Modulation of pulmonary eicosanoid metabolism following exposure to sulfuric acid

Sulfur-related air pollutants induce the generation of platelet-activating factor, 5-lipoxygenase- and cyclooxygenase-products in canine alveolar macrophages via activation of phospholipases A2

Recent studies have shown that long-term in vivo exposure of dogs to neutral sulfur(IV)/sulfite aerosols induces mild inflammatory reactions, whereas the combination of neutral sulfite with acidic sulfur(VI)/sulfate aerosols evokes less pronounced effects. To understand underlying mechanisms, we studied in vitro the role of lipid mediators in the responses of alveolar macrophages (AMs) to sulfur-related compounds under neutral (pH 7) or moderate acidic (pH 6) conditions. Canine AMs incubated with sulfite at pH 7 released threefold higher amounts of platelet-activating factor than control (P < 0.005). Generation of arachidonic acid, leukotriene B4, 5-hydroxy-eicosatetraenoic acid, prostaglandin E2, thromboxane B2 and 12-hydroxyheptadecatrienoic acid increased twofold (P < 0.0005). However, these metabolites remained unchanged following incubation of AMs with sulfite at pH 6 or with sulfate at pH 7 or pH 6. Mediator release by sulfite-treated AMs at pH 7 stimulated respiratory burst activity of neutrophils. Inhibition of MAPK pathway by PD 98059, of cytosolic (cPLA2) and secretory phospholipases A2 by AACOCF3 and thioetheramide-PC, respectively, reduced sulfite-induced eicosanoid formation in AMs. Sulfite activated cPLA2 activity twofold at pH 7. This mechanism of sulfite-stimulated responses in phospholipid metabolism predicts that chronic exposure to sulfur(IV)/sulfite is associated with a considerable health risk.

Exposure to diesel exhaust aggravates nasal allergic reaction in guinea pigs

Diesel exhaust particulates (DEP) () and exposure to diesel exhaust (DE) induce nasal mucosal hyperresponsiveness to histamine. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated whether or not exposing guinea pigs to DE aggravates the nasal allergic reaction induced by repeated nasal administration of ovalbumin (OVA). Guinea pigs were exposed to filtered air or to DE (DE containing 0.3 or 1.0 mg/m(3) of DEP) for 5 wk. During exposure to filtered air or to DE, guinea pigs were administered 1% of OVA in saline into the nasal cavities once a week. Sneezes were counted and nasal secretions were measured as indices of sneezing responses and rhinorrhea for 20 min after OVA administration. Titers of specific anti-OVA-IgG and anti-OVA-IgE and the number of eosinophils infiltrated into both nasal epithelium and subepithelium were measured at the end of the exposure to DE. Exposure to DE enhanced the number of sneezes and the amount of nasal secretions induced by OVA. Titers of specific anti-OVA-IgG and anti-OVA-IgE also significantly increased in DE-exposed animals. Exposure to DE also augmented the number of eosinophils that infiltrated both the nasal epithelium and the subepithelium induced by OVA. These results suggest that exposure to DE enhances the nasal allergic reaction induced by repeated antigen administration in guinea pigs.

Health effects of sulfur-related environmental air pollution. IV. Respiratory lung function

Recently concern has been raised about health effects related to environmental sulfur and/or acidic aerosols. To assess long-term effects on respiratory lung function, 8 beagle dogs were exposed over a period of 13 mo for 16.5 h/day to 1-microm neutral sulfite aerosol with a particle-associated sulfur(IV) concentration of 0.32 mg m(-3) and for 6 h/day to 1.1-microm acidic sulfate aerosol providing an hydrogen ion concentration of 15.2 micromol m(-3) for inhalation. Prior to exposure the dogs were kept under clean air conditions for 16 mo to establish physiological baseline values for each dog. A second group of eight dogs (control) was kept for the entire study under clean air conditions. Before and at the end of exposure, respiratory lung function was evaluated in both groups in anesthetized and mechanically ventilated animals. Lung volumes as well as static and dynamic lung compliances were measured. Series dead-space volumes and slopes of the alveolar plateau for respiratory (O2, CO2) and inert test gases (He, SF6) were determined from single-breath washout tracings. Monodisperse 0.9-microm DEHS droplets were used to assess convective mixing in the lungs and to evaluate airway dimensions in vivo. Gas exchange across the alveolar-capillary layer was characterized by membrane diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide and alveolar-arterial pressure differences for respiratory gases. A bronchial challenge with carbachol was used to assess airway responsiveness. In comparison to the control group, dogs exposed to sulfur(IV) and acidic aerosol exhibited no significant changes in any respiratory lung function parameter. Also the responsiveness of the bronchial airways to carbachol was not affected. In view of the results obtained in this and previous studies, we conclude that anticipated synergistic effects of the two air pollutants on pulmonary lung function were not observed. It is hypothesized that antagonistic effects of the air pollutants on the activity of phospholipase A2 play an important role and account for counteracting physiological compensatory mechanisms. The results emphasize the complexity of health effects on lung function in response to the complex mixtures of ambient air pollutants and witness the precariousness in the risk assessment of air pollutants for humans.

Health effects of sulfur-related environmental air pollution. II. Cellular and molecular parameters of injury

Recently, concern has been raised about effects related to environmental sulfur and/or acidic aerosols. To assess long-term effects on nonrespiratory lung function, 8 beagle dogs were exposed over a period of 13 mo for 16.5 h/day to a neutral sulfite aerosol at a sulfur(IV) concentration of 0.32 mg m(-3) and for 6 h/day to an acidic sulfate aerosol providing a hydrogen concentration of 15.2 micromol m(-3) for inhalation. Prior to exposure the dogs were kept under clean air conditions for 16 mo to establish physiological baseline values for each animal. A second group of eight dogs (control) was kept for the entire study under clean air conditions. No clinical symptoms were identified that could be related to the combined exposure. Biochemical and cellular parameters were analyzed in sequential bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluids. The permeability of the alveolo-capillary membrane and diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) clearance was not affected. Similarly, oxidant burden of the epithelial lining fluid evaluated by levels of oxidation products in the BAL fluid protein fraction remained unchanged. Both the lysosomal enzyme beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase and the alpha-1-AT were increased (p <.05). In contrast, the cytoplasmic marker lactate dehydrogenase remained unchanged, indicating the absence of severe damages to epithelial cells or phagocytes. Various surfactant functions were not altered during exposure. Three animals showed elevated levels of the type II cell-associated alkaline phosphatase (AP), indicating a nonuniform response of type II cells. Significant correlations were found between AP and total BAL protein, but not between AP and lactate dehydrogenase, suggesting proliferation of alveolar type II cells. Absolute and relative cell counts in the BAL fluid were not influenced by exposure. Alveolar macrophages showed no alterations with regard to their respiratory burst upon stimulation with opsonized zymosan. The percentage of alveolar macrophages capable of phagocytozing latex particles was significantly decreased (p<.05), while the phagocytosis index was not altered. In view of the results of this and previous studies, we conclude that there is no synergism of effects of these two air pollutants on nonrespiratory lung functions. It is hypothesized that antagonistic effects of these air pollutants on phospholipase A2-dependent pathways account for compensatory physiological mechanisms. The results emphasize the complexity of health effects on lung functions in response to the complex mixture of air pollutants and disclose the precariousness in the risk assessment of air pollutants for humans.

Assessment of toxicologic interactions resulting from acute inhalation exposure to sulfuric acid and ozone mixtures

Studies examining effects of air pollutants often use single compounds, while "real world" exposures are to more than one chemical. Thus, it is necessary to assess responses following inhalation of chemical mixtures. Rabbits were exposed for 3 hr to sulfuric acid aerosol at 0, 50, 75, or 125 micrograms/m3 in conjunction with ozone at 0, 0.1, 0.3, or 0.6 ppm, following which broncho-pulmonary lavage was performed. Various pulmonary response endpoints related to general cytotoxicity and macrophage function were examined. In addition, a goal of the study was to define an improved approach to the analysis of data sets involving binary pollutant mixtures. Results were evaluated using analysis of variance with multiple linear contrasts to determine the significance of any effect in the pollutant-exposed groups compared to sham control animals and to assess the type, and extent, of any toxicological interaction between acid and ozone. Interaction was considered to occur when the effects of combined exposure were either significantly greater or less than additive. Pollutant exposures had no effect on lavage fluid levels of lactate dehydrogenase, prostaglandins E2 and F2 alpha, nor on the numbers, viability, or types of immune cells recovered by lavage. Phagocytic activity of macrophages was depressed at the two highest acid levels and at all levels of ozone. Exposure to all mixtures showed significant antagonism. Superoxide production by stimulated macrophages was depressed by acid exposure at the two highest concentrations, while ozone alone had no effect. Significant antagonistic interaction was observed following exposure to mixtures of 75 or 125 micrograms/m3 acid with 0.1 or 0.3 ppm ozone. The activity of tumor necrosis factor elicited from stimulated macrophages was depressed by acid at 75 and 125 micrograms/m3 while ozone had no effect. Exposure to mixtures of 125 micrograms/m3 acid with 0.3 or 0.6 ppm ozone resulted in synergistic interaction. This study provided additional evidence for antagonism between two common air pollutants and demonstrated that the type of interaction between sulfuric acid and ozone depended upon the endpoint but that the magnitude of any interaction was not always related to the exposure concentrations of the constituent pollutants.

In vitro studies of mechanisms of lung injury in the rodent

In order to better define the responses of lung cells to potentially pathogenic insults, primary cell cultures of dissociated respiratory epithelial cells have been established. These epithelial cells have been obtained from various areas of the respiratory tract ranging from the trachea to the alveolus and the cultures have been demonstrated to mimic the differnetiated state of these cell types as observed in situ. Several procedures which enhance the differentiated state have been evaluated, which include maintenance on more physiologically-relevant substrata, such as collagen gels, use of defined serum-free medium and use of air/liquid interface systems. These approaches have allowed intracellular responses of respiratory epithelium to toxic insult to be better defined.

Pulmonary arachidonic acid metabolism following acute exposures to ozone and nitrogen dioxide

Ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are common air pollutants, and exposure to these gases has been shown to affect pulmonary physiology, biochemistry, and structure. This study examined their ability to modulate arachidonic acid metabolites (eicosanoids) in the lungs. Rabbits were exposed for 2 h to O3 at 0.1, 0.3, or 1 ppm; NO2 at 1, 3, or 10 ppm; or to a mixture of 0.3 ppm O3 and 3 ppm NO2. Groups of animals sacrificed either immediately or 24 h after each exposure underwent broncho-pulmonary lavage. Selected eicosanoids were assessed in lavage fluid by radioimmunoassay. Increases in prostaglandins E2 (PGE2) and F2 alpha (PGF2 alpha) were found immediately after exposure to 1 ppm O3. Exposure to 10 ppm NO2 resulted in a depression of 6-keto-PGF1 alpha, while thromboxane B2 (TxB2) was elevated after exposure to 1 ppm NO2 and depressed following 3 and 10 ppm. The O3/NO2 mixture resulted in synergistic increases in PGE2 and PGF2 alpha, with the response appearing to be driven by O3. This study has demonstrated that acute exposure to either O3 or NO2 can alter pulmonary arachidonic acid metabolism and that the responses to these oxidants differ, both quantitatively and qualitatively.