliri, Parc Eurasanté, 152 Rue du Dr Yersin, 59120, Loos, France
| | - Martin Schaller
- Department of Dermatology, Eberhard-Karls-University, Liebermeisterstr. 25, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
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Chang W, Bao F, Wang Z, Liu H, Zhang F. Comparison of the Sensititre YeastOne ® and CLSI M38-A2 microdilution methods in determining the activity of nine antifungal agents against dermatophytes. Mycoses 2021; 64:734-741. [PMID: 33760301 DOI: 10.1111/myc.13272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dermatophytes are the most common fungal pathogens causing superficial infections in humans with a high prevalence worldwide. The treatment of these infections is based on the use of topical and systemic antifungal agents. A convenient method with a high predictive value for testing the susceptibilities of dermatophytes is necessary. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the ability of the Sensititre YeastOne® in testing the activity of nine antifungal agents against dermatophytes. METHODS We compared Sensititre® with reference procedure for anidulafungin (ANID), micafungin sodium (MCF), caspofungin acetate (CAS), 5-fluorocytosine (5FC), posaconazole (PCZ), voriconazole (VCZ), itraconazole (ITZ), fluconazole (FLZ) and amphotericin B (AMB) against 79 dermatophyte isolates, the essential agreement (EA) and categorical agreement (CA) between the two methods were obtained. RESULTS The MICs or MECs obtained by the Sensititre® were usually lower than those obtained by the M38-A2. The overall EA between the two methods of nine antifungals was best for 5FC (100%), followed by MCF (94.9%), PCZ (84.8%), AMB (67.1%), FLZ (65.8%), VCZ (63.3%), ANID (29.1%), ITZ (20.3%) and CAS (2.5%). The overall CA between the two methods for all drugs was 100% except for ANID (97.4%), MCF (95%) and PCZ (92.5%). Substantial discrepancies were observed with all drugs except for VCZ and 5FC. The results of M38-A2 in terms of GMIC (or GMEC) and MIC90 (or MEC90) were, in increasing order, as follows: MCF, PCZ, VCZ, ANID, ITZ, CAS, AMB, FLZ and 5FC. CONCLUSIONS The Sensititre YeastOne® shows poor EA with the reference method for dermatophytes; therefore, M38-A2 should remain the reference procedure for antifungal susceptibility testing against dermatophytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenqian Chang
- Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.,Shandong Provincial Hospital for Skin Diseases & Shandong Provincial Institute of Dermatology and Venereology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Fangfang Bao
- Shandong Provincial Hospital for Skin Diseases & Shandong Provincial Institute of Dermatology and Venereology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Zhenzhen Wang
- Shandong Provincial Hospital for Skin Diseases & Shandong Provincial Institute of Dermatology and Venereology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Hong Liu
- Shandong Provincial Hospital for Skin Diseases & Shandong Provincial Institute of Dermatology and Venereology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Furen Zhang
- Shandong Provincial Hospital for Skin Diseases & Shandong Provincial Institute of Dermatology and Venereology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
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Martins MP, Silva LG, Rossi A, Sanches PR, Souza LDR, Martinez-Rossi NM. Global Analysis of Cell Wall Genes Revealed Putative Virulence Factors in the Dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2168. [PMID: 31608026 PMCID: PMC6761320 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The fungal cell wall is a structure in constant contact with the external environment. It confers shape to the cell and protects it from external threats. During host adaptation, the cell wall structure of fungal pathogens is continuously reshaped by the orchestrated action of numerous genes. These genes respond to environmental stresses and challenging growth conditions, influencing the infective potential of the fungus. Here, we aimed to identify cell wall biosynthesis-related genes that putatively encode virulence factors in Trichophyton rubrum. We used RNA-seq to examine the impact of two drugs, namely undecanoic acid, and acriflavine as well as the effects of the carbon source switching from glucose to keratin on T. rubrum cell wall metabolism. By using functional annotation based on Gene Ontology terms, we identified significantly differentially expressed cell wall-related genes in all stress conditions. We also exposed T. rubrum to osmotic and other cell wall stressors and evaluated the susceptibility and gene modulation in response to stress. The changes in the ambient environment caused continuous cell wall remodeling, forcing the fungus to undergo modulatory restructuring. The influence of the external challenges indicated a highly complex response pattern. The genes that were modulated simultaneously in the three stress conditions highlight potential targets for antifungal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maíra P Martins
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Larissa G Silva
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Antonio Rossi
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Pablo R Sanches
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Larissa D R Souza
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Nilce M Martinez-Rossi
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
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Khurana A, Sardana K, Chowdhary A. Antifungal resistance in dermatophytes: Recent trends and therapeutic implications. Fungal Genet Biol 2019; 132:103255. [PMID: 31330295 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2019.103255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Revised: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Dermatophytoses or tinea refers to superficial fungal infection of keratinized tissues. Although generally considered easy to treat, recalcitrant infections, presenting as extensive and difficult to treat tinea corporis and cruris, are on the rise in some parts of the world. The situation demands an understanding of the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the available antifungals against dermatophytes and the possible contribution of drug resistance and other factors to the present scenario. In this review, we provide the readers a comprehensive account of the available literature on in-vitro and in-vivo resistance to clinically used antifungals among dermatophytes. We have also added, in brief, the relevant skin pharmacokinetics of important systemic drugs. The established and postulated mechanisms of drug resistance are discussed and aspects on lack of in vivo correlation of in vitro resistance are presented. Finally, the lacunae in our existing knowledge on the topic and the arenas for future research are highlighted.
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Bitencourt TA, Macedo C, Franco ME, Rocha MC, Moreli IS, Cantelli BAM, Sanches PR, Beleboni RO, Malavazi I, Passos GA, Marins M, Fachin AL. Trans-chalcone activity against Trichophyton rubrum relies on an interplay between signaling pathways related to cell wall integrity and fatty acid metabolism. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:411. [PMID: 31117938 PMCID: PMC6532161 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-5792-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Trichophyton rubrum is the main etiological agent of skin and nail infections worldwide. Because of its keratinolytic activity and anthropophilic nature, infection models based on the addition of protein substrates have been employed to assess transcriptional profiles and to elucidate aspects related to host-pathogen interactions. Chalcones are widespread compounds with pronounced activity against dermatophytes. The toxicity of trans-chalcone towards T. rubrum is not fully understood but seems to rely on diverse cellular targets. Within this context, a better understanding of the mode of action of trans-chalcone may help identify new strategies of antifungal therapy and reveal new chemotherapeutic targets. This work aimed to assess the transcriptional profile of T. rubrum grown on different protein sources (keratin or elastin) to mimic natural infection sites and exposed to trans-chalcone in order to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the antifungal activity of trans-chalcone. Results Overall, the use of different protein sources caused only slight differences in the transcriptional profile of T. rubrum. The main differences were the modulation of proteases and lipases in gene categories when T. rubrum was grown on keratin and elastin, respectively. In addition, some genes encoding heat shock proteins were up-regulated during the growth of T. rubrum on keratin. The transcriptional profile of T. rubrum exposed to trans-chalcone included four main categories: fatty acid and lipid metabolism, overall stress response, cell wall integrity pathway, and alternative energy metabolism. Consistently, T. rubrum Mapk was strongly activated during the first hours of trans-chalcone exposure. Noteworthy, trans-chalcone inhibited genes involved in keratin degradation. The results also showed effects of trans-chalcone on fatty acid synthesis and metabolic pathways involved in acetyl-CoA supply. Conclusion Our results suggest that the mode of action of trans-chalcone is related to pronounced changes in fungal metabolism, including an imbalance between fatty acid synthesis and degradation that interferes with cell membrane and cell wall integrity. In addition, this compound exerts activity against important virulence factors. Taken together, trans-chalcone acts on targets related to dermatophyte physiology and the infection process. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-019-5792-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamires Aparecida Bitencourt
- Unidade de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Ribeirão Preto, Av: Costábile Romano 2201, Ribeirão Preto, SP, 14096-900, Brazil.,Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Claudia Macedo
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Matheus Eloy Franco
- Unidade de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Ribeirão Preto, Av: Costábile Romano 2201, Ribeirão Preto, SP, 14096-900, Brazil.,Instituto Federal do Sul de Minas - Campus Machado, Machado, Brazil
| | - Marina Campos Rocha
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde (CCBS), Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Igor Sawasaki Moreli
- Unidade de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Ribeirão Preto, Av: Costábile Romano 2201, Ribeirão Preto, SP, 14096-900, Brazil
| | - Bruna Aline Micheloto Cantelli
- Unidade de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Ribeirão Preto, Av: Costábile Romano 2201, Ribeirão Preto, SP, 14096-900, Brazil
| | - Pablo Rodrigo Sanches
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Rene Oliveira Beleboni
- Unidade de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Ribeirão Preto, Av: Costábile Romano 2201, Ribeirão Preto, SP, 14096-900, Brazil
| | - Iran Malavazi
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde (CCBS), Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Geraldo Aleixo Passos
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Mozart Marins
- Unidade de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Ribeirão Preto, Av: Costábile Romano 2201, Ribeirão Preto, SP, 14096-900, Brazil
| | - Ana Lúcia Fachin
- Unidade de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Ribeirão Preto, Av: Costábile Romano 2201, Ribeirão Preto, SP, 14096-900, Brazil.
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Bitencourt TA, Rezende CP, Quaresemin NR, Moreno P, Hatanaka O, Rossi A, Martinez-Rossi NM, Almeida F. Extracellular Vesicles From the Dermatophyte Trichophyton interdigitale Modulate Macrophage and Keratinocyte Functions. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2343. [PMID: 30356863 PMCID: PMC6190888 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The release of biomolecules critically affects all pathogens and their establishment of diseases. For the export of several biomolecules in diverse species, the use of extracellular vesicles (EVs) is considered to represent an alternative transport mechanism, but no study to date has investigated EVs from dermatophytes. Here, we describe biologically active EVs from the dermatophyte Trichophyton interdigitale, a causative agent of mycoses worldwide. EV preparations from T. interdigitale were examined using nanoparticle-tracking analysis, which revealed vesicular structures 20–380 nm in diameter. These vesicles induced the production of proinflammatory mediators by bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) and keratinocytes in a dose-dependent manner, and an addition of the EVs to BMDMs also stimulated the transcription of the M1-polarization marker iNOS (inducible nitric oxide synthase) and diminished the expression of the M2 markers arginase-1 and Ym-1. The observed M1 macrophages' polarization triggered by EVs was abolished in cells obtained from knockout Toll-like receptor-2 mice. Also, the EVs-induced productions of pro-inflammatory mediators were blocked too. Furthermore, the EVs from T. interdigitale enhanced the fungicidal activity of BMDMs. These results suggest that EVs from T. interdigitale can modulate the innate immune response of the host and influence the interaction between T. interdigitale and host immune cells. Our findings thus open new areas of investigation into the host-parasite relationship in dermatophytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Caroline Patini Rezende
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil
| | | | - Pedro Moreno
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil
| | - Otavio Hatanaka
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil
| | - Antonio Rossi
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil
| | | | - Fausto Almeida
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil
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Lana AJD, Pippi B, Carvalho AR, Moraes RC, Kaiser S, Ortega GG, Fuentefria AM, Silveira GP. In Vitro additive effect on griseofulvin and terbinafine combinations against multidrug-resistant dermatophytes. BRAZ J PHARM SCI 2018. [DOI: 10.1590/s2175-97902018000217149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Bruna Pippi
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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Martinez-Rossi NM, Bitencourt TA, Peres NTA, Lang EAS, Gomes EV, Quaresemin NR, Martins MP, Lopes L, Rossi A. Dermatophyte Resistance to Antifungal Drugs: Mechanisms and Prospectus. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1108. [PMID: 29896175 PMCID: PMC5986900 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytes comprise pathogenic fungi that have a high affinity for the keratinized structures present in nails, skin, and hair, causing superficial infections known as dermatophytosis. A reasonable number of antifungal drugs currently exist on the pharmaceutical market to control mycoses; however, their cellular targets are restricted, and fungi may exhibit tolerance or resistance to these agents. For example, the stress caused by antifungal and cytotoxic drugs in sub-inhibitory concentrations promotes compensatory stress responses, with the over-expression of genes involved in cellular detoxification, drug efflux, and signaling pathways being among the various mechanisms that may contribute to drug tolerance. In addition, the ATP-binding cassette transporters in dermatophytes that are responsible for cellular efflux can act synergistically, allowing one to compensate for the absence of the other, revealing the complexity of drug tolerance phenomena. Moreover, mutations in genes coding for target enzymes could lead to substitutions in amino acids involved in the binding of antifungal agents, hindering their performance and leading to treatment failure. The relevance of each one of these mechanisms of resistance to fungal survival is hard to define, mainly because they can act simultaneously in the cell. However, an understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in the resistance/tolerance processes, the identification of new antifungal targets, as well as the prospective of new antifungal compounds among natural or synthetic products, are expected to bring advances and new insights that facilitate the improvement or development of novel strategies for antifungal therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nilce M Martinez-Rossi
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Tamires A Bitencourt
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Nalu T A Peres
- Department of Morphology, Federal University of Sergipe, Aracaju, Brazil
| | - Elza A S Lang
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Eriston V Gomes
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Natalia R Quaresemin
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Maíra P Martins
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Lucia Lopes
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Antonio Rossi
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
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Beseli A, Amnuaykanjanasin A, Herrero S, Thomas E, Daub ME. Membrane transporters in self resistance of Cercospora nicotianae to the photoactivated toxin cercosporin. Curr Genet 2015; 61:601-20. [PMID: 25862648 DOI: 10.1007/s00294-015-0486-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Revised: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 03/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The goal of this work is to characterize membrane transporter genes in Cercospora fungi required for autoresistance to the photoactivated, active-oxygen-generating toxin cercosporin they produce for infection of host plants. Previous studies implicated a role for diverse membrane transporters in cercosporin resistance. In this study, transporters identified in a subtractive cDNA library between a Cercospora nicotianae wild type and a cercosporin-sensitive mutant were characterized, including two ABC transporters (CnATR2, CnATR3), an MFS transporter (CnMFS2), a uracil transporter, and a zinc transport protein. Phylogenetic analysis showed that only CnATR3 clustered with transporters previously characterized to be involved in cercosporin resistance. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis of gene expression under conditions of cercosporin toxicity, however, showed that only CnATR2 was upregulated, thus this gene was selected for further characterization. Transformation and expression of CnATR2 in the cercosporin-sensitive fungus Neurospora crassa significantly increased cercosporin resistance. Targeted gene disruption of CnATR2 in the wild type C. nicotianae, however, did not decrease resistance. Expression analysis of other transporters in the cnatr2 mutant under conditions of cercosporin toxicity showed significant upregulation of the cercosporin facilitator protein gene (CFP), encoding an MFS transporter previously characterized as playing an important role in cercosporin autoresistance in Cercospora species. We conclude that cercosporin autoresistance in Cercospora is mediated by multiple genes, and that the fungus compensates for mutations by up-regulation of other resistance genes. CnATR2 may be a useful gene, alone or in addition to other known resistance genes, for engineering Cercospora resistance in crop plants.
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Persinoti GF, de Aguiar Peres NT, Jacob TR, Rossi A, Vêncio RZ, Martinez-Rossi NM. RNA-sequencing analysis of Trichophyton rubrum transcriptome in response to sublethal doses of acriflavine. BMC Genomics 2014; 15 Suppl 7:S1. [PMID: 25573029 PMCID: PMC4243288 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-s7-s1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum is an anthropophilic filamentous fungus that infects keratinized tissues and is the most common etiologic agent isolated in human dermatophytoses. The clinical treatment of these infections is challenging because only few antifungal drugs are commercially available. To understand the mode of action of cytotoxic drugs against fungi, we evaluated the time-dependent effects of acriflavine on T. rubrum transcriptome using high-throughput RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) technology. RESULTS RNA-seq analysis generated approximately 200 million short reads that were mapped to the Broad Institute's Dermatophyte Comparative Database before differential gene expression analysis was performed. By employing a stringent cut-off threshold of -1.5 and 1.5 log₂-fold changes in gene expression, a subset of 490 unique genes were found to be modulated in T. rubrum in response to acriflavine exposure. Among the selected genes, 69 genes were modulated at all exposure time points. Functional categorization indicated the putative involvement of these genes in various cellular processes such as oxidation-reduction reaction, transmembrane transport, and metal ion binding. Interestingly, genes putatively involved in the pathogenicity of dermatophytoses were down-regulated suggesting that this drug interferes with the virulence of T. rubrum. Moreover, we identified 159 novel putative transcripts in intergenic regions and two transcripts in intron regions of T. rubrum genome. CONCLUSION The results provide insights into the molecular events underlying the stress responses of T. rubrum to acriflavine, revealing that this drug interfered with important molecular events involved in the establishment and maintenance of fungal infection in the host. In addition, the identification of novel transcripts will further enable the improvement of gene annotation and open reading frame prediction of T. rubrum and other dermatophyte genomes.
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Abstract
Trichophyton rubrum, an anthropophilic and cosmopolitan fungus, is the most common agent of superficial mycoses. In this study, T. rubrum infection was modelled by adding human skin sections to a limited medium containing glucose and cDNA microarrays were used to monitor T. rubrum gene expression patterns on a global level. We observed that exposure to human skin resulted in upregulation of the expression levels of T. rubrum genes related to many cellular and biological processes, including transcription and translation, metabolism and secondary transport, the stress response, and signalling pathways. These results provide a reference set of T. rubrum genes whose expression patterns change upon infection and reveal previously unknown genes that most likely correspond to proteins that should be considered as virulence factor candidates and potential new drug targets for T. rubrum infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Liu
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, PR China
| | - Xingye Xu
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, PR China
| | - Wenchuan Leng
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, PR China
| | - Ying Xue
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, PR China
| | - Jie Dong
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, PR China
| | - Qi Jin
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, PR China
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Hryncewicz-Gwóźdź A, Kalinowska K, Plomer-Niezgoda E, Bielecki J, Jagielski T. Increase in resistance to fluconazole and itraconazole in Trichophyton rubrum clinical isolates by sequential passages in vitro under drug pressure. Mycopathologia 2013; 176:49-55. [PMID: 23595653 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-013-9655-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2013] [Accepted: 04/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Trichophyton rubrum, an anthropophilic dermatophyte fungus, is the predominant causative agent of superficial skin infections in human population. There are only scanty reports on drug susceptibility profiling of T. rubrum. Neither mechanisms for drug resistance development nor correlation between in vitro drug susceptibility and in vivo response to treatment is known for that species. In this study, changes in the in vitro susceptibilities to fluconazole (FLZ) and itraconazole (ITZ) among thirty T. rubrum clinical strains subjected to sequential passages in the presence or absence of the azoles were investigated. Each strain was passaged 12 times at 4-week intervals as three parallel cultures, maintained on a drug-free medium (1), and a medium containing FLZ (2) or ITZ (3) at subinhibitory concentrations. Susceptibility to FLZ and ITZ of the original strain and its 3 subcultures was determined by microdilution method. The MIC values of the two azoles remained unaltered for all T. rubrum strains tested, after 12 passages on a drug-free medium. Among the strains grown with FLZ, an increase in the MICs of FLZ and ITZ was noted in 17 (56.7 %) and 19 (63.3 %) strains, respectively. Increased MICs of ITZ and FLZ were demonstrated for 24 (80 %) and 20 (66.7 %) strains that were propagated with ITZ. The results indicate the capacity of T. rubrum to develop resistance toward the azoles after prolonged exposure to these drugs. Resistance of T. rubrum to azoles plays an important role in therapy failures and consequently contributes to persistence and chronicity of the infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Hryncewicz-Gwóźdź
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Wrocław Medical University, Wrocław, Poland
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Mendes NS, Trevisan GL, Silva Cruz AH, Santos RS, Peres NTA, Martinez-Rossi NM, Rossi A. Transcription of N- and O-linked mannosyltransferase genes is modulated by the pacC gene in the human dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum. FEBS Open Bio 2012; 2:294-7. [PMID: 23772361 PMCID: PMC3678131 DOI: 10.1016/j.fob.2012.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2012] [Revised: 09/21/2012] [Accepted: 09/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
In fungi, ambient pH sensing involves the activation of the Pal/PacC signalling pathway. In the dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum, pH-dependent secretion of keratinases, which are major virulence determinants, is affected by disruption of the pacC gene. Here, the transcription profiling of the genes coding for N- and O-linked mannosyltransferases, enzymes involved in protein glycosylation, was evaluated in T. rubrum in response to disruption of the pacC gene and growth in keratin, glucose, and glucose plus glycine. We show that transcription of these mannosyltransferase genes is affected by nutrients at acidic pH and by PacC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niege S Mendes
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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Hryncewicz-Gwóźdź A, Jagielski T, Sadakierska-Chudy A, Dyląg M, Pawlik K, Baran E, Szepietowski JC. Molecular typing of Trichophyton rubrum clinical isolates from Poland. Mycoses 2011; 54:e726-36. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2010.02007.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Maranhão FC, Silveira HC, Rossi A, Martinez-Rossi NM. Isolation of transcripts overexpressed in the human pathogenTrichophyton rubrumgrown in lipid as carbon source. Can J Microbiol 2011; 57:333-8. [DOI: 10.1139/w11-011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Trichophyton rubrum is the most common etiological agent of human dermatophytosis. Despite the incidence and medical importance of this dermatophyte, little is known about the mechanisms of host invasion and pathogenicity. Host invasion depends on the adaptive cellular responses of the pathogen that allow it to penetrate the skin layers, which are mainly composed of proteins and lipids. In this study, we used suppression subtractive hybridization to identify transcripts overexpressed in T. rubrum cultured in lipid as carbon source. Among the subtractive cDNA clones isolated, 85 clones were positively screened by cDNA array dot blotting and were sequenced. The putative proteins encoded by the isolated transcripts showed similarities to fungal proteins involved in metabolism, signaling, defense, and virulence, such as the MDR/ABC transporter, glucan 1,3-β-glucosidase, chitin synthase B, copper-sulfate-regulated protein, and serine/threonine phosphatase (calcineurin A). These results provide the first molecular insight into the genes differentially expressed during the adaptation of T. rubrum to a lipidic carbon source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda C.A. Maranhão
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Henrique C.S. Silveira
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Antonio Rossi
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Nilce M. Martinez-Rossi
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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Peres NTA, Sanches PR, Falcão JP, Silveira HCS, Paião FG, Maranhão FCA, Gras DE, Segato F, Cazzaniga RA, Mazucato M, Cursino-Santos JR, Aquino-Ferreira R, Rossi A, Martinez-Rossi NM. Transcriptional profiling reveals the expression of novel genes in response to various stimuli in the human dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum. BMC Microbiol 2010; 10:39. [PMID: 20144196 PMCID: PMC2831883 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-10-39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2009] [Accepted: 02/08/2010] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Cutaneous mycoses are common human infections among healthy and immunocompromised hosts, and the anthropophilic fungus Trichophyton rubrum is the most prevalent microorganism isolated from such clinical cases worldwide. The aim of this study was to determine the transcriptional profile of T. rubrum exposed to various stimuli in order to obtain insights into the responses of this pathogen to different environmental challenges. Therefore, we generated an expressed sequence tag (EST) collection by constructing one cDNA library and nine suppression subtractive hybridization libraries. Results The 1388 unigenes identified in this study were functionally classified based on the Munich Information Center for Protein Sequences (MIPS) categories. The identified proteins were involved in transcriptional regulation, cellular defense and stress, protein degradation, signaling, transport, and secretion, among other functions. Analysis of these unigenes revealed 575 T. rubrum sequences that had not been previously deposited in public databases. Conclusion In this study, we identified novel T. rubrum genes that will be useful for ORF prediction in genome sequencing and facilitating functional genome analysis. Annotation of these expressed genes revealed metabolic adaptations of T. rubrum to carbon sources, ambient pH shifts, and various antifungal drugs used in medical practice. Furthermore, challenging T. rubrum with cytotoxic drugs and ambient pH shifts extended our understanding of the molecular events possibly involved in the infectious process and resistance to antifungal drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nalu T A Peres
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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Maranhão FCA, Paião FG, Fachin AL, Martinez-Rossi NM. Membrane transporter proteins are involved in Trichophyton rubrum pathogenesis. J Med Microbiol 2009; 58:163-168. [PMID: 19141731 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.002907-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichophyton rubrum is a dermatophyte responsible for the majority of human superficial mycoses. The functional expression of proteins important for the initial step and the maintenance of the infection process were identified previously in T. rubrum by subtraction suppression hybridization after growth in the presence of keratin. In this study, sequences similar to genes encoding the multidrug-resistance ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter, copper ATPase, the major facilitator superfamily and a permease were isolated, and used in Northern blots to monitor the expression of the genes, which were upregulated in the presence of keratin. A sequence identical to the TruMDR2 gene, encoding an ABC transporter in T. rubrum, was isolated in these experiments, and examination of a T. rubrum DeltaTruMDR2 mutant showed a reduction in infecting activity, characterized by low growth on human nails compared with the wild-type strain. The high expression levels of transporter genes by T. rubrum in mimetic infection and the reduction in virulence of the DeltaTruMDR2 mutant in a disease model in vitro suggest that transporters are involved in T. rubrum pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda C A Maranhão
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fernanda G Paião
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ana Lúcia Fachin
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Nilce M Martinez-Rossi
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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Segato F, Nozawa SR, Rossi A, Martinez-Rossi NM. Over-expression of genes coding for proline oxidase, riboflavin kinase, cytochrome c oxidase and an MFS transporter induced by acriflavin in Trichophyton rubrum. Med Mycol 2008; 46:135-9. [PMID: 18324492 DOI: 10.1080/13693780701742381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Acriflavin (3,6-acridinediamine) and other acridine derivatives act in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells at the level of DNA-coiling enzymes (topoisomerases) causing the stabilization of the enzyme-DNA cleavable complex. In order to better understand the mode of action of acriflavin, Differential Display RT-PCR was used to isolate transcripts specifically over-expressed during exposure of Trichophyton rubrum mycelia to this drug. Five transcripts, whose differential expressions were confirmed by Northern blotting, revealed genes not previously described in this dermatophyte. Functional grouping identified putative enzymes possibly involved in the mitochondrial respiratory electron-transport chain and in iron transport. These results may be relevant to our understanding of the molecular events involved in the stress response of T. rubrum to acriflavin.
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Coelho LM, Aquino-Ferreira R, Maffei CM, Martinez-Rossi NM. In vitro antifungal drug susceptibilities of dermatophytes microconidia and arthroconidia. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008; 62:758-61. [DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkn245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
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Martinez-Rossi NM, Peres NT, Rossi A. Antifungal resistance mechanisms in dermatophytes. Mycopathologia 2008; 166:369-83. [PMID: 18478356 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-008-9110-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2007] [Revised: 01/15/2008] [Accepted: 01/30/2008] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Although fungi do not cause outbreaks or pandemics, the incidence of severe systemic fungal infections has increased significantly, mainly because of the explosive growth in the number of patients with compromised immune system. Thus, drug resistance in pathogenic fungi, including dermatophytes, is gaining importance. The molecular aspects involved in the resistance of dermatophytes to marketed antifungals and other cytotoxic drugs, such as modifications of target enzymes, over-expression of genes encoding ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters and stress-response-related proteins are reviewed. Emphasis is placed on the mechanisms used by dermatophytes to overcome the inhibitory action of terbinafine and survival in the host environment. The relevance of identifying new molecular targets, of expanding the understanding about the molecular mechanisms of resistance and of using this information to design new drugs or to modify those that have become ineffective is also discussed.
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Fachin AL, Ferreira-Nozawa MS, Maccheroni W, Martinez-Rossi NM. Role of the ABC transporter TruMDR2 in terbinafine, 4-nitroquinoline N-oxide and ethidium bromide susceptibility in Trichophyton rubrum. J Med Microbiol 2006; 55:1093-1099. [PMID: 16849730 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.46522-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A single-copy gene, designated TruMDR2, encoding an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter was cloned and sequenced from the dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum. The ORF of TruMDR2 was 4048 nt and the deduced amino acid sequence showed high homology with ABC transporters involved in drug efflux in other fungi. The encoded ABC protein predicted 12 transmembrane segments (TMSs) and two almost identical nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs) arranged in two halves in a (TMS(6)-NBD)(2) configuration and could be classified as a member of the multidrug-resistance (MDR) class of ABC transporters. Northern blot analyses revealed an increased level of transcription of the TruMDR2 gene when mycelium was exposed to acriflavine, benomyl, ethidium bromide, ketoconazole, chloramphenicol, griseofulvin, fluconazole, imazalil, itraconazole, methotrexate, 4-nitroquinoline N-oxide (4NQO) or tioconazole. Disruption of the TruMDR2 gene rendered the mutant more sensitive to terbinafine, 4NQO and ethidium bromide than the control strain, suggesting that this transporter plays a role in modulating drug susceptibility in T. rubrum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Lúcia Fachin
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Monica S Ferreira-Nozawa
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Walter Maccheroni
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Nilce M Martinez-Rossi
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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Cervelatti EP, Fachin AL, Ferreira-Nozawa MS, Martinez-Rossi NM. Molecular cloning and characterization of a novel ABC transporter gene in the human pathogenTrichophyton rubrum. Med Mycol 2006; 44:141-7. [PMID: 16519017 DOI: 10.1080/13693780500220449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
A gene encoding an ABC transporter in the dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum, TruMDR1, was cloned by PCR using degenerate primers. The open reading frame of TruMDR1 is 4838 bp long and the deduced amino acid sequence shows high homology with ABC transporters involved in drug efflux of other fungi. The effect of chemicals on the expression level of mRNAs of this gene was analysed by Northern blot. An increase in expression level was observed when the fungus was exposed to ethidium bromide, ketoconazole, cycloheximide, fluconazole, griseofulvin, imazalil and itraconazole, suggesting the participation of this gene in drug efflux in this dermatophyte. The identification of a gene potentially involved in cellular detoxification in a pathogenic fungus is the first step towards knowing molecular events related to antifungal resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliane P Cervelatti
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeiräo Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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Graminha MAS, Rocha EMF, Prade RA, Martinez-Rossi NM. Terbinafine resistance mediated by salicylate 1-monooxygenase in Aspergillus nidulans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48:3530-5. [PMID: 15328121 PMCID: PMC514740 DOI: 10.1128/aac.48.9.3530-3535.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Resistance to antifungal agents is a recurring and growing problem among patients with systemic fungal infections. UV-induced Aspergillus nidulans mutants resistant to terbinafine have been identified, and we report here the characterization of one such gene. A sib-selected, 6.6-kb genomic DNA fragment encodes a salicylate 1-monooxygenase (salA), and a fatty acid synthase subunit (fasC) confers terbinafine resistance upon transformation of a sensitive strain. Subfragments carrying salA but not fasC confer terbinafine resistance. salA is present as a single-copy gene on chromosome VI and encodes a protein of 473 amino acids that is homologous to salicylate 1-monooxygenase, a well-characterized naphthalene-degrading enzyme in bacteria. salA transcript accumulation analysis showed terbinafine-dependent induction in the wild type and the UV-induced mutant Terb7, as well as overexpression in a strain containing the salA subgenomic DNA fragment, probably due to the multicopy effect caused by the transformation event. Additional naphthalene degradation enzyme-coding genes are present in fungal genomes, suggesting that resistance could follow degradation of the naphthalene ring contained in terbinafine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia A S Graminha
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Cutaneous fungal infections are common in the United States, and causative organisms include dermatophytes, yeasts, and nondermatophyte molds. These organisms are in constant competition for their particular environmental niche, often resulting in the emergence of one or more predominant pathogens and displacement of other less competitive species. Changes in the incidence of fungal pathogens can be followed from laboratory culture results of infected cutaneous tissues over time. These data can be used to ascertain past and present trends in incidence, predict increases in antifungal resistance and the adequacy of our current pharmacologic repertoire, and provide insight into future developments. OBJECTIVE This study identifies epidemiologic trends and the predominant organisms causing superficial fungal infections in the United States. METHODS A total of 15,381 specimens were collected from clinically suspected tinea corporis, tinea cruris, tinea capitis, tinea faciei, tinea pedis, tinea manuum, and finger and toe onychomycosis from 1999 through 2002. Specimens were submitted to the Center for Medical Mycology in Cleveland, Ohio, for fungal culture and identification, and the incidence of each species was calculated. RESULTS Dermatophytes remain the most commonly isolated fungal organisms except from clinically suspected finger onychomycosis, in which case Candida species comprise >70% of isolates. Trichophyton rubrum remains the most prevalent fungal pathogen, and increased incidence of this species was observed in finger and toe onychomycosis, tinea corporis and tinea cruris, tinea manuum, and tinea pedis. As the causal agent of tinea capitis, T tonsurans continues to increase in incidence, achieving near exclusionary proportions in the United States. CONCLUSION Consideration of the current epidemiologic trends in the incidence of cutaneous fungal pathogens is of key importance to investigational efforts, diagnosis, and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Wade Foster
- Department of Dermatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham School of Medicine,, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
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Cervelatti EP, Ferreira-Nozawa MS, Aquino-Ferreira R, Fachin AL, Martinez-Rossi NM. Electrophoretic molecular karyotype of the dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum. Genet Mol Biol 2004. [DOI: 10.1590/s1415-47572004000100016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Mukherjee PK, Leidich SD, Isham N, Leitner I, Ryder NS, Ghannoum MA. Clinical Trichophyton rubrum Strain Exhibiting Primary Resistance to Terbinafine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47:82-6. [DOI: 10.1128/aac.47.1.82-86.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT
The in vitro antifungal susceptibilities of six clinical
Trichophyton rubrum
isolates obtained sequentially from a single onychomycosis patient who failed oral terbinafine therapy (250 mg/day for 24 weeks) were determined by broth microdilution and macrodilution methodologies. Strain relatedness was examined by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analyses. Data obtained from both broth micro- and macrodilution assays were in agreement and revealed that the six clinical isolates had greatly reduced susceptibilities to terbinafine. The MICs of terbinafine for these strains were >4 μg/ml, whereas they were <0.0002 μg/ml for the susceptible reference strains. Consistent with these findings, the minimum fungicidal concentrations (MFCs) of terbinafine for all six strains were >128 μg/ml, whereas they were 0.0002 μg/ml for the reference strain. The MIC of terbinafine for the baseline strain (cultured at the initial screening visit and before therapy was started) was already 4,000-fold higher than normal, suggesting that this is a case of primary resistance to terbinafine. The results obtained by the broth macrodilution procedure revealed that the terbinafine MICs and MFCs for sequential isolates apparently increased during the course of therapy. RAPD analyses did not reveal any differences between the isolates. The terbinafine-resistant isolates exhibited normal susceptibilities to clinically available antimycotics including itraconazole, fluconazole, and griseofulvin. However, these isolates were fully cross resistant to several other known squalene epoxidase inhibitors, including naftifine, butenafine, tolnaftate, and tolciclate, suggesting a target-specific mechanism of resistance. This is the first confirmed report of terbinafine resistance in dermatophytes.
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Mukherjee PK, Leidich SD, Isham N, Leitner I, Ryder NS, Ghannoum MA. Clinical Trichophyton rubrum strain exhibiting primary resistance to terbinafine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47:82-6. [PMID: 12499173 PMCID: PMC148991 DOI: 10.1128/aac.47.1.82-86.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2002] [Revised: 06/17/2002] [Accepted: 09/18/2002] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The in vitro antifungal susceptibilities of six clinical Trichophyton rubrum isolates obtained sequentially from a single onychomycosis patient who failed oral terbinafine therapy (250 mg/day for 24 weeks) were determined by broth microdilution and macrodilution methodologies. Strain relatedness was examined by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analyses. Data obtained from both broth micro- and macrodilution assays were in agreement and revealed that the six clinical isolates had greatly reduced susceptibilities to terbinafine. The MICs of terbinafine for these strains were >4 microg/ml, whereas they were <0.0002 microg/ml for the susceptible reference strains. Consistent with these findings, the minimum fungicidal concentrations (MFCs) of terbinafine for all six strains were >128 microg/ml, whereas they were 0.0002 microg/ml for the reference strain. The MIC of terbinafine for the baseline strain (cultured at the initial screening visit and before therapy was started) was already 4,000-fold higher than normal, suggesting that this is a case of primary resistance to terbinafine. The results obtained by the broth macrodilution procedure revealed that the terbinafine MICs and MFCs for sequential isolates apparently increased during the course of therapy. RAPD analyses did not reveal any differences between the isolates. The terbinafine-resistant isolates exhibited normal susceptibilities to clinically available antimycotics including itraconazole, fluconazole, and griseofulvin. However, these isolates were fully cross resistant to several other known squalene epoxidase inhibitors, including naftifine, butenafine, tolnaftate, and tolciclate, suggesting a target-specific mechanism of resistance. This is the first confirmed report of terbinafine resistance in dermatophytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pranab K Mukherjee
- Center for Medical Mycology, Department of Dermatology, Case Western Reserve University and University Hospitals of Cleveland, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA
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Abstract
The electrophoretic pattern of the intracellular esterase of the dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum was altered when this fungus was grown in the presence of subinhibitory concentrations of the antimycotics tioconazole or griseofulvin. All strains (original isolate and antimycotic resistant mutants) presented five clearly visible bands when cultivated on medium containing below-minimum inhibitory concentrations (sub-MICs) of tioconazole or griseofulvin, and only two clearly visible bands when cultivated in medium without antimycotics. No extra bands were detected in the electrophoretic patterns of the extracellular esterase of these fungi (mutants or the original isolate) when cultivated with or without tioconazole or griseofulvin (sub-MIC values). These results suggest that additional forms of esterase are produced inside the cell and may be a nonspecific response to cellular stress, or may participate in cellular detoxification processes in the presence of these antimycotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Fachin
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil
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Abstract
Genotypic variability among 96 Trichophyton rubrum strains which displayed different colony morphologies and were collected from four continents was investigated. Twelve markers representing 57 loci were analyzed by PCR fingerprinting, amplified fragment length polymorphism, and random amplified monomorphic DNA markers. Interestingly, none of the methods used revealed any DNA polymorphism, indicating a strictly clonal mode of reproduction and a strong adaptation to human skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Gräser
- Department of Microbiology and Hygiene (Charité-Virchow), Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany.
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