Presence of cytosolic peroxiredoxin 2 in the erythrocyte membrane of patients with hereditary spherocytosis

Reticulocyte Antioxidant Enzymes mRNA Levels versus Reticulocyte Maturity Indices in Hereditary Spherocytosis, β-Thalassemia and Sickle Cell Disease

The antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and peroxiredoxin 2 (Prx2) are particularly important in erythroid cells. Reticulocytes and other erythroid precursors may adapt their biosynthetic mechanisms to cell defects or to changes in the bone marrow environment. Our aim was to perform a comparative study of the mRNA levels of CAT, GPX1, PRDX2 and SOD1 in reticulocytes from healthy individuals and from patients with hereditary spherocytosis (HS), sickle cell disease (SCD) and β-thalassemia (β-thal), and to study the association between their transcript levels and the reticulocyte maturity indices. In controls, the enzyme mRNA levels were significantly correlated with reticulocyte maturity indices for all genes except for SOD1. HS, SCD and β-thal patients showed younger reticulocytes, with higher transcript levels of all enzymes, although with different patterns. β-thal and HS showed similar reticulocyte maturity, with different enzyme mRNA levels; SCD and HS, with different reticulocyte maturity, presented similar enzyme mRNA levels. Our data suggest that the transcript profile for these antioxidant enzymes is not entirely related to reticulocyte maturity; it appears to also reflect adaptive mechanisms to abnormal erythropoiesis and/or to altered erythropoietic environments, leading to reticulocytes with distinct antioxidant potential according to each anemia.

Age-Markers on the Red Blood Cell Surface and Erythrocyte Microparticles may Constitute a Multi-parametric Strategy for Detection of Autologous Blood Transfusion

BACKGROUND

Autologous blood transfusion is one of the illicit strategies, banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency, to increase the levels of hemoglobin, with a consequent improvement in the delivery of oxygen to tissues. At present, this practice is detectable exclusively by the individual, longitudinal monitoring of hematological biomarkers, as in the hematological module of the Athlete Biological Passport; but this indirect approach may suffer from different confounding factors. We are presenting a multi-parametric, analytical strategy to detect autologous blood transfusions by targeting the modification of the red blood cells during storage. We focused on the assessment of "storage lesions", targeting (i) membrane proteins: Glycophorin-A and Band 3 complex, (ii) biomarkers of oxidative stress: Peroxiredoxin-2, (iii) biomarkers of senescence: CD47 and Phosphatidylserine, (iv) erythrocytes microparticles.

RESULTS

All of the above markers were monitored, by immunological and flow cytofluorimetric methods, on samples of stored whole blood collected at different time intervals, and on fresh blood samples, collected for official doping control tests, mixed "ex vivo" to simulate an autotransfusion. Although anonymized before the delivery to the laboratory, it was possible to mix samples belonging to the same subject based on the "athlete biological passport" code. Our results showed that the irreversible alteration of RBCs morphology, the loss of membrane integrity, the occurrence of hemolysis phenomena, and, more in general, the "aging" of the erythrocytes during storage are closely related to: (i) the reduced concentration, on the erythrocyte membrane, of Band 3 protein (decrease of 19% and of 39% after 20 and 40 days of storage respectively) and of glycophorin A (- 47% and - 63% respectively); (ii) the externalization of phosphatidyl serine (with a five-fold increase after 20 days and a further 2× increase after 40 days); (iii) the reduced concentration of CD47; and (iv) increased levels of erythrocyte microparticles.

CONCLUSIONS

The most promising method to detect the presence of transfused blood in whole blood samples can be based on a multi-parametric strategy, considering jointly both protein expression on RBCs membranes and micro-vesiculation phenomena.

Peroxiredoxins in erythrocytes: far beyond the antioxidant role

The red blood cells (RBCs) are essential to transport oxygen (O2) and nutrients throughout the human body. Changes in the structure or functioning of the erythrocytes can lead to several deficiencies, such as hemolytic anemias, in which an increase in reactive oxidative species generation is involved in the pathophysiological process, playing a significant role in the severity of several clinical manifestations. There are important lines of defense against the damage caused by oxidizing molecules. Among the antioxidant molecules, the enzyme peroxiredoxin (Prx) has the higher decomposition power of hydrogen peroxide, especially in RBCs, standing out because of its abundance. This review aimed to present the recent findings that broke some paradigms regarding the three isoforms of Prxs found in RBC (Prx1, Prx2, and Prx6), showing that in addition to their antioxidant activity, these enzymes may have supplementary roles in transducing peroxide signals, as molecular chaperones, protecting from membrane damage, and maintenance of iron homeostasis, thus contributing to the overall survival of human RBCs, roles that seen to be disrupted in hemolytic anemia conditions.

Peroxiredoxin 2: An Important Element of the Antioxidant Defense of the Erythrocyte

Peroxiredoxin 2 (Prdx2) is the third most abundant erythrocyte protein. It was known previously as calpromotin since its binding to the membrane stimulates the calcium-dependent potassium channel. Prdx2 is present mostly in cytosol in the form of non-covalent dimers but may associate into doughnut-like decamers and other oligomers. Prdx2 reacts rapidly with hydrogen peroxide (k > 10⁷ M^-1 s^-1). It is the main erythrocyte antioxidant that removes hydrogen peroxide formed endogenously by hemoglobin autoxidation. Prdx2 also reduces other peroxides including lipid, urate, amino acid, and protein hydroperoxides and peroxynitrite. Oxidized Prdx2 can be reduced at the expense of thioredoxin but also of other thiols, especially glutathione. Further reactions of Prdx2 with oxidants lead to hyperoxidation (formation of sulfinyl or sulfonyl derivatives of the peroxidative cysteine). The sulfinyl derivative can be reduced by sulfiredoxin. Circadian oscillations in the level of hyperoxidation of erythrocyte Prdx2 were reported. The protein can be subject to post-translational modifications; some of them, such as phosphorylation, nitration, and acetylation, increase its activity. Prdx2 can also act as a chaperone for hemoglobin and erythrocyte membrane proteins, especially during the maturation of erythrocyte precursors. The extent of Prdx2 oxidation is increased in various diseases and can be an index of oxidative stress.

Inhibition of erythrocyte's catalase, glutathione peroxidase or peroxiredoxin 2 - Impact on cytosol and membrane

Catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and Prx2 (peroxiredoxin 2) are the main antioxidant enzymatic defenses of erythrocytes. They prevent and minimize oxidative injuries in red blood cell (RBC) components, which are continuously exposed to oxidative stress (OS). The crosstalk between CAT, GPx and Prx2 is still not fully disclosed, as well as why these typically cytoplasmic enzymes bind to the RBC membrane. Our aim was to understand the interplay between CAT, GPx and Prx2 in the erythrocyte's cytosol and membrane. Under specific (partial) inhibition of each enzyme and increasing H₂O₂-induced OS conditions, we evaluated the enzyme activities and amounts, the binding of CAT, GPx and Prx2 to RBC membrane, and biomarkers of OS, such as the reduced and oxidized glutathione levels, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) levels, membrane bound hemoglobin and total antioxidant status. Our results support the hypothesis that when high levels of H₂O₂ get within the erythrocyte, CAT is the main player in the antioxidant protection of the cell, while Prx2 and GPx have a less striking role. Moreover, we found that CAT, appears to have more importance in the antioxidant protection of cytoplasm than of the membrane components, since when the activity of CAT is disturbed, GPx and Prx2 are both activated in the cytosol and mobilized to the membrane. In more severe OS conditions, the antioxidant activity of GPx is more significant at the membrane, as we found that GPx moves from the cytosol to the membrane, probably to protect it from lipid peroxidation.

p97 dysfunction underlies a loss of quality control of damaged membrane proteins and promotes oxidative stress and sickling in sickle cell disease

Sickling is the central pathogenic process of sickle cell disease (SCD), one of the most prevalent inherited hemolytic disorders. Having no easy access to antioxidants in the cytosol, elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) residing at the plasma membrane in sickle red blood cells (sRBCs) easily oxidize membrane proteins and thus contribute to sickling. Although the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is essential to rapidly clear ROS-damaged membrane proteins and maintain cellular homeostasis, the function and regulatory mechanism of the UPS for their clearance in sRBCs remains unidentified. Elevated levels of polyubiquitinated membrane-associated proteins in human sRBCs are reported here. High throughput and untargeted proteomic analyses of membrane proteins immunoprecipitated by ubiquitin antibodies detected elevated levels of ubiquitination of a series of proteins including cytoskeletal proteins, transporters, ROS-related proteins, and UPS machinery components in sRBCs. Polyubiquitination of membrane-associated catalase was increased in sRBCs, associated with decreased catalase activity and elevated ROS. Surprisingly, shuttling of p97 (ATP-dependent valosin-containing chaperone protein), a key component of the UPS to shuttle polyubiquitinated proteins from the membrane to cytosol for proteasomal degradation, was significantly impaired, resulting in significant accumulation of p97 along with polyubiquitinated proteins in the membrane of human sRBCs. Functionally, inhibition of p97 directly promoted accumulation of polyubiquitinated membrane-associated proteins, excessive ROS levels, and sickling in response to hypoxia. Overall, we revealed that p97 dysfunction underlies impaired UPS and contributes to oxidative stress in sRBCs.

Erythrocytes as a preferential target of oxidative stress in blood

Red blood cells (RBC) are specifically differentiated to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and they lack most organelles, including mitochondria. The autoxidation of hemoglobin constitutes a major source of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Nitric oxide, which is produced by endothelial nitric oxide synthase (NOS3) or via the hemoglobin-mediated conversion of nitrite, interacts with ROS and results in the production of reactive nitrogen oxide species. Herein we present an overview of anemic diseases that are closely related to oxidative damage. Because the compensation of proteins by means of gene expression does not proceed in enucleated cells, antioxidative and redox systems play more important roles in maintaining the homeostasis of RBC against oxidative insult compared to ordinary cells. Defects in hemoglobin and enzymes that are involved in energy production and redox reactions largely trigger oxidative damage to RBC. The results of studies using genetically modified mice suggest that antioxidative enzymes, notably superoxide dismutase 1 and peroxiredoxin 2, play essential roles in coping with oxidative damage in erythroid cells, and their absence limits erythropoiesis, the life-span of RBC and consequently results in the development of anemia. The degeneration of the machinery involved in the proteolytic removal of damaged proteins appears to be associated with hemolytic events. The ubiquitin-proteasome system is the dominant machinery, not only for the proteolytic removal of damaged proteins in erythroid cells but also for the development of erythropoiesis. Hence, despite the fact that it is less abundant in RBC compared to ordinary cells, the aberrant ubiquitin-proteasome system may be associated with the development of anemic diseases via the accumulation of damaged proteins, as typified in sickle cell disease, and impaired erythropoiesis.

Expression of South East Asian Ovalocytic Band 3 Disrupts Erythroblast Cytokinesis and Reticulocyte Maturation

Southeast Asian Ovalocytosis results from a heterozygous deletion of 9 amino acids in the erythrocyte anion exchange protein AE1 (band 3). The report of the first successful birth of an individual homozygous for this mutation showed an association with severe dyserythropoietic anemia. Imaging of the proband’s erythrocytes revealed the presence of band 3 at their surface, a reduction in Wr(b) antigen expression, and increases in glycophorin C, CD44, and CD147 immunoreactivity. Immunoblotting of membranes from heterozygous Southeast Asian Ovalocytosis red cells showed a quantitative increase in CD44, CD147, and calreticulin suggesting a defect in reticulocyte maturation, as well as an increase in phosphorylation at residue Tyr359 of band 3, and peroxiredoxin-2 at the membrane, suggesting altered band 3 trafficking and oxidative stress, respectively. In vitro culture of homozygous and heterozygous Southeast Asian Ovalocytosis erythroid progenitor cells produced bi- and multi-nucleated cells. Enucleation was severely impaired in the homozygous cells and reduced in the heterozygous cells. Large internal vesicular accumulations of band 3 formed, which co-localized with other plasma membrane proteins and with the autophagosome marker, LC3, but not with ER, Golgi or recycling endosome markers. Immunoprecipitation of band 3 from erythroblast cell lysates at the orthochromatic stage showed increased interaction of the mutant band 3 with heat shock proteins, ubiquitin and cytoskeleton proteins, ankyrin, spectrin and actin. We also found that the mutant band 3 forms a strong interaction with non-muscle myosins IIA and IIB, while this interaction could not be detected in wild type erythroblasts. Consistent with this, the localization of non-muscle myosin IIA and actin was perturbed in some Southeast Asian Ovalocytosis erythroblasts. These findings provide new insights toward understanding in vivo dyserythropoiesis caused by the expression of mutant membrane proteins.

Band 3 nullVIENNA , a novel homozygous SLC4A1 p.Ser477X variant causing severe hemolytic anemia, dyserythropoiesis and complete distal renal tubular acidosis

We describe the second patient with anionic exchanger 1/band 3 null phenotype (band 3 null^VIENNA ), which was caused by a novel nonsense mutation c.1430C>A (p.Ser477X) in exon 12 of SLC4A1. We also update on the previous band 3 null^COIMBRA patient, thereby elucidating the physiological implications of total loss of AE1/band 3. Besides transfusion-dependent severe hemolytic anemia and complete distal renal tubular acidosis, dyserythropoiesis was identified in the band 3 null^VIENNA patient, suggesting a role for band 3 in erythropoiesis. Moreover, we also, for the first time, report that long-term survival is possible in band 3 null patients.

Antioxidant enzymes as redox-based biomarkers: a brief review

The field of redox proteomics focuses to a large extent on analyzing cysteine oxidation in proteins under different experimental conditions and states of diseases. The identification and localization of oxidized cysteines within the cellular milieu is critical for understanding the redox regulation of proteins under physiological and pathophysiological conditions, and it will in turn provide important information that are potentially useful for the development of novel strategies in the treatment and prevention of diseases associated with oxidative stress. Antioxidant enzymes that catalyze oxidation/reduction processes are able to serve as redox biomarkers in various human diseases, and they are key regulators controlling the redox state of functional proteins. Redox regulators with antioxidant properties related to active mediators, cellular organelles, and the surrounding environments are all connected within a network and are involved in diseases related to redox imbalance including cancer, ischemia/reperfusion injury, neurodegenerative diseases, as well as normal aging. In this review, we will briefly look at the selected aspects of oxidative thiol modification in antioxidant enzymes and thiol oxidation in proteins affected by redox control of antioxidant enzymes and their relation to disease. [BMB Reports 2015; 48(4): 200-208]

The role of peroxiredoxin II in chemoresistance of breast cancer cells

Peroxiredoxin (Prx)II belongs to a family of redox-active proteins that use redox-sensitive cysteine in the active site to reduce peroxides. PrxII is induced by various oxidative stimuli and plays an important protective role against oxidative radical damage by reactive oxygen species. PrxII expression levels are correlated with resistance to radiation therapy or certain anti-cancer drugs in radioresistant breast cancer cells, glioblastomas, and head and neck cancer cells as well as in tissue isolated from head and neck patients who do not respond to radiation therapy. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) that inhibits the PrxII gene expression has been shown to partially reverse the radioresistant phenotype in radiation resistant breast cancer cells and sensitizes glioma cells to oxidative stress, highlighting the potential clinical importance of PrxII in radiation resistance in cancer. This article focuses on the role that PrxII may play in chemoresistant breast cancer cells.

Membrane association of peroxiredoxin-2 in red cells is mediated by the N-terminal cytoplasmic domain of band 3

Band 3 (B3), the anion transporter, is an integral membrane protein that plays a key structural role by anchoring the plasma membrane to the spectrin-based membrane skeleton in the red cell. In addition, it also plays a critical role in the assembly of glycolytic enzymes to regulate red cell metabolism. However, its ability to recruit proteins that can prevent membrane oxidation has not been previously explored. In this study, using a variety of experimental approaches including cross-linking studies, fluorescence and dichroic measurements, surface plasmon resonance analysis, and proteolytic digestion assays, we document that the antioxidant protein peroxiredoxin-2 (PRDX2), the third most abundant cytoplasmic protein in RBCs, interacts with the cytoplasmic domain of B3. The surface electrostatic potential analysis and stoichiometry measurements revealed that the N-terminal peptide of B3 is involved in the interaction. PRDX2 underwent a conformational change upon its binding to B3 without losing its peroxidase activity. Hemichrome formation induced by phenylhydrazine of RBCs prevented membrane association of PRDX2, implying overlapping binding sites. Documentation of the absence of binding of PRDX2 to B3 Neapolis red cell membranes, in which the initial N-terminal 11 amino acids are deleted, enabled us to conclude that PRDX2 binds to the N-terminal cytoplasmic domain of B3 and that the first 11 amino acids of this domain are crucial for PRDX2 membrane association in intact RBCs. These findings imply yet another important role for B3 in regulating red cell membrane function.

Red blood cell populations and membrane levels of peroxiredoxin 2 as candidate biomarkers to reveal blood doping

BACKGROUND

Blood doping represents one main trend in doping strategies. Blood doping refers to the practice of boosting the number of red blood cells (RBCs) in the bloodstream in order to enhance athletic performance, by means of blood transfusions, administration of erythropoiesis-stimulating substances, blood substitutes, natural or artificial altitude facilities, and innovative gene therapies. While detection of recombinant EPO and homologous transfusion is already feasible through electrophoretic, mass spectrometry or flow cytometry-based approaches, no method is currently available to tackle doping strategies relying on autologous transfusions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We exploited an in vitro model of autologous transfusion through a 1:10 dilution of concentrated RBCs after 30 days of storage upon appropriate dilution in freshly withdrawn RBCs from the same donor. Western blot towards membrane Prdx2 and Percoll density gradients were exploited to assess their suitability as biomarkers of transfusion.

RESULTS

Membrane Prdx2 was visible in day 30 samples albeit not in day 0, while it was still visible in the 1:10 dilution of day 30 in day 0 RBCs. Cell gradients also highlighted changes in the profile of the RBC subpopulations upon dilution of stored RBCs in the fresh ones.

DISCUSSION

From this preliminary in vitro investigation it emerges that Prdx2 and RBC populations might be further tested as candidate biomarkers of blood doping through autologous transfusion, though it is yet to be assessed whether the kinetics in vivo of Prdx2 exposure in the membrane of transfused RBCs will endow a sufficient time-window to allow reliable anti-doping testing.

Peroxiredoxin II is essential for preventing hemolytic anemia from oxidative stress through maintaining hemoglobin stability. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2012;426:427-432. [PMID: 22960070 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.08.113]

The pathophysiology of oxidative hemolytic anemia is closely associated with hemoglobin (Hb) stability; however, the mechanism of how Hb maintains its stability under oxidative stress conditions of red blood cells (RBCs) carrying high levels of oxygen is unknown. Here, we investigated the potential role of peroxiredoxin II (Prx II) in preventing Hb aggregation induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS) using Prx II knockout mice and RBCs of patients with hemolytic anemia. Upon oxidative stress, ROS and Heinz body formation were significantly increased in Prx II knockout RBCs compared to wild-type (WT), which ultimately accelerated the accumulation of hemosiderin and heme-oxygenase 1 in the Prx II knock-out livers. In addition, ROS-dependent Hb aggregation was significantly increased in Prx II knockout RBCs. Interestingly, Prx II interacted with Hb in mouse RBCs, and their interaction, in particular, was severely impaired in RBCs of patients with thalassemia (THAL) and sickle cell anemia (SCA). Hb was bound to the decameric structure of Prx II, by which Hb was protected from oxidative stress. These findings suggest that Prx II plays an important role in preventing hemolytic anemia from oxidative stress by binding to Hb as a decameric structure to stabilize it.

Effects of pre-storage leukoreduction on stored red blood cells signaling: a time-course evaluation from shape to proteome

The introduction of pre-storage leukoreduction in the preparation of standard RBCs intended for transfusion provided significant improvement in the quality of labile products and their post transfusion viability and effects, although the literature data are controversial. To elucidate the issue of the probable leukoreduction effects on RBCs storage lesion, we evaluated various storage quality measures in RBCs stored in either leukoreduced (L) or non-leukoreduced (N) units, with emphasis to senescence and oxidative stress associated modifications. Our data suggest that the residual leukocytes/platelets of the labile products represent a stressful storage factor, countering the structural and functional integrity of stored RBCs. Hemolysis, irreversible echinocytosis, microvesiculation, removal signaling, ROS/calcium accumulation, band 3-related senescence modifications, membrane proteome stress biomarkers as well as emergence of a senescence phenotype in young RBCs that is disproportionate to their age, are all encountered more or mostly in N-RBCs compared to the L-RBCs, either for a part or for the whole of the storage period. The partial, yet significant, alleviation of so many storage-related manifestations in the L-RBCs compared to the N-RBCs, is presented for the first time and provides a rational mechanistic interpretation of the improved storage quality and transfusions observed by the introduction of pre-storage leukoreduction. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Integrated omics.

Red blood cell storage and cell morphology

AIM

In this study, we performed weekly assessment of morphology-related parameters through monitoring of CPD-SAGM leuco-filtered erythrocyte concentrates from blood withdrawal until the 42nd day of storage.

BACKGROUND

Liquid storage of red blood cells (RBCs) delivers a blood-derived therapeutic, which is safe, available, effective and affordable for most patients who need transfusion therapy in developed countries. However, a growing body of accumulating controversial evidences, from either biochemical or retrospective clinical studies, prompted safety concerns about longer stored RBCs.

METHODS

Statistical image analysis through scanning electron microscope was coupled to osmotic fragility and erythrocyte sedimentation rate.

RESULTS

We could observe that by day 21 more than 50% of RBCs displayed non-discocyte phenotypes. This observation was related to an increase in osmotic fragility, which was totally overlapped in day 0 controls and day 7 RBCs while only slightly augmented in day 14 samples. Cation dysregulation (pH internal/external alteration and potassium) might both reflect and trigger a negative feedback loop with metabolic fluxes and membrane cation pumps.

CONCLUSION

Morphology parameters suggest that significant alterations to RBC morphology over storage duration occur soon after the 14th day of storage, as to become significant enough within the 21st day.

Erythroid disturbances before and after treatment of Portuguese psoriasis vulgaris patients: a cross-sectional and longitudinal study

BACKGROUND

A few studies in psoriasis vulgaris patients have reported changes suggesting red blood cell (RBC) damage is linked to neutrophil activation, oxidative stress, and psoriasis worsening.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate erythroid disturbances in Portuguese psoriasis vulgaris patients, before, during, and after treatment.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study (n = 73 patients vs 40 healthy control subjects) followed by a longitudinal study (n = 47 patients) was performed, with assessments before, and at 3, 6, and 12 weeks of therapy (10 patients started topical treatment, 17 narrow-band UVB, and 20 photochemotherapy [psoralen plus UVA; PUVA]). Evaluations included hematologic data, total bilirubin levels, membrane-bound hemoglobin (MBH), membrane protein band 3 profile, total plasma antioxidant status (TAS), lipid peroxidation (thiobarbituric acid [TBA] assay), elastase, lactoferrin, and C-reactive protein (CRP).

RESULTS

Before treatment, patients presented with higher leukocyte/neutrophil and reticulocyte counts, elastase, lactoferrin, TBA, TBA/TAS, reticulocyte production index, total bilirubin and MBH values, lower RBC and hematocrit, higher percentages of high-molecular-weight aggregates, and lower percentages of band 3 monomer. After treatment, we observed a reversal in most of the parameters. However, patients still presented with values suggestive of accelerated RBC damage, removal, and production, as most of the parameters were still higher than those in the control group; the same occurred with CRP.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that psoriasis vulgaris triggers an inflammatory response, with release of acute-phase reactants, reactive oxygen species, cationic proteins, and proteases, leading to enhanced RBC damage/aging and, ultimately, to enhanced RBC removal. These assumptions were strengthened by the observation that, with treatment, all of these changes were reversed, the inflammation was reduced, the production of reticulocytes was increased, and the RBCs presented changes usually observed in younger/less damaged RBCs. These erythroid changes were enhanced with PUVA therapy, probably due to the more pronounced clearing of the lesions, as suggested by Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI) scores. Finally, after treatment, a residual inflammation still persisted that might contribute to the observed erythroid disturbances.

In-depth analysis of cysteine oxidation by the RBC proteome: advantage of peroxiredoxin II knockout mice

Peroxiredoxin II (Prdx II, a typical 2-Cys Prdx) has been originally isolated from erythrocytes, and its structure and peroxidase activity have been adequately studied. Mice lacking Prdx II proteins had heinz bodies in their peripheral blood, and morphologically abnormal cells were detected in the dense red blood cell (RBC) fractions, which contained markedly higher levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In this study, a labeling experiment with the thiol-modifying reagent biotinylated iodoacetamide (BIAM) in Prdx II-/- mice revealed that a variety of RBC proteins were highly oxidized. To identify oxidation-sensitive proteins in Prdx II-/- mice, we performed RBC comparative proteome analysis in membrane and cytosolic fractions by nano-UPLC-MSE shotgun proteomics. We found oxidation-sensitive 54 proteins from 61 peptides containing cysteine oxidation, and analyzed comparative expression pattern in healthy RBCs of Prdx II+/+ mice, healthy RBCs of Prdx II-/- mice, and abnormal RBCs of Prdx II-/- mice. These proteins belonged to cellular functions related with RBC lifespan maintain, such as cytoskeleton, stress-induced proteins, metabolic enzymes, signal transduction, and transporters. Furthermore, protein networks among identified oxidation-sensitive proteins were analyzed to associate with various diseases. Consequently, we expected that RBC proteome might provide clues to understand redox-imbalanced diseases.

Time-course investigation of SAGM-stored leukocyte-filtered red bood cell concentrates: from metabolism to proteomics

BACKGROUND

Results from recent, highly debated, retrospective studies raised concerns and prompted considerations about further testing the quality of long stored red blood cells from a biochemical standpoint.

DESIGN AND METHODS

We performed an integrated mass spectrometry-based metabolomics and proteomics time-course investigation on SAGM-stored red blood cells. In parallel, structural changes during storage were monitored through scanning electron microscopy.

RESULTS

We detected increased levels of glycolytic metabolites over the first 2 weeks of storage. From day 14 onwards, we observed a significant consumption of all metabolic species, and diversion towards the oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway. These phenomena coincided with the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and markers of oxidation (protein carbonylation and malondialdehyde accumulation) up to day 28. Proteomics evidenced changes at the membrane protein level from day 14 onwards. Changes included fragmentation of membrane structural proteins (spectrin, band 3, band 4.1), membrane accumulation of hemoglobin, anti-oxidant enzymes (peroxiredoxin-2) and chaperones. While the integrity of red blood cells did not show major deviations at day 14, at day 21 scanning electron microscope images revealed that 50% of the erythrocytes had severely altered shape. We could correlate the scanning electron microscopy observations with the onset of vesiculation, through a proteomics snapshot of the difference in the membrane proteome at day 0 and day 35. We detected proteins involved in vesicle formation and docking to the membrane, such as SNAP alpha.

CONCLUSIONS

Biochemical and structural parameters did not show significant alterations in the first 2 weeks of storage, but then declined constantly from day 14 onwards. We highlighted several parallelisms between red blood cells stored for a long time and the red blood cells of patients with hereditary spherocytosis.

Elevated levels of redox regulators, membrane-bound globin chains, and cytoskeletal protein fragments in hereditary spherocytosis erythrocyte proteome

OBJECTIVE

Hereditary spherocytosis (HS), a common inherited hemolytic anemia characterized by decreased deformability, reduced surface to volume ratio, and increased osmotic fragility of the spheroidal erythrocytes, is associated with several mutations of α- and β-spectrin, ankyrin, band 3, band 4.2. HS manifests itself with high degrees of clinical heterogeneity and the molecular events leading to premature hemolysis of the spherocytes are unclear. We have employed proteomic techniques to identify differentially regulated proteins in the membrane and hemoglobin-depleted cytosol of HS erythrocytes.

METHODS

We have employed 2-D gel electrophoresis and tandem matrix assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight/time of flight mass spectrometry to investigate the differential proteome profiling of membrane and hemoglobin-depleted cytosol of erythrocytes isolated from the peripheral blood samples of HS patients and normal volunteers.

RESULTS

Our study showed that redox regulators are up-regulated; while a co-chaperone and a nucleotide kinase are down-regulated in HS erythrocyte cytosol. We observed elevated levels of membrane-associated globin chains and low-molecular weight fragments of several major cytoskeletal proteins.

CONCLUSION

The observed changes in the erythrocyte proteomes indicate altered redox regulation, nucleotide metabolism, protein aggregation and/or degradation, cytoskeletal disorganization, and severe oxidative stress in HS. Taken together, this study could enlighten upon disease progression and pathophysiology of HS.

Peroxiredoxin-2 as a candidate biomarker to test oxidative stress levels of stored red blood cells under blood bank conditions

BACKGROUND

Several researches on aging red blood cells (RBCs)--performed both in vivo and under blood bank conditions--revealed that RBC membrane proteins undergo a number of irreversible alterations, mainly due to oxidative stress. The individuation of proteins to be used as indicators of irreversible RBC injury and to be proposed as candidate biomarkers of oxidative damage or aging status during blood storage is therefore of great interest.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Based on this purpose we performed proteomic analysis of the membranes of RBCs during various storage periods under blood bank conditions. Changes in protein composition of RBC membranes were monitored as a function of the storage period by means of polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis coupled with immunoblotting and mass spectrometry analyses.

RESULTS

During storage, a progressive linkage of typical cytosolic proteins to the membrane was detected, including both antioxidant and metabolic enzymes (such as catalase, peroxiredoxin-2 [Prx2], and 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate-mutase), as well as nonreducible cross-linkings of probably oxidized or denatured hemoglobin. This phenomenon was unequivocally related to oxidative stress, since storage of RBCs under anaerobic conditions showed a suppression of these protein recruitments to the membrane.

CONCLUSION

The detailed analysis of these protein associations to the membrane of aged RBCs allowed Prx2 to be suggested as a potential RBC oxidative stress marker for the sake of developing new approaches in quality assurance of blood components.

Comparative proteomics reveals deficiency of SLC9A1 (sodium/hydrogen exchanger NHE1) in β-adducin null red cells

Spherocytosis is one of the most common inherited disorders, yet presents with a wide range of clinical severity. While several genes have been found mutated in patients with spherocytosis, the molecular basis for the variability in severity of haemolytic anaemia is not entirely understood. To identify candidate proteins involved in haemolytic anaemia pathophysiology, we utilized a label-free comparative proteomic approach to detect differences in red blood cells (RBCs) from normal and β-adducin (Add2) knock-out mice. We detected seven proteins that were decreased and 48 proteins that were increased in β-adducin null RBC ghosts. Since haemolytic anaemias are characterized by reticulocytosis, we compared reticulocyte-enriched samples from phenylhydrazine-treated mice with mature RBCs from untreated mice. Among the 48 proteins increased in Add2 knockout RBCs, only 11 were also increased in reticulocytes. Of the proteins decreased in Add2 knockout RBCs, α-adducin showed the greatest intensity difference, followed by SLC9A1, the sodium-hydrogen exchanger previously termed NHE1. We verified these mass spectrometry results by immunoblot. This is the first example of SLC9A1deficiency in haemolytic anaemia and suggests new insights into the mechanisms leading to fragile RBCs.

Comparative proteomics reveals deficiency of NHE-1 (Slc9a1) in RBCs from the beta-adducin knockout mouse model of hemolytic anemia

Hemolytic anemia is one of the most common inherited disorders. To identify candidate proteins involved in hemolytic anemia pathophysiology, we utilized a label-free comparative proteomic approach to detect differences in RBCs from normal and beta-adducin (Add2) knock-out mice. We detected 7 proteins that were decreased and 48 proteins that were increased in the beta-adducin knock-out RBC ghost. Since hemolytic anemias are characterized by reticulocytosis, we compared reticulocyte-enriched samples from phenylhydrazine-treated mice with mature RBCs from untreated mice. Label-free analysis identified 47 proteins that were increased in the reticulocyte-enriched samples and 21 proteins that were decreased. Among the proteins increased in Add2 knockout RBCs, only 11 were also found increased in reticulocytes. Among the proteins decreased in Add2 knockout RBCs, beta- and alpha-adducin showed the greatest intensity difference, followed by NHE-1 (Slc9a1), the sodium-hydrogen exchanger. We verified these mass spectrometry results by immunoblot. This is the first example of a deficiency of NHE-1 in hemolytic anemia and suggests new insights into the mechanisms leading to fragile RBCs. Our use of label-free comparative proteomics to make this discovery demonstrates the usefulness of this approach as opposed to metabolic or chemical isotopic labeling of mice.

Oxidative stress-dependent oligomeric status of erythrocyte peroxiredoxin II (PrxII) during storage under standard blood banking conditions

Although biochemical properties of 2-Cys peroxiredoxins have been extensively studied in various cell lines and organisms, redox-induced structural transitions of peroxiredoxin II (PrxII) in human erythrocytes certainly warrant further investigation. In this work, cytosol and membrane ghosts of both fresh erythrocytes (cells obtained just after blood collection) and 28-day stored erythrocytes were analyzed by proteomics tools. We demonstrated that in fresh red blood cells PrxII exhibits four different oligomeric states in cytosol, whereas no PrxII complexes are in the membrane. The highest molecular weight PrxII protein complex (440 kDa) was proven to derive from the association between tetrameric catalase (CAT, 232 kDa) and decameric PrxII, whereas oligomers at 140, 100 and 67 kDa resulted to be homo-polymeric complexes composed of variable copies of PrxII monomeric subunits. Interestingly, the 440 kDa complex contained both reduced and oxidized (disulphide-linked dimers) PrxII decamers. Upon oxidative stress (28-day storage), the PrxII oligomers at 100 kDa in the cytosol disappeared and the CAT-PrxII hetero-oligomeric complex at 440 kDa is converted to a higher molecular weight structure (480 kDa) due to the presence therein of cross-linked species of PrxII and hemoglobin. More interestingly, oxidized red cell membranes contained the CAT-PrxII complex detected in 0-day cytosol as a consequence of protein recruitments induced by oxidative stress, however it showed a greater percentage of PrxII dimers. Finally, since the adoption of distinct PrxII structures is known to be closely related to different functions, peroxidase activity assays were performed demonstrating a positive reaction for oligomers at 440 kDa (both in cytosol and membrane compartment) and at 140 kDa. Our results contribute to clarify structural and functional switching of peroxiredoxin II in erythrocytes, thus possibly opening new scenarios in the biological roles played by this protein in defense mechanisms against oxidative stress, especially with the reference to red cell storage lesions.

Peroxiredoxin-2 expression is increased in beta-thalassemic mouse red cells but is displaced from the membrane as a marker of oxidative stress

Peroxiredoxin 2 (Prx2), the third most abundant cytoplasmic protein in red blood cells (RBCs), is involved in the defense against oxidative stress. Although much is known about Prx2 in healthy RBCs, its role in pathological RBCs remains largely unexplored. Here, we show that the expression and net content of Prx2 are markedly increased in RBCs from two mouse models of beta-thalassemia (beta-thal; Hbb(th/th) and Hbb(th3/+) strains). We also demonstrate that the increased expression of Prx2 correlates with the severity of the disease and that the amount of Prx2 bound to the membrane is markedly reduced in beta-thal mouse RBCs. To explore the impact of oxidative stress on Prx2 membrane association, we examined Prx2 dimerization and membrane translocation in murine RBCs exposed to various oxidants (phenylhydrazine, PHZ; diamide; H(2)O(2)). PHZ-treated RBCs, which mimic the membrane damage in beta-thal RBCs, exhibited a kinetic correlation among Prx2 membrane displacement, intracellular methemoglobin levels, and hemichrome membrane association, suggesting the possible masking of Prx2 docking sites by membrane-bound hemichromes, providing a possible mechanism for the accumulation of oxidized/dimerized Prx2 in the cytoplasm and the increased membrane damage in beta-thal RBCs. Thus, reduced access of Prx2 to the membrane in beta-thal RBCs represents a new factor that could contribute to the oxidative damage characterizing the pathology.

Red blood cell aging markers during storage in citrate-phosphate-dextrose-saline-adenine-glucose-mannitol

BACKGROUND

It has been suggested that red blood cell (RBC) senescence is accelerated under blood bank conditions, although neither protein profile of RBC aging nor the impact of additive solutions on it have been studied in detail.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

RBCs and vesicles derived from RBCs in both citrate-phosphate-dextrose (CPD)-saline-adenine-glucose-mannitol (SAGM) and citrate-phosphate-dextrose-adenine (CPDA) were evaluated for the expression of cell senescence markers (vesiculation, protein aggregation, degradation, activation, oxidation, and topology) through immunoblotting technique and immunofluorescence or immunoelectron microscopy study.

RESULTS

A group of cellular stress proteins exhibited storage time- and storage medium-related changes in their membrane association and exocytosis. The extent, the rate, and the expression of protein oxidation, Fas oligomerization, caspase activation, and protein modifications in Band 3, hemoglobin, and immunoglobulin G were less conspicuous and/or exhibited significant time retardation under storage in CPD-SAGM, compared to the CPDA storage. There was evidence for the localization of activated caspases near to the membrane of both cells and vesicles.

CONCLUSIONS

We provide circumstantial evidence for a lower protein oxidative damage in CPD-SAGM-stored RBCs compared to the CPDA-stored cells. The different expression patterns of the senescence markers in the RBCs seem to be accordingly related to the oxidative stress management of the cells. We suggest that the storage of RBCs in CPD-SAGM might be more alike the in vivo RBC aging process, compared to storage in CPDA, since it is characterized by a slower stimulation of the recognition signaling pathways that are already known to trigger the erythrophagocytosis of senescent RBCs.