Response monitoring, the error-related negativity, and differences in social behavior in autism

Cognitive control in adults with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder: a study with event-related potentials

Introduction

Little is known about cognitive control in adults with high-functioning forms of autism spectrum disorder because previous research focused on children and adolescents. Cognitive control is crucial to monitor and readjust behavior after errors to select contextually appropriate reactions. The congruency effect and conflict adaptation are measures of cognitive control. Post-error slowing, error-related negativity and error positivity provide insight into behavioral and electrophysiological correlates of error processing. In children and adolescent with autism spectrum disorder deficits in cognitive control and error processing have been shown by changes in post-error slowing, error-related negativity and error positivity in the flanker task.

Methods

We performed a modified Eriksen flanker task in 17 adults with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder and 17 healthy controls. As behavioral measures of cognitive control and error processing, we included reaction times and error rates to calculate congruency effects, conflict adaptation, and post-error slowing. Event-related potentials namely error-related negativity and error positivity were measured to assess error-related brain activity.

Results

Both groups of participants showed the expected congruency effects demonstrated by faster and more accurate responses in congruent compared to incongruent trials. Healthy controls exhibited conflict adaptation as they obtained performance benefits after incongruent trials whereas patients with autism spectrum disorder did not. The expected slowing in reaction times after errors was observed in both groups of participants. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder demonstrated enhanced electrophysiological error-processing compared to healthy controls indicated by increased error-related negativity and error positivity difference amplitudes.

Discussion

Our findings show that adults with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder do not show the expected upregulation of cognitive control in response to conflicts. This finding implies that previous experiences may have a reduced influence on current behavior in these patients which possibly contributes to less flexible behavior. Nevertheless, we observed intact behavioral reactions after errors indicating that adults with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder can flexibly adjust behavior in response to changed environmental demands when necessary. The enhancement of electrophysiological error-processing indicates that adults with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder demonstrate an extraordinary reactivity toward errors reflecting increased performance monitoring in this subpopulation of autism spectrum disorder patients.

Looking Back at the Next 40 Years of ASD Neuroscience Research

During the last 40 years, neuroscience has become one of the most central and most productive approaches to investigating autism. In this commentary, we assemble a group of established investigators and trainees to review key advances and anticipated developments in neuroscience research across five modalities most commonly employed in autism research: magnetic resonance imaging, functional near infrared spectroscopy, positron emission tomography, electroencephalography, and transcranial magnetic stimulation. Broadly, neuroscience research has provided important insights into brain systems involved in autism but not yet mechanistic understanding. Methodological advancements are expected to proffer deeper understanding of neural circuitry associated with function and dysfunction during the next 40 years.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of altered electrophysiological markers of performance monitoring in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome (GTS), Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and Autism

Altered performance monitoring is implicated in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of electrophysiological correlates of performance monitoring (error-related negativity, ERN; error positivity, Pe; feedback-related negativity, FRN; feedback-P3) in individuals with OCD, GTS, ADHD or autism compared to control participants, or associations between correlates and symptoms/traits of these conditions. Meta-analyses on 97 studies (5890 participants) showed increased ERN in OCD (Hedge's g = 0.54[CIs:0.44,0.65]) and GTS (g = 0.99[CIs:0.05,1.93]). OCD also showed increased Pe (g = 0.51[CIs:0.21,0.81]) and FRN (g = 0.50[CIs:0.26,0.73]). ADHD and autism showed reduced ERN (ADHD: g=-0.47[CIs:-0.67,-0.26]; autism: g=-0.61[CIs:-1.10,-0.13]). ADHD also showed reduced Pe (g=-0.50[CIs:-0.69,-0.32]). These findings suggest overlap in electrophysiological markers of performance monitoring alterations in four common neurodevelopmental conditions, with increased amplitudes of the markers in OCD and GTS and decreased amplitudes in ADHD and autism. Implications of these findings in terms of shared and distinct performance monitoring alterations across these neurodevelopmental conditions are discussed. PROSPERO pre-registration code: CRD42019134612.

Emotion regulation, emotionality, and expression of emotions: A link between social skills, behavior, and emotion problems in children with ASD and their peers

This study aimed to investigate differences between emotion regulation (ER), emotionality, and expression of emotions in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and their typically developing (TD) peers; and to examine the potential links between these areas of development with social skills in both groups, as well as with behavioral, emotional, and social problems in ASD. Forty-four children (40 males and 4 females, ages 3 to 7 years) with ASD (n = 22) and their TD peers (n = 22) were included in this study. Mothers reported about their children's ASD symptoms, social, emotional, and behavioral functioning. As predicted, children with ASD were described as showing decreased ER, increased emotionality, and decreased expression of emotions when compared to their TD peers. Moreover, in the ASD group, increased social skills were associated with enhanced ER and increased expression of emotions; and in the TD group, increased social skills were correlated with decreased emotionality. Finally, enhanced ER was linked to decreased peer problems, and increased prosocial behaviors; and decreased emotionality was linked to decreased behavior and emotional problems in the ASD group. Implications for further research are discussed.

The Influence of Irrelevant Visual Distractors on Eye Movement Control in Chinese Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Evidence from the Remote Distractor Paradigm

The current study examined eye movement control in autistic (ASD) children. Simple targets were presented in isolation, or with central, parafoveal, or peripheral distractors synchronously. Sixteen children with ASD (47–81 months) and nineteen age and IQ matched typically developing children were instructed to look to the target as accurately and quickly as possible. Both groups showed high proportions (40%) of saccadic errors towards parafoveal and peripheral distractors. For correctly executed eye movements to the targets, centrally presented distractors produced the longest latencies (time taken to initiate eye movements), followed by parafoveal and peripheral distractor conditions. Central distractors had a greater effect in the ASD group, indicating evidence for potential atypical voluntary attentional control in ASD children.

Neural dynamics of executive function in cognitively able kindergarteners with autism spectrum disorders as predictors of concurrent academic achievement

Although electrophysiological (electroencephalography) measures of executive functions (e.g. error monitoring) have been used to predict academic achievement in typically developing children, work investigating a link between error monitoring and academic skills in children with autism spectrum disorder is limited. In this study, we employed traditional electrophysiological and advanced time-frequency methods, combined with principal component analyses, to extract neural activity related to error monitoring and tested their relations to academic achievement in cognitively able kindergarteners with autism spectrum disorder. In total, 35 cognitively able kindergarteners with autism spectrum disorder completed academic assessments and the child-friendly "Zoo Game" Go/No-go task at school entry. The Go/No-go task successfully elicited an error-related negativity and error positivity in children with autism spectrum disorder as young as 5 years at fronto-central and posterior electrode sites, respectively. We also observed increased response-related theta power during errors relative to correct trials at fronto-central sites. Both larger error positivity and theta power significantly predicted concurrent academic achievement after controlling for behavioral performance on the Zoo Game and intelligence quotient. These results suggest that the use of time-frequency electroencephalography analyses, combined with traditional event-related potential measures, may provide new opportunities to investigate neurobiological mechanisms of executive function and academic achievement in young children with autism spectrum disorder.

A Psychometric Analysis of the Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents Among Youth With Autism Spectrum Disorder: Caregiver-Adolescent Agreement, Factor Structure, and Validity

Social anxiety is common among adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). An ongoing challenge for both research and clinical practice in ASD is the assessment of anxious symptomatology. Despite its widespread use in samples of youth with ASD, the Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A) has not received psychometric evaluation within this population; thus, the validity of its use in research and clinical practice for ASD remains unclear. The present study conducted a psychometric analysis of caregiver and adolescent SAS-A forms in a sample of adolescents with ASD (N = 197). Results revealed (1) poor caregiver-adolescent item-level agreement, (2) a two-factor structure, (3) lack of measurement invariance between reporters, and (4) modest evidence for convergent and discriminant validity. Overall, findings suggest that this measure demonstrates reasonable psychometric properties in an ASD sample. Lack of measurement invariance, however, calls for careful interpretation of research involving the SAS-A in ASD samples, particularly when the primary goal is to compare adolescent and caregiver reports. The implications of these findings for future research and clinical practice are discussed.

Exploratory Study of rTMS Neuromodulation Effects on Electrocortical Functional Measures of Performance in an Oddball Test and Behavioral Symptoms in Autism

There is no accepted pathology to autism spectrum disorders (ASD) but research suggests the presence of an altered excitatory/inhibitory (E/I) bias in the cerebral cortex. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) offers a non-invasive means of modulating the E/I cortical bias with little in terms of side effects. In this study, 124 high functioning ASD children (IQ > 80, <18 years of age) were recruited and assigned using randomization to either a waitlist group or one of three different number of weekly rTMS sessions (i.e., 6, 12, and 18). TMS consisted of trains of 1.0 Hz frequency pulses applied over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). The experimental task was a visual oddball with illusory Kanizsa figures. Behavioral response variables included reaction time and error rate along with such neurophysiological indices such as stimulus and response-locked event-related potentials (ERP). One hundred and twelve patients completed the assigned number of TMS sessions. Results showed significant changes from baseline to posttest period in the following measures: motor responses accuracy [lower percentage of committed errors, slower latency of commission errors and restored normative post-error reaction time slowing in both early and later-stage ERP indices, enhanced magnitude of error-related negativity (ERN), improved error monitoring and post-error correction functions]. In addition, screening surveys showed significant reductions in aberrant behavior ratings and in both repetitive and stereotypic behaviors. These differences increased with the total number of treatment sessions. Our results suggest that rTMS, particularly after 18 sessions, facilitates cognitive control, attention and target stimuli recognition by improving discrimination between task-relevant and task-irrelevant illusory figures in an oddball test. The noted improvement in executive functions of behavioral performance monitoring further suggests that TMS has the potential to target core features of ASD.

The dynamics of error processing in the human brain as reflected by high-gamma activity in noninvasive and intracranial EEG

Error detection in motor behavior is a fundamental cognitive function heavily relying on local cortical information processing. Neural activity in the high-gamma frequency band (HGB) closely reflects such local cortical processing, but little is known about its role in error processing, particularly in the healthy human brain. Here we characterize the error-related response of the human brain based on data obtained with noninvasive EEG optimized for HGB mapping in 31 healthy subjects (15 females, 16 males), and additional intracranial EEG data from 9 epilepsy patients (4 females, 5 males). Our findings reveal a multiscale picture of the global and local dynamics of error-related HGB activity in the human brain. On the global level as reflected in the noninvasive EEG, the error-related response started with an early component dominated by anterior brain regions, followed by a shift to parietal regions, and a subsequent phase characterized by sustained parietal HGB activity. This phase lasted for more than 1 s after the error onset. On the local level reflected in the intracranial EEG, a cascade of both transient and sustained error-related responses involved an even more extended network, spanning beyond frontal and parietal regions to the insula and the hippocampus. HGB mapping appeared especially well suited to investigate late, sustained components of the error response, possibly linked to downstream functional stages such as error-related learning and behavioral adaptation. Our findings establish the basic spatio-temporal properties of HGB activity as a neural correlate of error processing, complementing traditional error-related potential studies.

The impact of atypical sensory processing on social impairments in autism spectrum disorder

Altered sensory processing has been an important feature of the clinical descriptions of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). There is evidence that sensory dysregulation arises early in the progression of ASD and impacts social functioning. This paper reviews behavioral and neurobiological evidence that describes how sensory deficits across multiple modalities (vision, hearing, touch, olfaction, gustation, and multisensory integration) could impact social functions in ASD. Theoretical models of ASD and their implications for the relationship between sensory and social functioning are discussed. Furthermore, neural differences in anatomy, function, and connectivity of different regions underlying sensory and social processing are also discussed. We conclude that there are multiple mechanisms through which early sensory dysregulation in ASD could cascade into social deficits across development. Future research is needed to clarify these mechanisms, and specific focus should be given to distinguish between deficits in primary sensory processing and altered top-down attentional and cognitive processes.

Error-related brain activity and anxiety symptoms in youth with autism spectrum disorder

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often experience symptoms associated with generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and social anxiety disorder. In other populations, these same symptoms are associated with a larger error-related negativity (ERN), an event-related potential that reflects endogenous threat sensitivity. As such, it is possible that the ERN may relate to the clinical presentation of anxiety in ASD. However, studies examining these associations in youth with ASD have yielded mixed results. The present study aimed to clarify this relationship by examining the ERN in relation to these specific anxiety symptoms in ASD, and by accounting for typical covariates (e.g., age, verbal abilities, depression, ASD symptoms) of the ERN. Fifty-one youth, ages 8-17, with ASD and intact cognitive ability completed a modified Flanker task, from which the ERN component was obtained. Measures of anxiety, verbal abilities, depression, and ASD symptoms were collected from participants and parents. Results revealed that greater self-reported social anxiety symptoms, specifically performance fears but not humiliation/rejection fears, were associated with an increased neural response to errors, as measured by the ERN. This relationship remained after controlling for other anxiety symptoms, as well as age, verbal IQ, depression symptoms, and ASD symptoms. Findings suggest that heightened threat sensitivity may be characteristic of individuals with ASD who exhibit social fearfulness. Autism Res 2018, 11: 342-354. © 2017 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

LAY SUMMARY

The error-related negativity (ERN) is a physiological measure of the brain's response to errors which is thought to reflect threat sensitivity and has been implicated in anxiety disorders in individuals without autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The present study revealed that the ERN is related to social anxiety symptoms, specifically performance fears, in a sample of youth with ASD. Findings suggest that heightened threat sensitivity may be characteristic of individuals with ASD who exhibit social fearfulness.

Atypical Processing of Novel Distracters in a Visual Oddball Task in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Several studies have shown that children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) show abnormalities in P3b to targets in standard oddball tasks. The present study employed a three-stimulus visual oddball task with novel distracters that analyzed event-related potentials (ERP) to both target and non-target items at frontal and parietal sites. The task tested the hypothesis that children with autism are abnormally orienting attention to distracters probably due to impaired habituation to novelty. We predicted a lower selectivity in early ERPs to target, frequent non-target, and rare distracters. We also expected delayed late ERPs in autism. The study enrolled 32 ASD and 24 typically developing (TD) children. Reaction time (RT) and accuracy were analyzed as behavioral measures, while ERPs were recorded with a dense-array EEG system. Children with ASD showed higher error rate without normative post-error RT slowing and had lower error-related negativity. Parietal P1, frontal N1, as well as P3a and P3b components were higher to novels in ASD. Augmented exogenous ERPs suggest low selectivity in pre-processing of stimuli resulting in their excessive processing at later stages. The results suggest an impaired habituation to unattended stimuli that incurs a high load at the later stages of perceptual and cognitive processing and response selection when novel distracter stimuli are differentiated from targets.

Neural networks underlying language and social cognition during self-other processing in Autism spectrum disorders

The social communication impairments defining autism spectrum disorders (ASD) may be built upon core deficits in perspective-taking, language processing, and self-other representation. Self-referential processing entails the ability to incorporate self-awareness, self-judgment, and self-memory in information processing. Very few studies have examined the neural bases of integrating self-other representation and semantic processing in individuals with ASD. The main objective of this functional MRI study is to examine the role of language and social brain networks in self-other processing in young adults with ASD. Nineteen high-functioning male adults with ASD and 19 age-sex-and-IQ-matched typically developing (TD) control participants made "yes" or "no" judgments of whether an adjective, presented visually, described them (self) or their favorite teacher (other). Both ASD and TD participants showed significantly increased activity in the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) during self and other processing relative to letter search. Analyses of group differences revealed significantly reduced activity in left inferior frontal gyrus (LIFG), and left inferior parietal lobule (LIPL) in ASD participants, relative to TD controls. ASD participants also showed significantly weaker functional connectivity of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) with several brain areas while processing self-related words. The LIFG and IPL are important regions functionally at the intersection of language and social roles; reduced recruitment of these regions in ASD participants may suggest poor level of semantic and social processing. In addition, poor connectivity of the ACC may suggest the difficulty in meeting the linguistic and social demands of this task in ASD. Overall, this study provides new evidence of the altered recruitment of the neural networks underlying language and social cognition in ASD.

Uniqueness of action monitoring in children with autism spectrum disorder: Response types and temporal aspects

BACKGROUND

Action monitoring, the process for evaluating the appropriateness of one's own actions, is reported to be atypical in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

METHOD

We examined the characteristics of action monitoring in 11 children with ASD and 12 children with typical development (TD), analyzing stimulus-locked and response-locked event-related potential components (i.e., N2; error-related negativity, ERN; and error positivity, Pe) related to execution of a flanker task.

RESULTS

We found a smaller N2 amplitude in children with ASD than in those with TD. Children with ASD also had a larger amplitude of ERN for partial error responses (electromyographic activity corresponding to the inappropriate hand side before response execution) than did children with TD. Additionally, the ERN amplitude for the partial error response was correlated with the Autistic Mannerisms of the Social Responsiveness Scale. There were no significant differences in Pe amplitudes between children with ASD and those with TD.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that action monitoring in children with ASD is significantly different both before and after response execution. We hypothesized that the detail-focused processing style of ASD reduces the demands of action monitoring before response execution; however, autistic mannerisms evoke excessive concern regarding trivial mistakes after response execution.

Neural and behavioral suppression of interfering flankers by children with and without autism spectrum disorder

Electrophysiological responses, accuracy and reaction time were recorded while 7-11-year-olds with typical development (TYP; N=30) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD; N=19) inhibited conflicting information. Relative to the TYP group, children with ASD had larger decrements in accuracy for incongruent trials and were slower. In terms of neural responses, N2 mean amplitude was greater overall for children with ASD relative to TYP children. N2 neural responses related to a behavioral measure of inhibition and cognitive flexibility for TYP children, whereas it related to suppression of interfering information and maintenance of accurate responding for the children with ASD. Results suggest children with ASD recruit more neural resources and perform worse when inhibiting conflicting information relative to TYP peers.

Characterizing cognitive control abilities in children with 16p11.2 deletion using adaptive 'video game' technology: a pilot study

Assessing cognitive abilities in children is challenging for two primary reasons: lack of testing engagement can lead to low testing sensitivity and inherent performance variability. Here we sought to explore whether an engaging, adaptive digital cognitive platform built to look and feel like a video game would reliably measure attention-based abilities in children with and without neurodevelopmental disabilities related to a known genetic condition, 16p11.2 deletion. We assessed 20 children with 16p11.2 deletion, a genetic variation implicated in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism, as well as 16 siblings without the deletion and 75 neurotypical age-matched children. Deletion carriers showed significantly slower response times and greater response variability when compared with all non-carriers; by comparison, traditional non-adaptive selective attention assessments were unable to discriminate group differences. This phenotypic characterization highlights the potential power of administering tools that integrate adaptive psychophysical mechanics into video-game-style mechanics to achieve robust, reliable measurements.

Action-Monitoring Dysfunction in Obstructive Sleep Apnea - A Pilot Study

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is associated with a broad range of frontal lobe dysfunctions. However, no study has investigated action monitoring, a crucial domain of frontal cognitive functions, in patients with OSA. By using the modified Flanker task, we tested the hypothesis that patients with OSA have an impaired action monitoring function. We recruited 25 untreated patients with moderate–severe OSA and 12 control participants who were matched for age, sex, apolipoprotein E4, and education level. Every enrolled participant underwent a standard overnight laboratory-based polysomnography and completed a modified Flanker task. Compared with the controls, the patients with OSA presented a significantly lower correct response rate in all trials (78.9% vs 95.9%, P = .008), congruent trials (84.7% vs 98.3%, P = .016), and incongruent trials (77.4% vs 94.7%, P = .009). The post-error correction rate was significantly lower in the patients with OSA than in the controls (74.9% vs 93.8%, P = .005). Furthermore, strong significant correlations were observed between the arousal index and correct rate in all trials (r = −0.390, P < .05) and in the incongruent trials (r = −0.429, P < .01), as well as between the arousal index and rate of post-error correction (r = −0.435, P < .01). We concluded that the action monitoring function was impaired in the patients with OSA. Sleep fragmentation was a major determinant of impaired action monitoring in these patients.

The role of interstimulus interval and "Stimulus-type" in prepotent response inhibition abilities in people with ASD: A quantitative and qualitative review

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are associated with prepotent response inhibition difficulties. However, the large variation between studies suggests that understudied factors, such as interstimulus interval (ISI) and "stimulus-type" (both hypothesized proxies of stressors influencing arousal), might influence the inhibitory abilities of people with ASD. Using meta-analysis, we tested whether differences in prepotent response inhibition between people with and without ASD was influenced by ISI. There was not enough variation in "stimulus-type" between the studies to include it as a moderator. Thirty-seven studies met inclusion criteria, with a combined sample size of 950 people with ASD and 966 typically developing controls. Additionally, a qualitative review including studies comparing a neutral and an arousing condition in one experiment was performed to examine whether fast ISI or specific arousing stimuli directly influence prepotent response inhibition. The meta-analysis indicated that ISI was not a relevant moderator. The qualitative review showed that ISI and "stimulus-type" had the same effect for both groups. Although all studies regarding ISI indicated that fast ISI worsened performance, different types of stimuli had either a positive or a negative influence. This could suggest that distinctive stimuli might affect arousal differently. While we replicated the inhibition difficulties in people with ASD (g = .51), our results do not show strong ASD-specific effects of ISI or "stimulus-type" on inhibition. Nonetheless, ISI and "stimulus-type" do seem to influence performance. Future research focusing on potential underlying factors (e.g., baseline physiological arousal) is needed to examine why this is the case. Autism Res 2016, 9: 1124-1141. © 2016 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Impacts of motivational valence on the error-related negativity elicited by full and partial errors

Affect and motivation influence the error-related negativity (ERN) elicited by full errors; however, it is unknown whether they also influence ERNs to correct responses accompanied by covert incorrect response activation (partial errors). Here we compared a neutral condition with conditions, where correct responses were rewarded or where incorrect responses were punished with gains and losses of small amounts of money, respectively. Data analysis distinguished ERNs elicited by full and partial errors. In the reward and punishment conditions, ERN amplitudes to both full and partial errors were larger than in the neutral condition, confirming participants' sensitivity to the significance of errors. We also investigated the relationships between ERN amplitudes and the behavioral inhibition and activation systems (BIS/BAS). Regardless of reward/punishment condition, participants scoring higher on BAS showed smaller ERN amplitudes in full error trials. These findings provide further evidence that the ERN is related to motivational valence and that similar relationships hold for both full and partial errors.

An event-related source localization study of response monitoring and social impairments in autism spectrum disorder

A number of studies suggest anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) abnormalities in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), which might underlie response monitoring and social impairments exhibited by children and adolescents with ASD. The goal of the present study was to extend this work by examining error and correct response monitoring using event-related potentials (ERN, Pe, CRN) and LORETA source localization in high functioning adults with ASD and controls. Adults with ASD showed reduced ERN and Pe amplitudes and reduced rostral ACC activation compared with controls. Adults with ASD also showed less differentiation between error and correct ERP components. Social impairments and higher overall autism symptoms were related to reduced rostral ACC activity at the time of the ERN, particularly in adults with ASD. These findings suggest that reduced ACC activity may reflect a putative brain mechanism involved in the origins and maintenance of social impairments and raise the possibility of the presence of stable brain-behavior relation impairment across development in some individuals with ASD.

Guidelines and best practices for electrophysiological data collection, analysis and reporting in autism

The EEG reflects the activation of large populations of neurons that act in synchrony and propagate to the scalp surface. This activity reflects both the brain's background electrical activity and when the brain is being challenged by a task. Despite strong theoretical and methodological arguments for the use of EEG in understanding the neural correlates of autism, the practice of collecting, processing and evaluating EEG data is complex. Scientists should take into consideration both the nature of development in autism given the life-long, pervasive course of the disorder and the disability of altered or atypical social, communicative, and motor behaviors, all of which require accommodations to traditional EEG environments and paradigms. This paper presents guidelines for the recording, analyzing, and interpreting of EEG data with participants with autism. The goal is to articulate a set of scientific standards as well as methodological considerations that will increase the general field's understanding of EEG methods, provide support for collaborative projects, and contribute to the evaluation of results and conclusions.

The costs and benefits of self-monitoring for higher functioning children and adolescents with autism

The ability to regulate behaviors and emotions depends in part on the ability to flexibly monitor one's own progress toward a goal. Atypical patterns of response monitoring have been reported in individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In the current study we examined the error related negativity (ERN), an electrophysiological index of response monitoring, in relation to behavioral, social cognitive, and emotional presentation in higher functioning children (8-16 years) diagnosed with autism (HFA: N = 38) and an age- and IQ-matched sample of children without autism (COM: N = 36). Both HFA and COM participants displayed larger amplitude responses to error compared to correct response trials and these amplitudes did not differ by diagnostic group. For participants with HFA, larger ERN amplitudes were associated with more parent-reported autistic symptoms and more self-reported internalizing problems. However, across the full sample, larger ERN amplitudes were associated with better performance on theory of mind tasks. The results are discussed in terms of the utility of electrophysiological measures for understanding essential moderating processes that contribute to the spectrum of behavioral expression in the development of ASD.

Deficits in metacognitive monitoring in mathematics assessments in learners with autism spectrum disorder

Children and adults with autism spectrum disorder have been found to have deficits in metacognition that could impact upon their learning. This study explored metacognitive monitoring in 28 (23 males and 5 females) participants with autism spectrum disorder and 56 (16 males and 40 females) typically developing controls who were being educated at the same level. Participants were asked a series of mathematics questions. Based upon previous research, after each question they were asked two metacognitive questions: (1) whether they thought they had got the answer correct or not (or 'don't know') and (2) whether they meant to get the answer correct or not (or 'don't know'). Participants with autism spectrum disorder were significantly more likely than the typically developing group to erroneously think that they had got an incorrect answer correct. Having made an error, those with autism spectrum disorder were also significantly more likely to report that they had meant to make the error. Different patterns in the types of errors made were also identified between the two groups. Deficits in metacognition were identified for the autism spectrum disorder group in the learning of mathematics. This is consistent with metacognitive research from different contexts and the implications for supporting learning in autism spectrum disorder are discussed.

NTRK2 expression levels are reduced in laser captured pyramidal neurons from the anterior cingulate cortex in males with autism spectrum disorder

BACKGROUND

The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is a brain area involved in modulating behavior associated with social interaction, disruption of which is a core feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Functional brain imaging studies demonstrate abnormalities of the ACC in ASD as compared to typically developing control patients. However, little is known regarding the cellular basis of these functional deficits in ASD. Pyramidal neurons in the ACC are excitatory glutamatergic neurons and key cellular mediators of the neural output of the ACC. This study was designed to investigate the potential role of ACC pyramidal neurons in ASD brain pathology.

METHODS

Postmortem ACC tissue from carefully matched ASD and typically developing control donors was obtained from two national brain collections. Pyramidal neurons and surrounding astrocytes were separately collected from layer III of the ACC by laser capture microdissection. Isolated RNA was subjected to reverse transcription and endpoint PCR to determine gene expression levels for 16 synaptic genes relevant to glutamatergic neurotransmission. Cells were also collected from the prefrontal cortex (Brodmann area 10) to examine those genes demonstrating differences in expression in the ACC comparing typically developing and ASD donors.

RESULTS

The level of NTRK2 expression was robustly and significantly lower in pyramidal neurons from ASD donors as compared to typically developing donors. Levels of expression of GRIN1, GRM8, SLC1A1, and GRIP1 were modestly lower in pyramidal neurons from ASD donors, but statistical significance for these latter genes did not survive correction for multiple comparisons. No significant expression differences of any genes were found in astrocytes laser captured from the same neocortical area. In addition, expression levels of NTRK2 and other synaptic genes were normal in pyramidal neurons laser captured from the prefrontal cortex.

CONCLUSIONS

These studies demonstrate a unique pathology of neocortical pyramidal neurons of the ACC in ASD. NTRK2 encodes the tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), transmission through which neurotrophic factors modify differentiation, plasticity, and synaptic transmission. Reduced pyramidal neuron NTRK2 expression in the ACC could thereby contribute to abnormal neuronal activity and disrupt social behavior mediated by this brain region.

Inter-individual relationships in empathic traits and feedback-related fronto-central brain activity: an event-related potential study

BACKGROUND

Neuroimaging studies continue to indicate the major role the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) plays in processing empathic responses. Error-related negativity (ERN), an event-related potential (ERP) thought to arise from the ACC, has been found to correlate with scores for individual empathic personality. This study investigated the relationship between empathic personality traits and the amplitude of feedback-related negativity (FRN), an ERP sourced from the ACC and similar to the ERN, using a task involving feedback of monetary gains or losses.

METHODS

Sixteen healthy participants answered an empathy trait questionnaire and performed a gambling task to elicit FRN. Because FRN amplitude is thought to be associated with attention, motivation, emotional state, and anxiety trait, we performed a partial correlation analysis between the empathic trait score and FRN amplitude while controlling for variables.

RESULTS

In partial correlation analysis, FRN amplitude was significantly inversely correlated with scores for personal distress and marginally correlated with scores for empathic concern and with total average score.

DISCUSSION

The study revealed for the first time an association between FRN and emotional empathic traits, after controlling for variables that can affect FRN amplitude. However, we also found a reversed directional correlation contrary to our expectations. This fronto-central brain activity may be associated with empathic properties via dopaminergic neuronal function. Future study using these electric potentials as experimental tools is expected to help elucidate the neurological mechanism of empathy.

Error-monitoring in response to social stimuli in individuals with higher-functioning Autism Spectrum Disorder

Error-monitoring, or the ability to recognize one's mistakes and implement behavioral changes to prevent further mistakes, may be impaired in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Children and adolescents (ages 9-19) with ASD (n = 42) and typical development (n = 42) completed two face processing tasks that required discrimination of either the gender or affect of standardized face stimuli. Post-error slowing and the difference in Error-Related Negativity amplitude between correct and incorrect responses (ERNdiff ) were used to index error-monitoring ability. Overall, ERNdiff increased with age. On the Gender Task, individuals with ASD had a smaller ERNdiff than individuals with typical development; however, on the Affect Task, there were no significant diagnostic group differences on ERNdiff . Individuals with ASD may have ERN amplitudes similar to those observed in individuals with typical development in more social contexts compared to less social contexts due to greater consequences for errors, more effortful processing, and/or reduced processing efficiency in these contexts. Across all participants, more post-error slowing on the Affect Task was associated with better social cognitive skills.

Prepotent response inhibition and interference control in autism spectrum disorders: two meta-analyses

There is a substantial amount of data providing evidence for, but also against the hypothesis that individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) encounter inhibitory control deficits. ASD is often associated with interference control deficits rather than prepotent response inhibition. Moreover, the developmental trajectory for these inhibitory control processes is hypothesized to differ in ASD as compared to typical development. In efforts to gain a more comprehensive perspective of inhibition in ASD, separate quantitative analysis for prepotent response inhibition studies and interference control studies were conducted. Together, these two meta-analyses included 41 studies with a combined sample size of 1,091 people with ASD (M age 14.8 years), and 1,306 typically developing (TD) controls (M age 13.8 years).The meta-analyses indicated that individuals with ASD show increased difficulties in prepotent response inhibition (effect size 0.55) and in interference control (effect size 0.31). In addition, age was a relevant moderator for prepotent response inhibition but not for interference control. Exploratory analyses revealed that when IQ was taken into account, heterogeneity considerably decreased among interference control studies but not among prepotent response inhibition. In contrast to the general belief, both prepotent response inhibition and interference control problems were observed in individuals with ASD. However, a large variation between studies was also found. Therefore, there remain factors beyond inhibition type, age, or IQ that significantly influence inhibitory control performance among individuals with ASD.

How about watching others? Observation of error-related feedback by others in autism spectrum disorders

Research indicates that individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) may have a reduced ability to utilize performance feedback to regulate their behavior; however, it is unclear to what degree alterations in the environmental context affect feedback processing and contribute to the symptoms of ASD. We utilized the observational FRN (oFRN), an event-related potential (ERP) component that putatively indexes feedback processing while observing feedback directed toward another person, to examine the influence of motivational and social demands on feedback processing in ASD. High-density electroencephalogram recordings were collected from 38 youth with ASD and 31 control participants similar on age and IQ while they observed a confederate performing a modified Eriksen Flanker task. Participants were instructed to count the confederate's errors and were told that they would be awarded based on performance: the confederate would either earn points for the participant or herself. Both groups showed robust oFRN activity on traditional scalp-electrode waveforms and waveforms identified using temporospatial principal components analysis. Amplitude of oFRN did not differentiate groups. Results remained non-significant when comparing medicated to non-medicated participants. There were no significant correlations between oFRN amplitudes, autism symptom severity, and anxiety symptoms. Findings suggest that the social context of the task and motivational significance of the confederate's performance did not limit feedback processing in ASD. Future research in which the context is manipulated further is warranted to determine whether increased environmental complexity influences feedback processing in ASD.

An error-related negativity potential investigation of response monitoring function in individuals with internet addiction disorder

Internet addiction disorder (IAD) is an impulse disorder or at least related to impulse control disorder. Deficits in executive functioning, including response monitoring, have been proposed as a hallmark feature of impulse control disorders. The error-related negativity (ERN) reflects individual's ability to monitor behavior. Since IAD belongs to a compulsive-impulsive spectrum disorder, theoretically, it should present response monitoring functional deficit characteristics of some disorders, such as substance dependence, ADHD, or alcohol abuse, testing with an Erikson flanker task. Up to now, no studies on response monitoring functional deficit in IAD were reported. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether IAD displays response monitoring functional deficit characteristics in a modified Erikson flanker task. Twenty-three subjects were recruited as IAD group. Twenty-three matched age, gender, and education healthy persons were recruited as control group. All participants completed the modified Erikson flanker task while measured with event-related potentials. IAD group made more total error rates than did controls (p < 0.01); Reactive times for total error responses in IAD group were shorter than did controls (p < 0.01). The mean ERN amplitudes of total error response conditions at frontal electrode sites and at central electrode sites of IAD group were reduced compared with control group (all p < 0.01). These results revealed that IAD displays response monitoring functional deficit characteristics and shares ERN characteristics of compulsive-impulsive spectrum disorder.

Neural markers of errors as endophenotypes in neuropsychiatric disorders

Learning from errors is fundamental to adaptive human behavior. It requires detecting errors, evaluating what went wrong, and adjusting behavior accordingly. These dynamic adjustments are at the heart of behavioral flexibility and accumulating evidence suggests that deficient error processing contributes to maladaptively rigid and repetitive behavior in a range of neuropsychiatric disorders. Neuroimaging and electrophysiological studies reveal highly reliable neural markers of error processing. In this review, we evaluate the evidence that abnormalities in these neural markers can serve as sensitive endophenotypes of neuropsychiatric disorders. We describe the behavioral and neural hallmarks of error processing, their mediation by common genetic polymorphisms, and impairments in schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and autism spectrum disorders. We conclude that neural markers of errors meet several important criteria as endophenotypes including heritability, established neuroanatomical and neurochemical substrates, association with neuropsychiatric disorders, presence in syndromally-unaffected family members, and evidence of genetic mediation. Understanding the mechanisms of error processing deficits in neuropsychiatric disorders may provide novel neural and behavioral targets for treatment and sensitive surrogate markers of treatment response. Treating error processing deficits may improve functional outcome since error signals provide crucial information for flexible adaptation to changing environments. Given the dearth of effective interventions for cognitive deficits in neuropsychiatric disorders, this represents a potentially promising approach.

Children with high functioning autism show increased prefrontal and temporal cortex activity during error monitoring

Evidence exists for deficits in error monitoring in autism. These deficits may be particularly important because they may contribute to excessive perseveration and repetitive behavior in autism. We examined the neural correlates of error monitoring using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in 8–12-year-old children with high functioning autism (HFA, n = 11) and typically developing children (TD, n = 15) during performance of a Go/No-Go task by comparing the neural correlates of commission errors versus correct response inhibition trials. Compared to TD children, children with HFA showed increased BOLD fMRI signal in the anterior medial prefrontal cortex (amPFC) and the left superior temporal gyrus (STempG) during commission error (versus correct inhibition) trials. A follow-up region of-interest analysis also showed increased BOLD signal in the right insula in HFA compared to TD controls. Our findings of increased amPFC and STempG activity in HFA, together with the increased activity in the insula, suggest a greater attention towards the internally driven emotional state associated with making an error in children with HFA. Since error monitoring occurs across different cognitive tasks throughout daily life, an increased emotional reaction to errors may have important consequences for early learning processes.

fMRI investigation of visual change detection in adults with autism

People with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) may show unusual reactions to unexpected changes that appear in their environment. Although several studies have highlighted atypical auditory change processing in ASD, little is known in this disorder about the brain processes involved in visual automatic change detection. The present fMRI study was designed to localize brain activity elicited by unexpected visual changing stimuli in adults with ASD compared to controls. Twelve patients with ASD and 17 healthy adults participated in the experiment in which subjects were presented with a visual oddball sequence while performing a concurrent target detection task. Combined results across participants highlight the involvement of both occipital (BA 18/19) and frontal (BA 6/8) regions during visual change detection. However, adults with ASD display greater activity in the bilateral occipital cortex and in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) associated with smaller activation in the superior and middle frontal gyri than controls. A psychophysiological interaction (PPI) analysis was performed with ACC as the seed region and revealed greater functionally connectivity to sensory regions in ASD than in controls, but less connectivity to prefrontal and orbito-frontal cortices. Thus, compared to controls, larger sensory activation associated with reduced frontal activation was seen in ASD during automatic visual change detection. Atypical psychophysiological interactions between frontal and occipital regions were also found, congruent with the idea of atypical connectivity between these regions in ASD. The atypical involvement of the ACC in visual change detection can be related to abnormalities previously observed in the auditory modality, thus supporting the hypothesis of an altered general mechanism of change detection in patients with ASD that would underlie their unusual reaction to change.

Atypical attentional networks and the emergence of autism

The sociocommunicative impairments that define autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are not present at birth but emerge gradually over the first two years of life. In typical development, basic attentional processes may provide a critical foundation for sociocommunicative abilities. Therefore early attentional dysfunction in ASD may result in atypical development of social communication. Prior research has demonstrated that persons with ASD exhibit early and lifelong impairments in attention. The primary aim of this paper is to provide a review of the extant research on attention in ASD using a framework of functionally independent attentional networks as conceptualized by Posner and colleagues: the alerting, orienting and executive control networks (Posner and Petersen, 1990; Petersen and Posner, 2012). The neural substrates and typical development of each attentional network are briefly discussed, a review of the ASD attention literature is presented, and a hypothesis is proposed that links aberrant attentional mechanisms, specifically impaired disengagement of attention, with the emergence of core ASD symptoms.

Mismatch negativity responses in children with a diagnosis of childhood apraxia of speech (CAS)

PURPOSE

To evaluate whether a hypothesis suggesting that apraxia of speech results from phonological overspecification could be relevant for childhood apraxia of speech (CAS).

METHOD

High-density EEG was recorded from 5 children with CAS and 5 matched controls, ages 5-8 years, with and without CAS, as they listened to randomized sequences of CV syllables in two oddball paradigms: phonemic (/ba/, /pa/) and allophonic (/pa/, /p(h)a/).

RESULTS

In the phonemic contrast condition, mismatch negativity (MMN) responses to oddball sounds were observed for the typically developing (comparison) group but not the CAS group, although a component similar to an immature mismatch response was apparent. The allophonic contrast did not elicit MMN responses in the comparison group, but in the CAS group, an MMN-like response was observed.

CONCLUSION

The authors propose that these preliminary findings are consistent with a view of CAS as a disorder that not only affects motor planning but also has a phonological component.

Inhibition in autism: children with autism have difficulty inhibiting irrelevant distractors but not prepotent responses

Resistance to distractor inhibition tasks have previously revealed impairments in children with autism. However, on the classic Stroop task and other prepotent response tasks, children with autism show intact inhibition. These data may reflect a distinction between prepotent response and resistance to distractor inhibition. The current study investigated this possibility using tasks that systematically manipulated inhibitory load. Findings showed that children with autism performed comparably to typically developing and learning disabled controls on a prepotent response inhibition stop-signal task but showed significant inhibitory impairment on a modified flanker resistence to distractor inhibition task. Although the results are clearly consistent with the suggestion that autism is associated with a specific deficit in resistance to distractor inhibition, they may in fact be related to an increased perceptual capacity in autism.

Preserved reward outcome processing in ASD as revealed by event-related potentials

Background

Problems with reward system function have been posited as a primary difficulty in autism spectrum disorders. The current study examined an electrophysiological marker of feedback monitoring, the feedback-related negativity (FRN), during a monetary reward task. The study advanced prior understanding by focusing exclusively on a developmental sample, applying rigorous diagnostic characterization and introducing an experimental paradigm providing more subtly different feedback valence (reward versus non-reward instead of reward versus loss).

Methods

Twenty-six children with autism spectrum disorder and 28 typically developing peers matched on age and full-scale IQ played a guessing game resulting in monetary gain (“win”) or neutral outcome (“draw”). ERP components marking early visual processing (N1, P2) and feedback appraisal (FRN) were contrasted between groups in each condition, and their relationships to behavioral measures of social function and dysfunction, social anxiety, and autism symptomatology were explored.

Results

FRN was observed on draw trials relative to win trials. Consistent with prior research, children with ASD exhibited a FRN to suboptimal outcomes that was comparable to typical peers. ERP parameters were unrelated to behavioral measures.

Conclusions

Results of the current study indicate typical patterns of feedback monitoring in the context of monetary reward in ASD. The study extends prior findings of normative feedback monitoring to a sample composed exclusively of children and demonstrates that, as in typical development, individuals with autism exhibit a FRN to suboptimal outcomes, irrespective of neutral or negative valence. Results do not support a pervasive problem with reward system function in ASD, instead suggesting any dysfunction lies in more specific domains, such as social perception, or in response to particular feedback-monitoring contexts, such as self-evaluation of one’s errors.