Biomarkers related to immunosenescence: relationships with therapy and survival in lung cancer patients

Therapeutic vaccines for advanced non-small cell lung cancer

BACKGROUND

New strategies in immunotherapy with specific antigens that trigger an anti-tumour immune response in people with lung cancer open the possibility of developing therapeutic vaccines aimed at boosting the adaptive immune response against cancer cells.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effectiveness and safety of different types of therapeutic vaccines for people with advanced non-small cell lung cancer.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, Wanfang Data, and China Journal Net (CNKI) up to 22 August 2023.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included parallel-group, randomised controlled trials evaluating a therapeutic cancer vaccine, alone or in combination with other treatments, in adults (> 18 years) with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), whatever the line of treatment.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane. Our primary outcomes were overall survival, progression-free survival, and serious adverse events; secondary outcomes were three- and five-year survival rates and health-related quality of life.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 10 studies with 2177 participants. The outcome analyses included only 2045 participants (1401 men and 644 women). The certainty of the evidence varied by vaccine and outcome, and ranged from moderate to very low. We report only the results for primary outcomes here. TG4010 The addition of the vector-based vaccine, TG4010, to chemotherapy, compared with chemotherapy alone in first-line treatment, may result in little to no difference in overall survival (hazard ratio (HR) 0.83, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.65 to 1.05; 2 studies, 370 participants; low-certainty evidence). It may increase progression-free survival slightly (HR 0.74, 95% CI 0.55 to 0.99; 1 study, 222 participants; low-certainty evidence). It may result in little to no difference in the proportion of participants with at least one serious treatment-related adverse event, but the evidence is very uncertain (risk ratio (RR) 0.70, 95% CI 0.23 to 2.19; 2 studies, 362 participants; very low-certainty evidence). Epidermal growth factor vaccine Epidermal growth factor vaccine, compared to best supportive care as switch maintenance treatment after first-line chemotherapy, may result in little to no difference in overall survival (HR 0.82, 95% CI 0.66 to 1.02; 1 study, 378 participants; low-certainty evidence), and in the proportion of participants with at least one serious treatment-related adverse event (RR 1.32, 95% CI 0.88 to 1.98; 2 studies, 458 participants; low-certainty evidence). hTERT (vx-001) The hTERT (vx-001) vaccine compared to placebo as maintenance treatment after first-line chemotherapy may result in little to no difference in overall survival (HR 0.97, 95% CI 0.70 to 1.34; 1 study, 190 participants). Racotumomab Racotumomab compared to placebo as a switch maintenance treatment post-chemotherapy was assessed in one study with 176 participants. It may increase overall survival (HR 0.63, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.87). It may make little to no difference in progression-free survival (HR 0.73, 95% CI 0.53 to 1.00) and in the proportion of people with at least one serious treatment-related adverse event (RR 1.03, 95% CI 0.15 to 7.18). Racotumomab versus docetaxel as switch maintenance therapy post-chemotherapy was assessed in one study with 145 participants. The study did not report hazard rates on overall survival or progression-free survival time, but the difference in median survival times was very small - less than one month. Racotumomab may result in little to no difference in the proportion of people with at least one serious treatment-related adverse event compared with docetaxel (RR 0.89, 95% CI 0.44 to 1.83). Personalised peptide vaccine Personalised peptide vaccine plus docetaxel compared to docetaxel plus placebo post-chemotherapy treatment may result in little to no difference in overall survival (HR 0.80, 95% CI 0.42 to 1.52) and progression-free survival (HR 0.78, 95% CI 0.43 to 1.42). OSE2101 The OSE2101 vaccine compared with chemotherapy, after chemotherapy or immunotherapy, was assessed in one study with 219 participants. It may result in little to no difference in overall survival (HR 0.86, 95% CI 0.62 to 1.19). It may result in a small difference in the proportion of people with at least one serious treatment-related adverse event (RR 0.95, 95% CI 0.91 to 0.99). SRL172 The SRL172 vaccine of killed Mycobacterium vaccae, added to chemotherapy, compared to chemotherapy alone, may result in no difference in overall survival, and may increase the proportion of people with at least one serious treatment-related adverse event (RR 2.07, 95% CI 1.76 to 2.43; 351 participants).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Adding a vaccine resulted in no differences in overall survival, except for racotumomab, which showed some improvement compared to placebo, but the difference in median survival time was very small (1.4 months) and the study only included 176 participants. Regarding progression-free survival, we observed no differences between the compared treatments, except for TG4010, which may increase progression-free survival slightly. There were no differences between the compared treatments in serious treatment-related adverse events, except for SRL172 (killed Mycobacterium vaccae) added to chemotherapy, which was associated with an increase in the proportion of participants with at least one serious treatment-related adverse event, and OSE2101, which may decrease slightly the proportion of people having at least one serious treatment-related adverse event. These conclusions should be interpreted cautiously, as the very low- to moderate-certainty evidence prevents drawing solid conclusions: many vaccines were evaluated in a single study with small numbers of participants and events.

Human virome profiling identified CMV as the major viral driver of a high accumulation of senescent CD8+ T cells in patients with advanced NSCLC

Circulating senescent CD8+ T (T8sen) cells are characterized by a lack of proliferative capacities but retain cytotoxic activity and have been associated to resistance to immunotherapy in patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (aNSCLC). We aimed to better characterize T8sen and to determine which factors were associated with their accumulation in patients with aNSCLC. Circulating T8sen cells were characterized by a higher expression of SA-βgal and the transcription factor T-bet, confirming their senescent status. Using whole virome profiling, cytomegalovirus (CMV) was the only virus associated with T8sen. CMV was necessary but not sufficient to explain high accumulation of T8sen (T8senhigh status). In CMV+ patients, the proportion of T8sen cells increased with cancer progression. Last, CMV-induced T8senhigh phenotype but not CMV seropositivity itself was associated with worse progression-free and overall survival in patients treated with anti-PD-(L)1 therapy but not with chemotherapy. Overall, CMV is the unique viral driver of T8sen-driven resistance to anti-PD-(L)1 antibodies in patients with aNSCLC.

Sub-lethal doses of chemotherapeutic agents induce senescence in T cells and upregulation of PD-1 expression

Cellular senescence is a stable cell cycle arrest, usually in response to internal and/or external stress, including telomere dysfunction, abnormal cellular growth, and DNA damage. Several chemotherapeutic drugs, such as melphalan (MEL) and doxorubicin (DXR), induce cellular senescence in cancer cells. However, it is not clear whether these drugs induce senescence in immune cells. We evaluated the induction of cellular senescence in T cells were derived from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMNCs) in healthy donors using sub-lethal doses of chemotherapeutic agents. The PBMNCs were kept overnight in RPMI 1640 medium with 2% phytohemagglutinin and 10% fetal bovine serum and then cultured in RPMI 1640 with 20 ng/mL IL-2 and sub-lethal doses of chemotherapeutic drugs (2 μM MEL and 50 nM DXR) for 48 h. Sub-lethal doses of chemotherapeutic agents induced phenotypes associated with senescence, such as the formation of γH2AX nuclear foci, cell proliferation arrest, and induction of senescence-associated beta-galactosidase (SA-β-Gal) activity, (control vs. MEL, DXR; median mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) 1883 (1130-2163) vs. 2233 (1385-2254), 2406.5 (1377-3119), respectively) in T cells. IL6 and SPP1 mRNA, which are senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) factors, were significantly upregulated by sublethal doses of MEL and DXR compared to the control (P = 0.043 and 0.018, respectively). Moreover, sub-lethal doses of chemotherapeutic agents significantly enhanced the expression of programmed death 1 (PD-1) on CD3 + CD4 + and CD3 + CD8 + T cells compared to the control (CD4 + T cells; P = 0.043, 0.043, and 0.043, respectively, CD8 + T cells; P = 0.043, 0.043, and 0.043, respectively). Our results suggest that sub-lethal doses of chemotherapeutic agents induce senescence in T cells and tumor immunosuppression by upregulating PD-1 expression on T cells.

Peripheral changes in T cells predict efficacy of anti-PD-1 immunotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer

The application of programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) antibodies has brought great benefits to non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. Nevertheless, not all patients respond to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy. This study aimed to find response markers to predict efficacy of anti-PD-1 immunotherapy in NSCLC patients. 80 patients with NSCLC who would accept anti-PD-1 immunotherapy were recruited, and peripheral blood was obtained before and after treatment. Flow cytometry was used to detect proportions of circulating cell subsets and expression of co-stimulatory molecules, co-inhibitory molecules and cytokines in T cells from pre- and post-treatment patients. Results showed that proportions of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells, NK, γδT and mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells were higher and regulatory T cells (Tregs) were lower in responders (n = 50) after treatment but no obvious difference was found in non-responders (n = 30). After treatment, responders showed an increase in the frequency of co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory molecules, as well as the production of cytokines in T cells. This study indicates that monitoring the alterations of immune markers in circulating cells from NSCLC patients may be helpful to discriminate responders and non-responders, which provides a potential novel way to assess efficacy of anti-PD-1 immunotherapy.

Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells (MDSC) in Melanoma Patients Treated with Anti-PD-1 Immunotherapy

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) are a subset of immature myeloid cells with suppressive activity well described in the context of cancer. They inhibit anti-tumour immunity, promote metastasis formation and can lead to immune therapy resistance. In a retrospective study, blood probes of 46 advanced melanoma patients were analysed before the first administration of anti-PD-1 immunotherapy and in the third month of treatment for MDSC, immature monocytic (ImMC), monocytic MDSC (MoMDSC) and granulocytic MDSC (GrMDSC) by multi-channel flow cytometry. Cell frequencies were correlated with response to immunotherapy, progression-free survival (PFS) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) serum level. Responders to anti-PD-1 therapy had higher MoMDSC levels (4.1 ± 1.2%) compared to non-responders (3.0 ± 1.2%) (p = 0.0333) before the first administration of anti-PD-1. No significant changes in MDSCs frequencies were observed in the groups of patients before and in the third month of therapy. The cut-off values of MDSCs, MoMDSCs, GrMDSCs and ImMCs for favourable 2- and 3-year PFS were established. Elevated LDH level is a negative prognostic factor of response to the treatment and is related to an elevated ratio of GrMDSCs and ImMCs level compared to patients' LDH level below the cut-off. Our data may provide a new perspective for more careful consideration of MDSCs, and specially MoMDSCs, as a tool for monitoring the immune status of melanoma patients. Changes in MDSC levels may have a potential prognostic value, however a correlation with other parameters must be established.

Biomarkers of response to immunotherapy in early stage non-small cell lung cancer

Immunotherapy with immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) targeting programmed cell death 1 or programmed death-ligand 1 has revolutionised the treatment of advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and has been investigated in early NSCLC, alone or in combination with chemotherapy, anti-CTLA-4 antibodies and radiotherapy. Although more mature data are needed before setting a change of paradigm in early stages, reports of pathological response rates and disease-free survival are promising, especially with neoadjuvant multimodality approaches. Nevertheless, major pathological response rates for neoadjuvant anti-PD-(L)1 monotherapy rarely exceed 40%, and biomarkers for characterising patients who may benefit the most from ICIs are lacking. These biomarkers have a distinct value from the metastatic setting, with highly different tumour biologies. Among the most investigated so far in this context, programmed death-ligand 1 expression and, to a lesser extent, tumour mutational burden seem to correlate better with higher pathological response rates and survival. Epidermal growth factor receptor, Serine/Threonine Kinase 11and Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 mutations rise as essential determinations for the treatment selection in early-stage NSCLC. Emerging and promising approaches comprise evaluation of blood-based ratios, microbiota, and baseline intratumoural TCR clonality. Circulating tumour DNA will be of great help in the near future when selecting best candidates for adjuvant ICIs, monitoring the tumour response to the neoadjuvant treatment in order to improve the rates of complete resections in the early stage.

A Subset of PD-1-Expressing CD56bright NK Cells Identifies Patients with Good Response to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Lung Cancer

(1) Despite the effectiveness of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) in lung cancer, there is a lack of knowledge about predictive biomarkers. The objective of our study is to analyze different subsets of T-lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells as predictive biomarkers in a cohort of patients with nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treated with ICI. (2) This is an observational, prospective study with 55 NSCLC patients treated with ICI. A total of 43 T and NK cell subsets are analyzed in peripheral blood, including the main markers of exhaustion, differentiation, memory, activation, and inhibition. (3) Regarding the descriptive data, Granzyme B+CD4+ Treg lymphocytes stand out (median 17.4%), and within the NK populations, most patients presented cytotoxic NK cells (CD56+CD3-CD16+GranzymeB+; median 94.8%), and about half of them have highly differentiated adaptive-like NK cells (CD56+CD3-CD16+CD57+ (mean 59.8%). A statistically significant difference was observed between the expression of PD1 within the CD56^bright NK cell subpopulation (CD56+CD3-CD16-PD-1+) (p = 0.047) and a better OS. (4) Circulating immune cell subpopulations are promising prognostic biomarkers for ICI. Pending on validation with a larger sample, here we provide an analysis of the major circulating T and NK cell subsets involved in cancer immunity, with promising results despite a small sample size.

Identification of Cuproptosis-Related Subtypes in Lung Cancer, Characterization of Tumor Microenvironment Infiltration, and Establishment of a Prognostic Model

Cuproptosis, a recently found kind of programmed cell death, has been linked to tumor development, prognosis, and therapeutic response. The roles of cuproptosis-related genes (CRG) in the tumor microenvironment (TME) are, nevertheless, unknown. We evaluated alterations in CRG and assessed the related expression patterns in 1445 lung cancer (LC) samples from three separate datasets, analyzing genetic, and transcriptional domains. We discovered two separate molecular subtypes of CRG and discovered that various subtypes of CRG were connected with patient clinical features and prognosis. Furthermore, we discovered connections between distinct CRG subtypes and TME cell infiltration features. The CRG_score was then developed and validated for predicting overall survival (OS). Following that, we investigated the relationship between CRG_score and the cancer stem cell (CSC) index and chemotherapeutic treatment sensitivity. In addition, we created a very accurate nomogram to increase the clinical usefulness of CRG_score. The potential roles of CRG in the tumor-immune-microenvironment, clinical characteristics, and prognosis in LC are demonstrated by our multiplex study. These findings expand our understanding of CRG in LC and may open up new options for assessing LC patients' prognosis and generating more effective immunotherapeutic treatments.

Adaptive immune response in pathogenesis and treatment of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: the influence of immunosuppression factors and gender

An obvious trend of the last decade in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma pathogenesis evaluation is awareness of the impact of immune response disorders on disease manifestation. The review presents an analysis of the differences in the type and degree of immunosuppression, as well as treatment response in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma patients in accordance with influencing carcinogenic factor, gender, age of the patient and concomitant diseases. An increase in CD8+ T-lymphocytes and a decrease of memory T-cells has been evaluated in smoking and alcohol abusing patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, and a smaller number of CD8+ T-lymphocytes were detected in the tumor microenvironment compared to non-smoking and non-drinking patients. Studies have shown that the improved prognosis of patients with human papillomavirus (Hpv) – associated head and neck squamous cell carcinoma is largely due to the presence of antibodies against Hpv E6 and E7, E7-specific CD8+T lymphocytes in periphe ral blood and a high level of tumor-infiltrating T lymphocytes. The issue of gender differences in the type of immune response is widely discussed. It has been shown that the use of immune response checkpoint inhibitors is more effective in improving survival rates in men, and the use of these drugs in combination with chemotherapy is more effective in women. In addition, in elderly cancer patients, numerous age-associated T-lymphocyte’s function changes were revealed, including a decrease in the number of naive T-lymphocytes due to age-related involution of the thymus and an in crease in the relative number of memory cells and effector cells. Thus, it is clear that immunosuppression type, as well as treatment response, differ depending on the influencing factor, gender, age of the patient, as well as comorbidities.

Immune senescence in non-small cell lung cancer management: therapeutic relevance, biomarkers, and mitigating approaches

INTRODUCTION

Lung cancer and mainly non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) still remain a prevalent malignancy worldwide despite sustained screening approaches. Furthermore, a significant proportion of the cases are diagnosed at advanced stages when conservative therapy is often unsuccessful. Cell senescence is an endogenous antitumor weapon but when it is upregulated exerts opposite activities favoring tumor metastasizing and poor response to therapy. However, little is known about this dangerous relationship between cell senescence and NSCLC outcome or on potential approaches to mitigate its unfavorable consequences.

AREAS COVERED

We discuss cell senescence focusing on immune senescence, its cell and humoral effectors (namely immune senescence associated secretory phenotype-iSASP), its impact on NSCLC outcome, and its biomarkers. Senotherapeutics as mitigating approaches are also considered based on the availability of experimental data pertinent to NSCLC.

EXPERT OPINION

Characterization of NSCLC subsets in which immune senescence is a risk factor for poor prognosis and poor therapeutic response might be very helpful in supporting the addition of senotherapeutics to conventional cancer therapy. This approach has the potential to improve disease outcome but more studies in this area are necessary.

Ascitic Senescent T Cells Are Linked to Chemoresistance in Patients With Advanced High-Grade Serous Ovarian Cancer

Senescent T cells are reported to be increased in patients with cancer and are poor prognostic indicators. However, the distribution of senescent T cells and their correlation with clinical features in high-grade serous ovarian cancer (HGSOC) is unknown. We detected the percentage of senescent T cells in the peripheral blood and ascites of patients with advanced HGSOC (n = 86) at diagnosis by flow cytometry. Compared with healthy donors, patients with HGSOC exhibited an accumulation of CD28−CD57+ (Tsen) CD8+ T cells in the peripheral blood and ascites. The frequency of Tsen CD8+ T cells in the peripheral blood was positively correlated with age and pretreatment serum CA125 and increased in patients with large volume ascites, whereas the frequency of Tsen CD8+ T cells in ascites was elevated in patients with lymph node metastasis. Patients with Tsen-high in ascites (>19.92%), but not in the peripheral blood, were more likely to be resistant to chemotherapy and had shorter progression-free survival. Tsen CD8+ T cells exhibited common senescence features including increased SA-β-gal activity, declines in proliferation, loss of CD27 and gain of KLRG-1, and the production of cytokines. In ascites, the percentage of Tsen CD8+ T cells was positively correlated with levels of interleukin-10 and granzyme B. This study suggests the potential of ascitic Tsen CD8+ T cells at diagnosis as a prognostic biomarker in HGSOC.

Circulating activated immune cells as a potential blood biomarkers of non-small cell lung cancer occurrence and progression

BACKGROUND

Treatment for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has greatly improved in recent years. However, noninvasive early screening for carcinogenesis and progression unclear. The aim of this study was to explore the predictive value of peripheral blood immune cells in untreated NSCLC patients.

METHODS

We retrospectively enrolled 305 untreated NSCLC patients and 132 healthy participants from February 2016 to August 2019 in Peking Union Medical College Hospital. Immune cell levels were determined by flow cytometry and routine blood tests.

RESULTS

NSCLC patients had lower levels of T lymphocytes, NK cells, CD8+ T cells, naïve CD4+/CD4+, naïve CD4+ T cells and higher levels of CD4+ T cells, memory CD4+/CD4+ T cells, memory CD4+ T cells, CD4+CD28+/CD4+ T cells, CD4+CD28+ T cells, CD8+CD28+/CD8+ T cells, CD8+HLA-DR+/CD8+ T cells, CD8+HLA-DR+ T cells T cells, CD8+CD38+/CD8+ T cells, CD8+CD38+ T cells and CD4+/CD8+ T cells than those in controls. The percentages of specific lymphocyte subtypes were significantly different in cancer patients versus healthy individuals. For instance, cancer patients had lower levels of B cells, CD4+ T cells, naïve CD4+/CD4+ T cells, naïve CD4+ T cells, CD4+CD28+ T cells, CD8+CD28+ T cells and higher levels of NK cells, white blood cells (WBC), monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes to lymphocyte ratio (MLR), neutrophils to lymphocyte ratio (NLR), eosinophil to lymphocyte ratio (ELR), basophil to lymphocyte ratio (BLR), and blood platelet to lymphocyte ratio (PLR).

CONCLUSIONS

Abnormal T cell levels can be used as an independent predictive biomarker for noninvasive early screening in NSCLC occurrence and progression.

Polyfunctional KLRG-1+CD57+ Senescent CD4+ T Cells Infiltrate Tumors and Are Expanded in Peripheral Blood From Breast Cancer Patients

Senescent T cells have been described during aging, chronic infections, and cancer; however, a comprehensive study of the phenotype, function, and transcriptional program of this T cell population in breast cancer (BC) patients is missing. Compared to healthy donors (HDs), BC patients exhibit an accumulation of KLRG-1⁺CD57⁺ CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells in peripheral blood. These T cells infiltrate tumors and tumor-draining lymph nodes. KLRG-1⁺CD57⁺ CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells from BC patients and HDs exhibit features of senescence, and despite their inhibitory receptor expression, they produce more effector cytokines and exhibit higher expression of Perforin, Granzyme B, and CD107a than non-senescent subsets. When compared to blood counterparts, tumor-infiltrating senescent CD4⁺ T cells show similar surface phenotype but reduced cytokine production. Transcriptional profiling of senescent CD4⁺ T cells from the peripheral blood of BC patients reveals enrichment in genes associated with NK or CD8⁺-mediated cytotoxicity, TCR-mediated stimulation, and cell exhaustion compared to non-senescent T cells. Comparison of the transcriptional profile of senescent CD4⁺ T cells from peripheral blood of BC patients with those of HDs highlighted marked similarities but also relevant differences. Senescent CD4⁺ T cells from BC patients show enrichment in T-cell signaling, processes involved in DNA replication, p53 pathways, oncogene-induced senescence, among others compared to their counterparts in HDs. High gene expression of CD4, KLRG-1, and B3GAT1 (CD57), which correlates with increased overall survival for BC patients, underscores the usefulness of the evaluation of the frequency of senescent CD4⁺ T cells as a biomarker in the follow-up of patients.

The Position of EGF Deprivation in the Management of Advanced Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has faced a therapeutic revolution with the advent of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) and immune checkpoints inhibitors (ICIs) approved for first and subsequent therapies. CIMAvax-EGF is a chemical conjugate between human-recombinant EGF and P64, a recombinant protein from Neisseria meningitides, which induces neutralizing antibodies against EGF. In the last 15 years, it has been extensively evaluated in advanced NSCLC patients. CIMAvax-EGF is safe, even after extended use, and able to keep EGF serum concentration below detectable levels. In a randomized phase III study, CIMAvax-EGF increased median overall survival of advanced NSCLC patients with at least stable disease after front-line chemotherapy. Patients bearing squamous-cell or adenocarcinomas and serum EGF concentration above 870 pg/ml had better survival compared to control patients treated with best supportive care as maintenance, confirming tumors’ sensitivity to the EGF depletion. This manuscript reviews the state-of-the-art NSCLC therapy and proposes the most promising scenarios for evaluating CIMAvax-EGF, particularly in combination with TKIs or ICIs. We hypothesize that the optimal combination of CIMAvax-EGF with established therapies can further contribute to transform advanced cancer into a manageable chronic disease, compatible with years of good quality of life.

Current and future biomarkers for outcomes with immunotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have been validated as an effective new treatment strategy in several tumoral types including lung cancer. This remarkable shift in the therapeutic paradigm is in large part due to the duration of responses and long-term survival seen with ICI. However, despite this, the majority of cancer patients do not experience benefit from ICI. Even among patients who initially respond to ICI, disease progression may ultimately occur. Moreover, in some patients, these drugs may be associated with new patterns of progression such as pseudo-progression and hyper-progressive disease, and different toxicity profiles with immune-related adverse events. Therefore, the identification of predictive biomarkers may help to select those patients most likely to obtain a true benefit from these drugs, and avoid exposure to potential toxicity in patients who will not obtain clinical benefit, while also reducing the economic impact. In this review, we summarize current and promising potential predictive biomarkers of ICI in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), as well as pitfalls encountered with their use and areas of focus to optimize their routine clinical implementation.

Associations among cytokines, EGF and lymphocyte subpopulations in patients diagnosed with advanced lung cancer

Aging is considered the single most significant risk factor for the majority of common malignances including lung cancer. Together immunosenescence, changes occurring with aging in the immune system, and inflammaging, characterizes by a chronic, subclinical accumulation of pro-inflammatory factors, are suggested to stand at the origin of most of the diseases of the elderly, such as cancer. The aim of this study was to determine associations among lymphocyte subpopulations, pro-inflammatory cytokines and epidermal growth factor (EGF) in patients diagnosed with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Forty-six advanced NSCLC patients were enrolled. Sixteen patients with newly diagnosed and before treatment and 30 patients after first-line platinum-based chemotherapy. Peripheral blood subpopulations were studied by flow cytometry and serum concentrations of soluble factors by ELISA. The frequency of naïve CD4⁺ T cells, naïve B cells and central memory CD8⁺ T cells were significantly lower in NSCLC patients after chemotherapy, while effector memory CD4⁺ T cells and terminally differentiated CD8⁺ T cells were significantly higher. IL-1β and TNFα significantly correlated among them before and after platinum-based chemotherapy. Terminally differentiated T cells expressing CD57⁺ significantly correlated with TNFα and IL-1β. For the first time, associations between EGF serum levels and terminally differentiated CD4⁺ T cells, and memory B cells were detected. This study confirms the association among terminally differentiated lymphocytes and pro-inflammatory cytokines in patients diagnosed with lung cancer, reinforcing the interconnection between terminally differentiated lymphocytes and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Clinical trial registration number: RPCEC00000205, http://registroclinico.sld.cu/.

Senescent T cells: a potential biomarker and target for cancer therapy

The failure of T cells to eradicate tumour cells in the tumour microenvironment is mainly due to the dysfunction of T cells. Senescent T cells, with defects in proliferation and effector functions, accumulate in ageing, chronic viral infections, and autoimmune disorders where antigen stimulation persists. Increasing evidence suggests that inducing T cell senescence is a key strategy used by malignant tumours to evade immune surveillance. In this review, we summarize the general features, functional regulation, and signalling network of senescent T cells in tumour development and highlight their potential as prognostic biomarkers in multiple cancer treatments, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy. Moreover, we discuss possible therapeutic strategies for preventing or rejuvenating senescence in tumour-specific T cells. Understanding these critical issues may provide novel strategies to enhance cancer immunotherapy.

Tumor microenvironment related novel signature predict lung adenocarcinoma survival

Background

Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is the most common histological type of lung cancers, which is the primary cause of cancer‐related mortality worldwide. Growing evidence has suggested that tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a pivotal role in tumorigenesis and progression. Hence, we investigate the correlation of TME related genes with LUAD prognosis.

Method

The information of LUAD gene expression data was obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). According to their immune/stromal scores calculated by the ESTIMATE algorithm, differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified. Then, we performed univariate Cox regression analysis on DEGs to obtain genes that are apparently bound up with LUAD survival (SurGenes). Functional annotation and protein-protein interaction (PPI) was also conducted on SurGenes. By validating the SurGenes with data sets of lung cancer from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), 106 TME related SurGenes were generated. Further, intersection analysis was executed between the 106 TME related SurGenes and hub genes from PPI network, PTPRC and CD19 were obtained. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis and CIBERSORT analysis were performed on PTPRC and CD19. Based on the TCGA LUAD dataset, we conducted factor analysis and Step-wise multivariate Cox regression analysis for 106 TME related SurGenes to construct the prognostic model for LUAD survival prediction. The LUAD dataset in GEO (GSE68465) was used as the testing dataset to confirm the prognostic model. Multivariate Cox regression analysis was used between risk score from the prognostic model and clinical parameters.

Result

A total of 106 TME related genes were collected in our research totally, which were markedly correlated with the overall survival (OS) of LUAD patient. Bioinformatics analysis suggest them mainly concentrated on immune response, cell adhesion, and extracellular matrix. More importantly, among 106 TME related SurGenes, PTPRC and CD19 were highly interconnected nodes among PPI network and correlated with immune activity, exhibiting significant prognostic potential. The prognostic model was a weighted linear combination of the 106 genes, by which the low-OS LUAD samples could be separated from the high-OS samples with success. This model was also able to rebustly predict the situation of survival (training set: p-value < 0.0001, area under the curve (AUC) = 0.649; testing set: p-value = 0.0009, AUC = 0.617). By combining with clinical parameters, the prognostic model was optimized. The AUC achieved 0.716 for 3 year and 0.699 for 5 year.

Conclusion

A series of TME-related prognostic genes were acquired in this research, which could reflect immune disorders within TME, and PTPRC and CD19 show the potential to be an indicator for LUAD prognosis and tumor microenvironment modulation. The prognostic model constructed base on those prognostic genes presented a high predictive ability, and may have clinical implications in the overall survival prediction of LUAD.

Two weeks of hydrogen inhalation can significantly reverse adaptive and innate immune system senescence patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer: a self-controlled study

Following standard treatments, the traditional model for enhancing anti-tumor immunity involves performing immune reconstitution (e.g., adoptive immune cell therapies or immunoenhancing drugs) to prevent recurrence. For patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer, we report here on two objectives, the immunosenescence for advanced non-small cell lung cancer and hydrogen gas inhalation for immune reconstitution. From July 1^st to September 25^th, 2019, 20 non-small cell lung cancer patients were enrolled to evaluate the immunosenescence of peripheral blood lymphocyte subsets, including T cell, natural killer/natural killer T cell and gamma delta T cell. Two weeks of hydrogen inhalation was performed during the waiting period for treatment-related examination. All patients inhaled a mixture of hydrogen (66.7%) and oxygen (33.3%) with a gas flow rate of 3 L/min for 4 hours each day. None of the patients received any standard treatment during the hydrogen inhalation period. After pretreatment testing, major indexes of immunosenescence were observed. The abnormally higher indexes included exhausted cytotoxic T cells, senescent cytotoxic T cells, and killer Vδ1 cells. After 2 weeks of hydrogen therapy, the number of exhausted and senescent cytotoxic T cells decreased to within the normal range, and there was an increase in killer Vδ1 cells. The abnormally lower indexes included functional helper and cytotoxic T cells, Th1, total natural killer T cells, natural killer, and Vδ2 cells. After 2 weeks of hydrogen therapy, all six cell subsets increased to within the normal range. The current data indicate that the immunosenescence of advanced non-small cell lung cancer involves nearly all lymphocyte subsets, and 2 weeks of hydrogen treatment can significantly improve most of these indexes. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Fuda Cancer Hospital, Jinan University in China (approval No. Fuda20181207) on December 7^th, 2018, and was registered on ClinicalTrials.gov (ID: NCT03818347) on January 24^th, 2019.

Identifying individual predictive factors for treatment efficacy

Given the heterogeneous responses to therapy and the high cost of treatments, there is an increasing interest in identifying pretreatment predictors of therapeutic effect. Clearly, the success of such an endeavor will depend on the amount of information that the patient-specific variables convey about the individual causal treatment effect on the response of interest. In the present work, using causal inference and information theory, a strategy is proposed to evaluate individual predictive factors for cancer immunotherapy efficacy. In a first step, the methodology proposes a causal inference model to describe the joint distribution of the pretreatment predictors and the individual causal treatment effect. Further, in a second step, the so-called predictive causal information (PCI), a metric that quantifies the amount of information the pretreatment predictors convey on the individual causal treatment effects, is introduced and its properties are studied. The methodology is applied to identify predictors of therapeutic success for a therapeutic vaccine in advanced lung cancer. A user-friendly R library EffectTreat is provided to carry out the necessary calculations.

Circulating T-cell Immunosenescence in Patients with Advanced Non-small Cell Lung Cancer Treated with Single-agent PD-1/PD-L1 Inhibitors or Platinum-based Chemotherapy

PURPOSE

CD28, CD57, and KLRG1 have been previously identified as markers of T-cell immunosenescence. The impact of immunosenescence on anti-PD(L)-1 (ICI) or platinum-based chemotherapy (PCT) in patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (aNSCLC) is unknown.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

The percentage of CD28^-, CD57⁺, KLRG1⁺ among CD8⁺ T cells [senescent immune phenotype (SIP)] was assessed by flow cytometry on blood from patients with aNSCLC before single-agent ICI (discovery cohort). A SIP cut-off was identified by log-rank maximization method and patients with aNSCLC treated with ICI (validation cohort) or PCT were classified accordingly. Proliferation and functional properties of SIP⁺ CD8⁺ T cells were assessed in vitro.

RESULTS

In the ICI discovery cohort (N = 37), SIP cut-off was 39.5%, 27% of patients were SIP⁺. In the ICI validation cohort (N = 46), SIP⁺ status was found in 28% of patients and significantly correlated with worse objective response rate (ORR; 0% vs. 30%, P = 0.04), median progression-free survival (PFS) [1.8 (95% confidence interval (CI), 1.3-NR) vs. 6.4 (95% CI, 2-19) months, P = 0.009] and median overall survival, OS [2.8 (95% CI, 2.0-NR) vs. 20.8 (95% CI, 6.0-NR) months, P = 0.02]. SIP⁺ status was significantly associated with circulating specific immunephenotypes, in vitro lower CD8⁺ T cells proliferation, lower IL2 and higher TNFα and IFNγ production. In the ICI-pooled population (N = 83), SIP⁺ status did not correlate with any clinical characteristics and it was associated with significantly worse ORR, PFS, and OS. In PCT cohort (N = 61), 11% of patients were SIP⁺. SIP status did not correlate with outcomes upon PCT.

CONCLUSIONS

Circulating T-cell immunosenescence is observed in up to 28% of patients with aNSCLC and correlates with lack of benefit from ICI but not from PCT.See related commentary by Salas-Benito et al., p. 374.

Identifying predictive biomarkers of CIMAvaxEGF success in non-small cell lung cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Immunosenescence biomarkers and peripheral blood parameters are evaluated separately as possible predictive markers of immunotherapy. Here, we illustrate the use of a causal inference model to identify predictive biomarkers of CIMAvaxEGF success in the treatment of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Patients.

METHODS

Data from a controlled clinical trial evaluating the effect of CIMAvax-EGF were analyzed retrospectively, following a causal inference approach. Pre-treatment potential predictive biomarkers included basal serum EGF concentration, peripheral blood parameters and immunosenescence biomarkers. The proportion of CD8 + CD28- T cells, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, CD4/CD8 ratio and CD19+ B cells. The 33 patients with complete information were included. The predictive causal information (PCI) was calculated for all possible models. The model with a minimum number of predictors, but with high prediction accuracy (PCI > 0.7) was selected. Good, rare and poor responder patients were identified using the predictive probability of treatment success.

RESULTS

The mean of PCI increased from 0.486, when only one predictor is considered, to 0.98 using the multivariate approach with all predictors. The model considering the proportion of CD4+ T cell, basal Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) concentration, neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio, Monocytes, and Neutrophils as predictors were selected (PCI > 0.74). Patients predicted as good responders according to the pre-treatment biomarkers values treated with CIMAvax-EGF had a significant higher observed survival compared with the control group (p = 0.03). No difference was observed for bad responders.

CONCLUSIONS

Peripheral blood parameters and immunosenescence biomarkers together with basal EGF concentration in serum resulted in good predictors of the CIMAvax-EGF success in advanced NSCLC. Future research should explore molecular and genetic profile as biomarkers for CIMAvax-EGF and it combination with immune-checkpoint inhibitors. The study illustrates the application of a new methodology, based on causal inference, to evaluate multivariate pre-treatment predictors. The multivariate approach allows realistic predictions of the clinical benefit of patients and should be introduced in daily clinical practice.

[Oncoimmunology in old age]

Physiological aging processes of the immune system are associated with an increased susceptibility to infectious, autoimmune and tumor diseases. In accordance with the general demographic development the number of tumor patients in advanced age also increases. An end to this development is not yet foreseeable. In tumor treatment, immunotherapy with checkpoint inhibitors is becoming increasingly more important; however, only a few studies on the efficacy and side-effect profiles in older patients exist so far. In this review article the changes in the immune system in old age and the influence on carcinogenesis are discussed. In addition, the current state of research on the immunotherapy of patients in advanced age who suffer from head and neck cancer is presented.

Age-related changes in T lymphocytes of patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Introduction

The number of aging cancer patients has increased continuously and will do so further in the future. The immune system of elderly people experiences critical changes over the time. Therefore, tumor-induced changes in the immune system are believed to differ in young and elderly cancer patients as well.

Methods

The effect of aging on the immune system was measured in peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) of healthy volunteers (n = 48, 21–84 yrs.) divided into three different age groups. Seventy years was set as a cut-off for defining subjects as elderly. Results were compared to two groups of adult cancer patients, which donated PBL and tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL): young cancer patients (40–69 yrs.; blood: n = 13; TIL: n = 17) and elderly cancer patients (70–90 yrs.; blood: n = 20; TIL: n = 15) with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Frequencies and phenotypes of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells as well as regulatory T cells (T_reg) were assessed by flow cytometry.

Results

We observed lower frequencies of CD8⁺ cytotoxic T cells during aging in both groups. Frequencies of tumor infiltrating regulatory T cells were significantly higher than in the peripheral blood but showed a significant decline in older tumor patients. With increasing age, expression of immunosuppressive CD73 and CCR7 was lower and expression of PD1 elevated on peripheral T cells in healthy volunteers and tumor patients.

Conclusion

Immunosenescence takes place in healthy donors and cancer patients. Our results suggest that in elderly tumor patients, the immune system is impaired and the tumor-induced immune escape is less pronounced. The increased expression of PD1 implies the potential for effective immunotherapies in elderly, as treatment with checkpoint inhibitors could be more beneficial for elderly HNSCC patients.

Changes and Clinical Significance of Detailed Peripheral Lymphocyte Subsets in Evaluating the Immunity for Cancer Patients

Objective

The evaluation of lymphocyte subsets is widely regarded as an important factor for monitoring tumor progression and response to therapy. This study was designed to establish a comprehensive and detailed assessment of peripheral lymphocyte subsets with a multi-parametric flow cytometry assay for response prediction and prognosis evaluation of cancer patients.

Methods

Peripheral blood samples collected from 40 cancer patients and 23 age- and sex-matched healthy volunteers were tested for 29 lymphocyte subsets by flow cytometry. The univariate analysis was applied to establish the reference interval of healthy samples, and the ratio and proportion of 29 lymphocyte subsets between patient samples and healthy controls were compared to evaluate their clinical significance by Mann–Whitney U-test model.

Results

The reference ranges of 29 lymphocyte subsets were established with a normal distribution and no significant differences were observed between genders. Compared with healthy control group, lower proportion and ratio of specific parameters, such as Naïve Th cells (p<0.01), Naïve Tc cells (p<0.01), CM (central memory) Tc cells (p<0.01), Naïve T cells/Memory T cells (p<0.001), Naïve T cells/EM (effector memory) T cells (p<0.001) and Naive Th cells/Memory Th cells (p< 0.001), and higher proportion and ratio of EM Th cells (p<0.001), EM Tc cells (p<0.01), effector Tc cells (p<0.05), EM Th cells/CM Th cells (p<0.01) and EM Tc cells/CM Tc cells (p<0.01), as well as Breg (p<0.001), B cells (p<0.05) and CD16-NK cells (p<0.001) were found in cancer cohorts.

Conclusion

This study suggests that the changes in certain lymphocyte subsets might be helpful to evaluate the immunity of cancer patients, and holds great potential for clinical application.

Biomodulina T partially restores immunosenescent CD4 and CD8 T cell compartments in the elderly

The changes that occur in the immune system with aging are commonly termed immunosenescence. Immunosenescence affects almost all components and functions of the immune response. The most commonly described change is a decrease in numbers and proportions of naïve T cells combined with the increase of terminally differentiated T lymphocytes, mainly affecting CD8+ T cells. The changes in the naïve T cell compartment are principally attributed to thymic involution and lifelong chronic antigen stimulation, among other triggers. Several strategies such as hormonal products, thymic peptides, or cytokines have been proposed for the restoration of the immune system. Here we show the effects of Biomodulina T (BT) on several populations of the immune system when administered to elderly patients diagnosed with recurrent respiratory infections. BT is a polypeptide fraction of bovine thymus, a Cuban product that obtained sanitary registration in 1994 for its immunomodulatory effects. We found that CD4+ naïve T, CD8+ stem cell-like memory (SCM) T, CD4+ recent thymic emigrants (RTE) T and CD4+ CD31+ naïve T cells increased with the administration of BT, whereas CD4+ and CD8+ T cells expressing PD1 decreased after the treatment with BT. Additionally, the proliferative capacity of CD4+ T cells measured by Ki67 expression, and the CD4+ T cell ability to produce IFN-γ were also improved by BT. Moreover, BT did not increase CD4+ Tregs. Altogether, these findings suggest that BT administration is a promising strategy for immune restoration in elderly patients and improvement of immunotherapeutic potential in cancer patients.

Triple combination immunotherapy with GVAX, anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibody, and agonist anti-OX40 monoclonal antibody is highly effective against murine intracranial glioma

Single-agent immunotherapy, including with immune checkpoint inhibition with anti-PD-1 antibody, has not extended survival in patients with malignant glioma. However, PD-1 inhibition may still play a role in combination immunotherapy with multiple agents. In this study, we evaluated anti-PD-1 antibody treatment in combination with multiple approaches, including vaccination and agonist anti-OX40 immunotherapy, as well as triple combination immunotherapy with each of the above agents in a murine glioma model. Treatments were delivered on days 3,6, and 9 after intracranial implantation of glioma cells in the right frontal lobes of the mice. Vaccination consisted of subcutaneous implantation of irradiated GL261 cells engineered to express GM-CSF. We harvested splenocytes and brain tissue 18 days after glioma implantation and analyzed them by ELISPOT and flow cytometry, respectively. Treated mice surviving for 120 days were challenged with implantation of large numbers of GL261 cells and either followed for survival or sacrificed for study of the memory response. Survival was assessed by the Kaplan-Meier method and the log-rank test. Means were compared by the 2-tailed student's t-test. We report that combining anti-PD-1 immunotherapy with either vaccination or agonist anti-OX40 immunotherapy improves survival in GL261-bearing mice compared with any of the above as monotherapy. Triple combination immunotherapy with vaccination, anti-PD-1 antibody, and agonist anti-OX40 antibody results in long-term survival in all mice. Triple combination immunotherapy resulted in an elevated CD4+/CD8 + T lymphocyte ratio amongst tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes as well as a diminished fraction of regulatory T lymphocytes, likely reflective of a more vigorous Th1 antitumor response.

Immunosenescence: the potential role of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) in age-related immune deficiency

The aging process is associated with chronic low-grade inflammation in both humans and rodents, commonly called inflammaging. At the same time, there is a gradual decline in the functional capacity of adaptive and innate immune systems, i.e., immunosenescence, a process not only linked to the aging process, but also encountered in several pathological conditions involving chronic inflammation. The hallmarks of immunosenescence include a decline in the numbers of naïve CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells, an imbalance in the T cell subsets, and a decrease in T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire and signaling. Correspondingly, there is a decline in B cell lymphopoiesis and a reduction in antibody production. The age-related changes are not as profound in innate immunity as they are in adaptive immunity. However, there are distinct functional deficiencies in dendritic cells, natural killer cells, and monocytes/macrophages with aging. Interestingly, the immunosuppression induced by myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) in diverse inflammatory conditions also targets mainly the T and B cell compartments, i.e., inducing very similar alterations to those present in immunosenescence. Here, we will compare the immune profiles induced by immunosenescence and the MDSC-driven immunosuppression. Given that the appearance of MDSCs significantly increases with aging and MDSCs are the enhancers of other immunosuppressive cells, e.g., regulatory T cells (Tregs) and B cells (Bregs), it seems likely that MDSCs might remodel the immune system, thus preventing excessive inflammation with aging. We propose that MDSCs are potent inducers of immunosenescence.

Senescence markers: Predictive for response to checkpoint inhibitors

Recent studies suggest that the age-related remodeling of the immune system, known as immunosenescence, could impact the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors in leukemia or nonsmall cell lung cancer. We investigated whether senescence markers can predict response to checkpoint inhibitor therapy in melanoma patients. The peripheral blood of patients with newly diagnosed, untreated metastatic melanoma was analyzed by flow cytometry to correlate the frequency of senescence markers with clinical response as measured by RECIST after 12 weeks of treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors. The loss of surface markers CD27 and CD28 or the expression of Tim-3 and CD57 on T cells was associated with resistance to checkpoint inhibitor blockade, presenting these phenotypes as possible predictive biomarkers for checkpoint inhibitor therapy. Immunosenescence seems to impact on the response to checkpoint inhibitor therapy in melanoma patients. Thus, lymphocyte phenotyping for senescence markers, with the introduction of immunosenescence panels, could be predictive for checkpoint inhibitor response.

Chromogenic Multiplex Immunohistochemistry Reveals Modulation of the Immune Microenvironment Associated with Survival in Elderly Patients with Lung Adenocarcinoma

With underrepresentation of elderly patients with lung adenocarcinoma (LADC) in anti-PD-1/PD-L1 clinical trials, better understanding of the interplay of PD-L1 and tumor-associated immune cells (TAICs) could assist clinicians in stratifying these patients for immunotherapy. One hundred and one patients with LADCs, stratified by age, were included for analysis of PD-L1 expression and density of TAICs expressing CD4, CD8, and CD33, by using multiplex chromogenic immunohistochemistry (IHC) assays and automated digital quantification. The CD4⁺/CD8⁺ ratio was significantly higher in elderly patients. In patients <75 years, the density of CD4⁺, CD8⁺, and PD-L1 in TAICs showed a positive significant correlation with PD-L1 expression in tumor cells (TCs), while a lower correlation was observed in the elderly population. In the latter, a high CD4⁺/CD8⁺ ratio, and combined PD-L1 expression ≥1% TCs with a low CD8⁺ density, low CD33⁺ density, and a high CD4⁺ density correlated to worse overall survival. We identified differences according to age in the CD4⁺/CD8⁺ ratio and in correlation between PD-L1 expression and the density of TAICs in LADC patients. Distinct groups of tumor microenvironments had an impact on the OS of elderly patients with LADC.

Is Chronic Exposure to Low-Dose Organochlorine Pesticides a New Risk Factor of T-cell Immunosenescence?

Background: T-cell immunosenescence, a hallmark of an aging immune system, is potentially linked to the risk of developing cancer and other aging-related diseases. Chronic infection by cytomegalovirus (CMV) has been widely studied as a risk factor for T-cell immunosenescence, but the role of persistent chemicals has never been examined. As a typical example of persistent chemicals, we evaluated whether organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are related to T-cell immunosenescence in the general population.Methods: Serum concentrations of β-hexachlorocyclohexane, p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDE, and trans-nonachlor were measured in 95 Korean adults ages 30 to 64 years. T-cell immunosenescence was assessed by the frequencies of CD8⁺CD57⁺, CD8⁺CD28^-, CD4⁺CD57⁺, and CD4⁺CD28^- T lymphocytes in 20 mL of fresh peripheral blood.Results: The senescence of CD8⁺ T lymphocytes was the most consistently associated with OCPs. For quartiles of measurements of OCPs, adjusted mean percentages of CD8⁺CD57⁺ and CD8⁺CD28^- T lymphocytes in the CD8⁺ T lymphocyte population were 23.9, 27.6, 31.0, and 38.7 (P _trend < 0.01) and 25.6, 27.3, 28.0, and 35.5 (P _trend = 0.02), respectively. When we compared the strength of the associations among OCPs, CMV IgG titer, and age, OCPs showed the strongest association with markers of immunosenescence. Importantly, the association between OCPs and immunosenescence markers was more prominent among participants without known risk factors, such as a young age or low CMV immunoglobulin G titer.Conclusions: Chronic exposure to low-dose OCPs may be a new risk factor for T-cell immunosenescence.Impact: T-cell immunosenescence may be one possible mechanism linking low-dose OCPs and many chronic diseases. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev; 27(10); 1159-67. ©2018 AACR.

CIMAvax-EGF: Toward long-term survival of advanced NSCLC

Lung cancer remains one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most common histologic type of lung cancer. Medical and scientific progress has led to longer survival in an increasing number of patients suffering from cancer. Concerning patients with advanced NSCLC, there is a subgroup with long-term survival. The human epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) family plays a key role in tumor development. This cluster of genes is associated with augmented angiogenesis and enhanced proliferation, survival, and migration of tumor cells. The CIMAvax-EGF vaccine consists of a chemical conjugate of the EGF with the P64 protein derived from the Meningitis B bacteria and the Montanide ISA 51, as adjuvant. The vaccine induces antibodies against EGF that results in EGF withdrawal. CIMAvax-EGF has been demonstrated to be safe and immunogenic in advanced NSCLC patients. Here we summarize the current knowledge of the mechanism of action of CIMAvax-EGF, highlighting the impact of this anti-EGF-based vaccine on the long-term survival of advanced NSCLC patients.

Predictive value of peripheral regulatory T cells in non-small cell lung cancer patients undergoing radiotherapy

Background

Studies increasingly focus on the impact of radiotherapy on immunity; however, the role of peripheral cellular immunity prior to radiotherapy in cancer patients remains largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the predictive roles of lymphocyte subsets on tumor progression in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients undergoing radiotherapy, and their expression in NSCLC patients at first relapse.

Methods

We enrolled 70 NSCLC patients and 14 age- and sex-matched healthy donors and tested the lymphocyte subsets in their peripheral blood by flow cytometry. Among them, 40 newly diagnosed patients received radiotherapy and were enrolled to investigate the predictive value of lymphocyte subsets on tumor progression after radiotherapy by uni- and multivariate analyses; 30 patients at first relapse were included to evaluate the differences of lymphocyte subsets between them and first diagnosed patients and healthy volunteers.

Results

Increased proportions of regulatory T cells, CD8+ T cells, and CD8+CD28- T cells and decreased CD4+ T cells and CD4/CD8 ratios were observed in NSCLC patients at first relapse compared to newly diagnosed patients. In the 40 first diagnosed patients undergoing radiotherapy, uni- and multivariate analyses showed that increased level of regulatory T cells correlated with poor progression-free survival (hazard ratio = 2.55 and 3.76, P = 0.022 and 0.010, respectively).

Conclusions

Peripheral regulatory T cells were increased and independently predict tumor progression in NSCLC patients undergoing radiotherapy, suggesting the promising combination of radiotherapy and immunotherapy.

Peripheral CD4+ naïve/memory ratio is an independent predictor of survival in non-small cell lung cancer

Background

To investigate the clinical significance of naïve T cells, memory T cells, CD45RA+CD45RO+ T cells, and naïve/memory ratio in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients.

Methods

Pretreatment peripheral blood samples from 76 NSCLC patients and 28 age- and sex-matched healthy volunteers were collected and tested for immune cells by flow cytometry. We compared the expression of these immune cells between patients and healthy controls and evaluated their predictive roles for survival in NSCLC by cox proportional hazards model.

Results

Decreased naïve CD4+ T cells, naïve CD8+ T cells, CD4+ naïve/memory ratios and CD4+CD45RA+CD45RO+ T cells, and increased memory CD4+ T cells, were observed in 76 NSCLC patients compared to healthy volunteers. Univariate analysis revealed that elevated CD4+ naïve/memory ratio correlated with prolonged progression-free survival (P=0.013). Multivariate analysis confirmed its predictive role with a hazard ratio of 0.35 (95% confidence interval, 0.19-0.75, P=0.012).

Conclusions

Peripheral CD4+ naïve/memory ratio can be used as a predictive biomarker in NSCLC patients and used to optimize personalized treatment strategies.

Does Regular Exercise Counter T Cell Immunosenescence Reducing the Risk of Developing Cancer and Promoting Successful Treatment of Malignancies?

Moderate intensity aerobic exercise training or regular physical activity is beneficial for immune function. For example, some evidence shows that individuals with an active lifestyle exhibit stronger immune responses to vaccination compared to those who are inactive. Encouragingly, poor vaccine responses, which are characteristic of an ageing immune system, can be improved by single or repeated bouts of exercise. In addition, exercise-induced lymphocytosis, and the subsequent lymphocytopenia, is thought to facilitate immune surveillance, whereby lymphocytes search tissues for antigens derived from viruses, bacteria, or malignant transformation. Aerobic exercise training is anti-inflammatory and is linked to lower morbidity and mortality from diseases with infectious, immunological, and inflammatory aetiologies, including cancer. These observations have led to the view that aerobic exercise training might counter the age-associated decline in immune function, referred to as immunosenescence. This article summarises the aspects of immune function that are sensitive to exercise-induced change, highlighting the observations which have stimulated the idea that aerobic exercise training could prevent, limit, or delay immunosenescence, perhaps even restoring aged immune profiles. These potential exercise-induced anti-immunosenescence effects might contribute to the mechanisms by which active lifestyles reduce the risk of developing cancer and perhaps benefit patients undergoing cancer therapy.

CIMAvax-EGF: A New Therapeutic Vaccine for Advanced Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Patients

Lung cancer is the common fatal illness with the highest incidence and mortality globally. Epidermal growth factor receptor overexpression by tumor cells is associated with uncontrolled proliferation, angiogenesis, anti-apoptotic signals, metastization, and invasiveness. CIMAvax-EGF vaccine consists of a chemical conjugate of the EGF with the P64 protein derived from the Meningitis B bacteria and Montanide ISA 51, as adjuvant. The vaccine is projected to induce antibodies against EGF that results in EGF withdrawal. CIMAvax-EGF demonstrated to be safe and immunogenic in advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. The efficacy study was an open-label, multicentric Phase III clinical trial, which enrolled 405 advanced NSCLC patients. Patients with proven stage IIIB/IV NSCLC, who had completed four to six cycles of chemotherapy (CTP) were randomized to receive CIMAvax-EGF or best supportive care. CIMAvax-EGF resulted in a significantly larger overall survival in patients receiving at least four doses. High EGF concentration at baseline was a good predictive biomarker of the vaccine activity and a poor prognostic biomarker for the non-treated population. The proportion of CD8+CD28- cells, CD4 cells, and the CD4/CD8 ratio after first-line CTP was also associated with CIMAvax-EGF clinical benefit. After completing the Phase III, a Phase IV trial was done where the vaccine was administered in primary care units. Administering the vaccine at primary care institutions granted better access and treatment compliance. Safety was confirmed. Several clinical trials are currently ongoing to validate EGF as a predictive biomarker of CIMAvax-EGF efficacy.

Selective effect of cytokine-induced killer cells on survival of patients with early-stage melanoma

Adoptive immunotherapy using cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cells has shown potential antitumor ability against several kinds of cancers, including melanoma. However, little is known about the achievable outcome of CIK cells in melanoma patients at different pathological stages. Here we recruited 55 patients treated with conventional therapy plus CIK cells as the CIK group, and 49 patients treated with conventional therapy alone as the control group. The pathological characteristics were comparable between two groups, with a follow-up period up to 40 months. Survival data and immune responses were evaluated after CIK cell treatment. In this study, CIK cells were successfully generated from peripheral blood of melanoma patients after in vitro culture for 14 days. The cultured CIK cells not only produced high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines upon in vitro stimulation but also efficiently killed human melanoma cell lines. No serious side events were observed in all patients treated with CIK cells. Furthermore, infusions of CIK cells improved the quality of life in some patients, including advanced cases. More importantly, the CIK group exhibited better survival rates compared to the control group among early-stage melanoma patients, in consistent with the increased frequency of peripheral CD4+ T cells. However, the patients with advanced-stage melanoma did not benefit from the CIK cell therapy in terms of survival rate. In conclusion, CIK cells combined with conventional treatments may prolong the survival of early-stage melanoma patients and improve the quality of life for some advanced cases in a safe way.

T Cell Subpopulations in Healthy Elderly and Lung Cancer Patients: Insights from Cuban Studies

The senescence of the immune system and the risk of cancer increase with aging. Age itself entails changes in the immune system, which are related to a decrease in thymic output of naïve lymphocytes, an accumulation of chronic antigenic load, notably chronic viral infections such as cytomegalovirus (CMV), and replicative senescence of lymphocytes. These changes could eventually contribute to cancer risk and affect the response to cancer treatment. However, several confounding factors make it difficult to draw a picture of causal relationships. Studies in diverse human populations could contribute to clarify these complex relationships. Here, we summarize the current knowledge about the senescence of the T cells, the relationship with CMV infection, cancer, and cancer treatment. We also review the results of a series of studies performed in Cuba whose population is characterized by the unusual combination of long life expectancy and high antigenic load, including high seroprevalence of CMV, typical of tropical countries. Although immunosenescence affects almost all components and functions of the immune response, its most salient feature is a decrease in numbers and proportions of naïve CD8⁺ T lymphocytes and an accretion of terminally differentiated CD8⁺ T lymphocytes. These features were confirmed by the Cuban studies, but interestingly a clear gender effect also appeared. Moreover, as aging is a global phenomenon, a fast increase in elderly with malignancies is expected; therefore, the evaluation of patient’s immune status would support the decision of treating them with immunotherapy and predict the efficacy of such treatments, thereby improving benefits for the patients.

Feasibility Study of a Novel Navigation System for Biopsy of Peripheral Lesions in the Lungs

A novel system for electromagnetic navigation in bronchoscopy (ENB) to improve peripheral lesion targeting and diagnostic is currently under development, and preliminary tests on a complex phantom are presented in this paper. The system named Transbite is proving to be easy to use, accurate and useful for experienced and beginner users, with precision around 5-9 mm in reaching targets in sub-segmental bronchi where a conventional video-bronchoscope cannot extent. Transbite system consists of a planning and orientation software, a navigation and biopsy forceps, an active marker that is placed on patient chest and an electromagnetic tracking system from the market connected to a computer containing the software. Transbite can be used with any bronchoscopy system, has a short set-up procedure and learning curve.