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Engelgardt P, Krzyżanowski M, Borkowska-Sztachańska M, Wasilewska A, Ciucias M. Life time use of illicit substances among adolescents and young people hospitalized in psychiatric hospital. Sci Rep 2023; 13:1866. [PMID: 36725976 PMCID: PMC9892487 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-28603-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Adolescents are known to be particularly vulnerable, compared to children and adults, to initiation of substance use and progression to problematic use. This study aimed to examine the prevalence and type of illicit drug use in a population of adolescents and young adults who were hospitalized in a psychiatric hospital. The purpose of the study was also to find the link between age, sex, type of admission and particular mental disorders and using psychoactive substances at least once in a lifetime. A 12-month retrospective cross-sectional analysis of medical records compiled for adolescent and youth psychiatric patients who had been admitted to the Regional Psychiatric Hospital in Olsztyn, Poland, between October 1, 2018, and September 30, 2019, was conducted. After analyzing the available medical records, 506 cases were included and analyzed. Data for the study were collected in an Excel spreadsheet from discharge reports, including data from psychiatric examinations, especially anamnesis. Subsequently, statistical calculations were performed. Lifetime prevalence of any illicit substance use (34.0%) was common. The most frequently used drug was Cannabis (29.2%), the next New Psychoactive Substance-NPS (14.2%) and Amphetamine (13.0%). The higher number of people declaring to take illicit substances was proportional to the increasing age. Except for the group 10-15 years, the subject group was dominated by males. The highest, statistically significant percentage of patients who declared taking illicit substances in general, was found in people with diagnoses F20-F29 (schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional disorders) (55%), additionally, we found a statistically significant association between NPS use and these diagnoses. Only in the group of patients diagnosed with eating disorders no one declared taking psychoactive substances. However, the correlation between taking illicit drugs and the subgroups with diagnosed psychiatric diseases should be treated with caution because of the small sample size in some cases. Our findings have shown the significant prevalence of the phenomenon in this population. These data highlight the need to explore this population at high risk carefully.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Engelgardt
- Department of Pathomorphology and Forensic Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Maciej Krzyżanowski
- Department of Pathomorphology and Forensic Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland
| | | | | | - Michał Ciucias
- Department of Anatomy, University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland
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Abstract
BACKGROUND 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) is a naturally occurring, short-acting psychedelic tryptamine, produced by a variety of plant and animal species. Plants containing 5-MeO-DMT have been used throughout history for ritual and spiritual purposes. The aim of this article is to review the available literature about 5-MeO-DMT and inform subsequent clinical development. METHODS We searched PubMed database for articles about 5-MeO-DMT. Search results were cross-checked against earlier reviews and reference lists were hand searched. Findings were synthesised using a narrative synthesis approach. This review covers the pharmacology, chemistry and metabolism of 5-MeO-DMT, as well epidemiological studies, and reported adverse and beneficial effects. RESULTS 5-MeO-DMT is serotonergic agonist, with highest affinity for 5-HT1A receptors. It was studied in a variety of animal models, but clinical studies with humans are lacking. Epidemiological studies indicate that, like other psychedelics, 5-MeO-DMT induces profound alterations in consciousness (including mystical experiences), with potential beneficial long-term effects on mental health and well-being. CONCLUSION 5-MeO-DMT is a potentially useful addition to the psychedelic pharmacopoeia because of its short duration of action, relative lack of visual effects and putatively higher rates of ego-dissolution and mystical experiences. We conclude that further clinical exploration is warranted, using similar precautions as with other classic psychedelics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna O Ermakova
- Beckley Psytech, Beckley, UK,Psychedelic Trials Group, Centre for Affective Disorders, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK,Anna O Ermakova, Psychedelic Trials Group, Centre for Affective Disorders, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, 16 De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK.
| | | | - James Rucker
- Psychedelic Trials Group, Centre for Affective Disorders, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Matthew W Johnson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Abstract
Cathinone, the main psychoactive compound found in the plant Catha edulis Forsk. (khat), is a β-keto analogue of amphetamine, sharing not only the phenethylamine structure, but also the amphetamine-like stimulant effects. Synthetic cathinones are derivatives of the naturally occurring cathinone that largely entered the recreational drug market at the end of 2000s. The former "legal status", impressive marketing strategies and their commercial availability, either in the so-called "smartshops" or via the Internet, prompted their large spread, contributing to their increasing popularity in the following years. As their popularity increased, the risks posed for public health became clear, with several reports of intoxications and deaths involving these substances appearing both in the social media and scientific literature. The regulatory measures introduced thereafter to halt these trending drugs of abuse have proved to be of low impact, as a continuous emergence of new non-controlled derivatives keep appearing to replace those prohibited. Users resort to synthetic cathinones due to their psychostimulant properties but are often unaware of the dangers they may incur when using these substances. Therefore, studies aimed at unveiling the pharmacological and toxicological properties of these substances are imperative, as they will provide increased expertise to the clinicians that face this problem on a daily basis. The present work provides a comprehensive review on history and legal status, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, adverse effects and lethality in humans, as well as on the current knowledge of the neurotoxic mechanisms of synthetic cathinones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Soares
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Vera Marisa Costa
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria de Lourdes Bastos
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Félix Carvalho
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - João Paulo Capela
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
- FP-ENAS (Fernando Pessoa Energy, Environment and Health Research Unit), CEBIMED (Biomedical Research Centre), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Fernando Pessoa, Porto, Portugal.
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Black E, Govindasamy L, Auld R, McArdle K, Sharpe C, Dawson A, Vazquez S, Brett J, Friend C, Shaw V, Tyner S, McDonald C, Koop D, Tall G, Welsby D, Habig K, Madeddu D, Cretikos M. Toxicological analysis of serious drug-related harm among electronic dance music festival attendees in New South Wales, Australia: A consecutive case series. Drug Alcohol Depend 2020; 213:108070. [PMID: 32554172 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Revised: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A substantial increase in drug-related harm was observed during the 2018-2019 music festival season in New South Wales, Australia, including the deaths of five young people. As part of a rapid public health response, the New South Wales Ministry of Health referred samples from patients with suspected severe drug-related illness for forensic toxicological testing to identify the type and concentration of substances associated with the presentations. METHODS Cases were identified through a variety of active and passive surveillance systems, and selected consecutively based on indicators of clinical severity. Comprehensive toxicology testing of blood and urine samples was expedited for all cases. Demographic and clinical characteristics were collated, together with quantitative toxicology results. Results were analysed using descriptive statistics. RESULTS Forty cases from eleven different music festivals were included. The majority of cases (80.0%) were aged 25 years and under. There were five fatalities, and 62.5% of cases were admitted to intensive care units. MDMA was the most frequent substance, detected in 87.5% of cases. In 82.9% of cases with MDMA, blood concentrations were above thresholds that have been associated with toxicity. Multiple substances were detected in 60.0% of cases. Novel psychoactive substances were not detected. CONCLUSIONS Our findings strongly suggest that MDMA-related toxicity was a major factor in the severity of the clinical presentations among these cases. Other substances may have enhanced MDMA toxicity but appear unlikely to have caused severe toxicity in isolation. These findings have important implications for harm reduction strategies targeted to music festival settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor Black
- Clinical Quality and Safety, Centre for Population Health, New South Wales Ministry of Health, St Leonards 2065, NSW, Australia.
| | - Laksmi Govindasamy
- New South Wales Public Health Officer Training Program, Centre for Epidemiology and Evidence, NSW Ministry of Health, St Leonards 2065, NSW, Australia
| | - Robin Auld
- Clinical Quality and Safety, Centre for Population Health, New South Wales Ministry of Health, St Leonards 2065, NSW, Australia
| | - Kylie McArdle
- New South Wales Poisons Information Centre, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, 2145, NSW, Australia
| | - Caroline Sharpe
- Office of the Chief Health Officer, New South Wales Ministry of Health, St Leonards 2065, NSW, Australia
| | - Andrew Dawson
- New South Wales Poisons Information Centre, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, 2145, NSW, Australia
| | - Santiago Vazquez
- Forensic and Analytical Science Service, New South Wales Health Pathology, Lidcombe 2141, NSW, Australia
| | - Jonathan Brett
- New South Wales Poisons Information Centre, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, 2145, NSW, Australia
| | - Caren Friend
- Western Sydney Local Health District, New South Wales Health, Sydney NSW, Australia
| | - Vanessa Shaw
- Forensic and Analytical Science Service, New South Wales Health Pathology, Lidcombe 2141, NSW, Australia
| | - Sophie Tyner
- Office of the Chief Health Officer, New South Wales Ministry of Health, St Leonards 2065, NSW, Australia
| | - Catherine McDonald
- Forensic and Analytical Science Service, New South Wales Health Pathology, Lidcombe 2141, NSW, Australia
| | - David Koop
- New South Wales Health Emergency Management Unit, NSW Ambulance, Rozelle 2039, NSW, Australia
| | - Gary Tall
- Aeromedical and Medical Retrieval Services, NSW Ambulance, 2039, Rozelle NSW, Australia
| | - Deb Welsby
- Clinical Quality and Safety, Centre for Population Health, New South Wales Ministry of Health, St Leonards 2065, NSW, Australia
| | - Karel Habig
- Aeromedical and Medical Retrieval Services, NSW Ambulance, 2039, Rozelle NSW, Australia
| | - Daniel Madeddu
- Alcohol and Other Drugs, Centre for Population Health, New South Wales Ministry of Health, St Leonards 2065, NSW, Australia
| | - Michelle Cretikos
- Clinical Quality and Safety, Centre for Population Health, New South Wales Ministry of Health, St Leonards 2065, NSW, Australia
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Papaseit E, Olesti E, Pérez-Mañá C, Torrens M, Grifell M, Ventura M, Pozo OJ, de Sousa Fernandes Perna EB, Ramaekers JG, de la Torre R, Farré M. Acute Effects of 2C-E in Humans: An Observational Study. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:233. [PMID: 32256350 PMCID: PMC7093582 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylphenethylamine (2C-E) is psychedelic phenylethylamine, with a chemical structure similar to mescaline, used as new psychoactive substance (NPS). It inhibits norepinephrine and serotonin uptake and, more relevant, acts as a partial agonist of the serotonin 2A (5-HT2 A), 2B (5-HT2 B), and (5-HT2 C) receptors. Consumers have reported that 2C-E induces mild-moderate psychedelic effects, but its pharmacology in humans, including pharmacological effects and pharmacokinetics, have not yet studied. To assess the acute effects of 2C-E on physiological and subjective effects and evaluate its pharmacokinetics, an observational study was carried-out. Ten recreational users of psychedelics self-administered a single oral dose of 2C-E (6.5, 8, 10, 15, or 25 mg). Blood pressure and heart rate were evaluated at baseline, 2, 4, and 6 h post-administration. Three rating scales were administered to evaluate subjective effects: a set of Visual Analog Scales (VAS), the 49-item short form version of the Addiction Research Centre Inventory (ARCI), and the Evaluation of the Subjective Effects of Substances with Abuse Potential (VESSPA-SSE) at baseline, 2, 4, and 6 h after self-administration. To assess 2C-E concentrations oral fluid (saliva) was collected during 6 h. 2C-E induced primarily alterations in perceptions, hallucinations, and euphoric-mood. Saliva maximal concentrations were achieved 2 h after self-administration. Administration of oral 2C-E at recreational doses produces a group of psychedelic-like effects such to 2C-B and other serotonin-acting drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Papaseit
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol-Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Eulalia Olesti
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain.,Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Departament de Ciències Experimentals i de la Salut (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Clara Pérez-Mañá
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol-Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain.,Drug Addiction Program, Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Adiccions (INAD), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marc Grifell
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain.,Drug Addiction Program, Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Adiccions (INAD), Barcelona, Spain.,Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Ventura
- Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Oscar J Pozo
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Johannes G Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain.,Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Departament de Ciències Experimentals i de la Salut (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magí Farré
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol-Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain
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Takač MJ, Magina JDC, Takač T. Evaluation of phenylethylamine type entactogens and their metabolites relevant to ecotoxicology - a QSAR study. Acta Pharm 2019; 69:563-84. [PMID: 31639096 DOI: 10.2478/acph-2019-0038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The impact of the selected entactogens and their o-quinone metabolites on the environment was explored in QSAR studies by the use of predicted molecular descriptors, ADMET properties and environmental toxicity parameters, i.e., acute toxicity in Tetrahymena pyriformis (TOX_ATTP) expressed as Th_pyr_pIGC50/mmol L-1, acute toxicity in Pimephales promelas, the fathead minnow (TOX_FHM) expressed as Minnow LC50/mg L-1, the acute toxicity in Daphnia magna (TOX_DM) expressed as Daphnia LC50/mg L-1 and bioconcentration factor (BCF). The formation of corresponding o-quinones via benzo-dioxo-lone ring, O-demethylenation was predicted as the main metabolic pathway for all entactogens except for 1-(2,2-difluorobenzo[d][1,3]dioxol-5-yl)propan-2-amine (DiFMDA). The least favourable ADMET profile was revealed for N-(1-(benzo[d][1,3]dioxol-5-yl)propan-2-yl)-O-methylhydroxylamine (MDMEO). QSAR studies revealed significant linear correlations between MlogP of entactogens and MlogP of o-quinone metabolites (R = 0.99), and Th_pyr_pIGC50/mmol L-1 (R = 0.94), also their MlogPs with Minnow_LC50/mg L-1 (R = 0.80 and R = 0.78), BCF (R = 0.86 and R = 0.82) and percentage of o-quinones' yields (R = 0.73 and R = 0.80). Entactogens were predicted as non-biodegradable molecules, whereas the majority of their o-quinones were biodegradable.
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Sutherland R, Peacock A, Roxburgh A, Barratt MJ, Burns L, Bruno R. Typology of new psychoactive substance use among the general Australian population. Drug Alcohol Depend 2018; 188:126-134. [PMID: 29775956 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.03.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
AIM The aim of this study was to examine the typology of Australian illicit drug consumers to determine whether those who use new psychoactive substances (NPS) differ from those using other illicit substances. METHODS Data were from the 2013 National Drug Strategy Household Survey, a representative population study; analyses were limited to participants reporting past year illicit drug use (including NPS; n = 3309). Latent class analysis identified groups based on past year substance use, and a weighted multivariable, multinomial regression model was used to examine characteristics associated with group membership. RESULTS Six consumer typologies were identified: cannabis consumers (46%), pharmaceutical consumers (21%), ecstasy and cocaine consumers (19%), amphetamine and cannabis consumers (7%), polysubstance consumers (6%), and inhalant consumers (2%). Sixteen participants (total sample: 0.07%; NPS consumers: 5.7%) reported exclusive NPS use. Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist use was highest among amphetamine and cannabis consumers and polysubstance consumers; other NPS use was highest among polysubstance consumers. Polysubstance consumers were younger than all other groups, and more likely to engage in dangerous activities while under the influence of substances, inject drugs and report hazardous alcohol consumption. Amphetamine and cannabis consumers were more likely to report trouble ceasing their drug use. CONCLUSION We found no distinct profile of NPS-only consumers; however, NPS use was a marker for more problematic patterns of use. Our findings suggest that specialised NPS interventions or harm reduction messages may not be required in the Australian context; rather, they could be based upon existing responses to drug use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Sutherland
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia.
| | - Amy Peacock
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia; School of Medicine (Psychology), Faculty of Health, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, 7001, Australia
| | - Amanda Roxburgh
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Monica J Barratt
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia; National Drug Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia; Behaviours and Health Risks Program, Burnet Institute, 85 Commercial Rd, Melbourne VIC 3004, Australia
| | - Lucinda Burns
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- School of Medicine (Psychology), Faculty of Health, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, 7001, Australia
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Fernández-Calderón F, Cleland CM, Palamar JJ. Polysubstance use profiles among electronic dance music party attendees in New York City and their relation to use of new psychoactive substances. Addict Behav 2018; 78:85-93. [PMID: 29128711 PMCID: PMC5783759 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Revised: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Electronic Dance Music (EDM) party attendees are often polysubstance users and are at high risk for use of new psychoactive substances (NPS). We sought to identify patterns of use of common illegal drugs among EDM party attendees, sociodemographic correlates, and use of NPS as a function of patterns of use of more common drugs to inform prevention and harm reduction. METHOD Using time-space-sampling, 1045 individuals aged 18-40 were surveyed entering EDM parties in New York City. We queried past-year use of common illegal drugs and 98 NPS. We conducted latent class analysis to identify polysubstance use profiles of use of eight common drugs (i.e., ecstasy, ketamine, LSD, mushrooms, powder cocaine, marijuana, amphetamine, benzodiazepines). Relationships between drug classification membership and sociodemographics and use of drugs within six NPS categories were examined. RESULTS We identified four profiles of use of common drugs: non-polysubstance use (61.1%), extensive polysubstance use (19.2%), moderate polysubstance use/stimulants (12.8%), and moderate polysubstance use/psychedelics (6.7%). Those in the moderate/psychedelic group were at higher odds of using NPS with psychedelic-type effects (2C, tryptamines, and other "new" psychedelics; Ps<0.05). Extensive polysubstance users were at increased odds of reporting use of 2C drugs, synthetic cathinones ("bath salts"), tryptamines, other new (non-phenethylamine) psychedelics, new dissociatives, and synthetic cannabinoids (Ps<0.05). CONCLUSION NPS preference is linked to the profile of use of common drugs among individuals in the EDM scene. Most participants were identified as non-polysubstance users, but findings may help inform preventive and harm reduction interventions among those at risk in this scene.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Charles M Cleland
- New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA; Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA
| | - Joseph J Palamar
- Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA; Department of Population Health, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
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Palamar JJ, Mauro PM, Han BH, Martins SS. Shifting characteristics of ecstasy users ages 12-34 in the United States, 2007-2014. Drug Alcohol Depend 2017; 181:20-24. [PMID: 29028555 PMCID: PMC5683908 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2017] [Revised: 09/16/2017] [Accepted: 09/17/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ecstasy/MDMA has been one of the most prevalent party drugs for decades, and powder ecstasy recently increased in popularity. We examined trends in use to determine who to best target for prevention and harm reduction. METHODS Secondary analysis of the 2007-2014 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, a repeated cross-sectional, nationally representative probability sample, was conducted. Linear trends in past-year ecstasy use and trends in demographic and other past-year substance use characteristics among ecstasy users were examined among participants ages 12-34 (N=332,560). RESULTS Past-year prevalence of ecstasy use was stable across years at 2% (P=0.693). Over time, the proportion of ecstasy users with a college degree increased from 11.5% in 2007/08 to 24.5% in 2013/14 (P<0.001). The proportion of users who were age 12-17 decreased, as did proportions of users who are non-Hispanic black, and reported income <$20,000/year (Ps<0.001). Prevalence of past-year use of marijuana, LSD, ketamine, and DMT/AMT/Foxy increased among ecstasy users (Ps<0.05); DMT/AMT/Foxy use increased more than four-fold from 2.1% in 2007/08 to 8.7% in 2013/14. Perception of great risk associated with LSD use decreased among users and ease of obtaining LSD increased (Ps<0.05). Past-year use of 5 or more other substances also increased over time (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS Ecstasy use in the US appears to be increasing among those with college degrees and use of other substances among ecstasy users is growing-particularly use of otherwise rare substances such as tryptamines. Results inform prevention and harm reduction strategies in this increasingly shifting group of ecstasy users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J. Palamar
- New York University Langone Medical Center, Department of Population Health, New York, NY, USA,Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA
| | - Pia M. Mauro
- Columbia University, Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Benjamin H. Han
- Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA,New York University School of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine and Palliative Care, New York, NY, USA
| | - Silvia S. Martins
- Columbia University, Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
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Smith KE, Bunting AM, Staton M, Walker R, Shalash S, Winston E, Pangburn K. Examination of Synthetic Cannabinoid and Cathinone Use among a Drug-Using Offender Sample, 2013-2015. J Psychoactive Drugs 2017; 49:436-445. [PMID: 28813207 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2017.1361560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Use of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) such as synthetic cannabinoids (e.g., "Spice," "Serenity") and cathinones (e.g., "bath salts") has proliferated in recent years; however, there is a gap in research examining prevalence among offender samples. This study examined demographics, drug use, mental health characteristics, and criminal histories of NPS users compared to non-NPS users within an offender sample entering drug treatment. Using logistic regression analysis, combined 2013-2015 assessment data were examined (N = 8,791). NPS users offended more often (x̄ = 10.3), were more likely to have experienced homelessness (12.2%), and to have lived in a metro area (59.0%). NPS users reported significantly more past-year drug use, including substances not readily detected by standard urine analysis (e.g., hallucinogens, alcohol, and inhalants). Individuals with higher anxiety symptom counts (OR = 1.07; p < .001) and those who reported drinking to intoxication (OR = 1.30; p < .001) had an increased likelihood of NPS use. Older individuals (OR = 0.95; p < .001) and those who began using drugs at an older age (OR = 0.95; p < .001) were less likely to report NPS use. NPS use may be a marker of more severe using patterns in an offender sample. Future investigation should focus on NPS use as a possible method for bypassing drug testing measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Elin Smith
- a Former Senior Data Coordinator, Center on Drug and Alcohol Research , University of Kentucky , Lexington , KY , USA.,b Doctoral Student and Research Assistant, Kent School of Social Work , University of Louisville , Louisville , KY , USA
| | - Amanda M Bunting
- c Research Assistant, Center on Drug and Alcohol Research , University of Kentucky , Lexington , KY , USA.,d Doctoral Candidate, Department of Sociology , University of Kentucky , Lexington , KY , USA
| | - Michele Staton
- e Associate Professor, Center on Drug and Alcohol Research , University of Kentucky , Lexington , KY , USA.,f Associate Professor, College of Medicine, Department of Behavioral Science , University of Kentucky , Lexington , KY , USA
| | - Robert Walker
- g Assistant Professor, College of Medicine, Department of Behavioral Science , University of Kentucky , Lexington , KY , USA
| | - Sara Shalash
- h Senior Data Coordinator, Center on Drug and Alcohol Research , University of Kentucky , Lexington , KY , USA
| | - Erin Winston
- i Study Director, Center of Drug and Alcohol Research , University of Kentucky , Lexington , KY , USA
| | - Kevin Pangburn
- j Director of Substance Abuse Division, Kentucky Department of Corrections , Lexington , KY , USA
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Vreeker A, van der Burg BG, van Laar M, Brunt TM. Characterizing users of new psychoactive substances using psychometric scales for risk-related behavior. Addict Behav 2017; 70:72-78. [PMID: 28214739 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Revised: 01/26/2017] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Studies investigating risk-related behavior in relation to new psychoactive substance (NPS) use are sparse. The current study investigated characteristics of NPS users by comparing risk-related behavior of NPS users to that of illicit drugs (ID) users and licit substances users and non-users (NLC) users. METHODS In this cross-sectional study we included 528 individuals across an age range of 18-72years. Using a web-based questionnaire we collected self-report data on substance use, sensation seeking, impulsivity, peer substance use and risk perception of substance use. RESULTS NPS and ID users had a higher level of sensation seeking compared to NLC users (NPS users: p<0.001; ID users: p<0.001). NPS users (p<0.001), but not ID users (p=0.16), had increased levels of impulsivity compared to NLC users. NPS users had significantly higher scores for sensation seeking (F1,423=51.52, p<0.001) and impulsivity (F1,423=6.15, p=0.01) compared to ID users. Additionally, NPS users had significantly more peers who use substances compared to ID and NLC users. Also, NPS and ID users had lower risk perception for most substances than NLC users. NPS users had lower risk perception for most substances than ID users. CONCLUSIONS The findings highlight that NPS users show substantial more risk-related behavior than both ID and NLC users. Therefore, NPS users might be considered as a distinctive group of substance users that need another approach in terms of prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annabel Vreeker
- Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Department of Drug Monitoring & Policy, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Psychology, Section Health, Medical, and Neuropsychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Babette G van der Burg
- Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Department of Drug Monitoring & Policy, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Margriet van Laar
- Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Department of Drug Monitoring & Policy, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Tibor M Brunt
- Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Department of Drug Monitoring & Policy, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Mdege ND, Meader N, Lloyd C, Parrott S, McCambridge J. The Novel Psychoactive Substances in the UK Project: empirical and conceptual review work to produce research recommendations. Public Health Res 2017. [DOI: 10.3310/phr05040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BackgroundAlthough illegal drug use has largely been declining in the UK over the past decade, this period has witnessed the emergence of a range of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) (‘legal highs’). These are new, mostly synthetic, substances that mimic the effects of existing drugs). Despite there being many causes for concern in relation to NPS, there has been little prior study of the burden associated with their use in public health terms. Clarity is lacking on research priorities in this rapidly developing literature.ObjectivesTo inform the development of public health intervention research on NPS by reviewing existing data on their use, associated problems and potential responses to such problems.DesignA scoping review and narrative synthesis of selected bodies of evidence was undertaken to summarise and evaluate what is known about NPS use and the related harms of, and responses to, such use. Relevant literature was identified from electronic databases (covering January 2006 to June 2016 inclusive), Google (Google Inc., Mountain View, CA, USA), relevant websites and online drug forums and by contacting experts. Articles were included if they were primary studies, secondary studies involving the analysis and interpretation of primary research or discussion papers. A conceptual framework postulating an evidence-informed public health approach to NPS use in the UK was developed through a pragmatic literature review, the iterative development of concepts and finalisation in light of the results from the empirical review work. The process also involved feedback from various stakeholders. Research recommendations were developed from both strands of work.ResultsA total of 995 articles were included in the scoping review, the majority of which related to individual-level health-related adverse effects attributable to NPS use. The prevalence of lifetime NPS use varied widely between (e.g. with higher prevalence in young males) and within population subgroups. The most commonly reported adverse effects were psychiatric/other neurological, cardiovascular, renal and gastrointestinal manifestations, and there is limited evidence available on responses. In these and other respects, available evidence is at an early stage of development. Initial evidence challenges the view that NPS should be treated differently from other illicit drugs. The conceptual framework indicated that much of the evidence that would be useful to inform public health responses does not yet exist. We propose a systems-based prevention approach that develops existing responses, is multilevel and life course informed in character, and emphasises commonalities between NPS and other legal and illegal drug use. We make 20 recommendations for research, including nine key recommendations.LimitationsScoping reviews do not interrogate evidence in depth, and the disjunction between the scoping review and the conceptual framework findings is worthy of careful attention.ConclusionsKey research recommendations build on those that have previously been made and offer more evidence-based justification and detail, as previous recommendations have not yet been acted on. The case for decision-making on commissioning new research based on these recommendations is both strong and urgent.Future workThe validity of recommendations generated through this project could be enhanced via further work with research commissioners, policy-makers, researchers and the public.Study registrationThe systematic review element of this study is registered as PROSPERO CRD42016026415.FundingThe National Institute for Health Research Public Health Research programme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noreen D Mdege
- Department of Health Sciences, University of York, York, UK
| | - Nick Meader
- Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, University of York, York, UK
| | - Charlie Lloyd
- Department of Health Sciences, University of York, York, UK
| | - Steve Parrott
- Department of Health Sciences, University of York, York, UK
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Palma-Conesa ÁJ, Ventura M, Galindo L, Fonseca F, Grifell M, Quintana P, Fornís I, Gil C, Farré M, Torrens M. Something New about Something Old: A 10-Year Follow-Up on Classical and New Psychoactive Tryptamines and Results of Analysis. J Psychoactive Drugs 2017; 49:297-305. [DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2017.1320732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Álvaro José Palma-Conesa
- Predoctoral Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Resident Psychiatry, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
- Predoctoral Student, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
- Collaborator, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Ventura
- Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Manager, Drug Checking Service, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Liliana Galindo
- Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Consultant Psychiatry, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
- Postdoctoral Student, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francina Fonseca
- Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Senior Consultant, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
- Assistant Professor, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marc Grifell
- Predoctoral Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Resident Psychiatry, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
- Predoctoral Student, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pol Quintana
- Collaborator, Resident Family Medicine, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Iván Fornís
- Consultant, Drug Checking Service, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina Gil
- Technician, Drug Checking Service, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magí Farré
- Predoctoral Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Professor, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
- Head Senior Consultant, Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Hospital Universitari Germans Trías i Pujol, Servei de Farmacología Clínica, Badalona, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- Professor, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
- Head Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Head Senior Consultant, Addiction Program, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
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14
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Palamar JJ, Acosta P, Calderón FF, Sherman S, Cleland CM. Assessing self-reported use of new psychoactive substances: The impact of gate questions. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2017; 43:609-617. [PMID: 28485987 DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2017.1322094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND New psychoactive substances (NPS) continue to emerge; however, few surveys of substance use ask about NPS use. Research is needed to determine how to most effectively query use of NPS and other uncommon drugs. OBJECTIVE To determine whether prevalence of self-reported lifetime and past-year use differs depending on whether or not queries about NPS use are preceded by "gate questions." Gate questions utilize skip-logic, such that only a "yes" response to the use of specific drug class is followed by more extensive queries of drug use in that drug class. METHODS We surveyed 1,048 nightclub and dance festival attendees (42.6% female) entering randomly selected venues in New York City in 2016. Participants were randomized to gate vs. no gate question before each drug category. Analyses focus on eight categories classifying 145 compounds: NBOMe, 2C, DOx, "bath salts" (synthetic cathinones), other stimulants, tryptamines, dissociatives, and non-phenethylamine psychedelics. Participants, however, were asked about specific "bath salts" regardless of their response to the gate question to test reliability. We examined whether prevalence of use of each category differed by gate condition and whether gate effects were moderated by participant demographics. RESULTS Prevalence of use of DOx, other stimulants, and non-phenethylamine psychedelics was higher without a gate question. Gate effects for other stimulants and non-phenethylamine psychedelics were larger among white participants and those attending parties less frequently. Almost one in ten (9.3%) participants reporting no "bath salt" use via the gate question later reported use of a "bath salt" such as mephedrone, methedrone, or methylone. CONCLUSION Omitting gate questions may improve accuracy of data collected via self-report.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Palamar
- a Department of Population Health , New York University Langone Medical Center , New York , NY , USA.,b Center for Drug Use and HIV Research , New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing , New York , NY , USA
| | - Patricia Acosta
- a Department of Population Health , New York University Langone Medical Center , New York , NY , USA
| | - Fermín Fernández Calderón
- c Department of Clinical , Experimental and Social Psychology, University of Huelva , Huelva , Spain
| | - Scott Sherman
- a Department of Population Health , New York University Langone Medical Center , New York , NY , USA.,b Center for Drug Use and HIV Research , New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing , New York , NY , USA
| | - Charles M Cleland
- b Center for Drug Use and HIV Research , New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing , New York , NY , USA.,d New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing , New York , NY , USA
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15
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhui Liao
- Mental Health Institute of the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, The China National Clinical Research Center for Mental Health Disorders, National Technology Institute of Psychiatry, Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health of Hunan Province, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Yi-lang Tang
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Atlanta VA Medical Center, Mental Health Service Line, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Wei Hao
- Mental Health Institute of the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, The China National Clinical Research Center for Mental Health Disorders, National Technology Institute of Psychiatry, Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health of Hunan Province, Changsha, Hunan, China
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Dunn M. Have prohibition policies made the wrong decision? A critical review of studies investigating the effects of DMAA. International Journal of Drug Policy 2017; 40:26-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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17
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Jiang XL, Shen HW, Mager DE, Schmidt S, Yu AM. Development of a mechanism-based pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model to characterize the thermoregulatory effects of serotonergic drugs in mice. Acta Pharm Sin B 2016; 6:492-503. [PMID: 27709018 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2016.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2016] [Revised: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
We have shown recently that concurrent harmaline, a monoamine oxidase-A inhibitor (MAOI), potentiates serotonin (5-HT) receptor agonist 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT)-induced hyperthermia. The objective of this study was to develop an integrated pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) model to characterize and predict the thermoregulatory effects of such serotonergic drugs in mice. Physiological thermoregulation was described by a mechanism-based indirect-response model with adaptive feedback control. Harmaline-induced hypothermia and 5-MeO-DMT–elicited hyperthermia were attributable to the loss of heat through the activation of 5-HT1A receptor and thermogenesis via the stimulation of 5-HT2A receptor, respectively. Thus serotonergic 5-MeO-DMT–induced hyperthermia was readily distinguished from handling/injection stress-provoked hyperthermic effects. This PK/PD model was able to simultaneously describe all experimental data including the impact of drug-metabolizing enzyme status on 5-MeO-DMT and harmaline PK properties, and drug- and stress-induced simple hypo/hyperthermic and complex biphasic effects. Furthermore, the modeling results revealed a 4-fold decrease of apparent SC50 value (1.88–0.496 µmol/L) for 5-MeO-DMT when harmaline was co-administered, providing a quantitative assessment for the impact of concurrent MAOI harmaline on 5-MeO-DMT–induced hyperthermia. In addition, the hyperpyrexia caused by toxic dose combinations of harmaline and 5-MeO-DMT were linked to the increased systemic exposure to harmaline rather than 5-MeO-DMT, although the body temperature profiles were mispredicted by the model. The results indicate that current PK/PD model may be used as a new conceptual framework to define the impact of serotonergic agents and stress factors on thermoregulation.
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Sutherland R, Peacock A, Whittaker E, Roxburgh A, Lenton S, Matthews A, Butler K, Nelson M, Burns L, Bruno R. New psychoactive substance use among regular psychostimulant users in Australia, 2010-2015. Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 161:110-8. [PMID: 26880592 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2015] [Revised: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine the rates and patterns of new psychoactive substance (NPS) use amongst regular psychostimulant users (RPU) in Australia. METHOD Data were obtained from the 2010-2015 Ecstasy and related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS), which comprised a total cross-sectional sample of 4122RPU. RESULTS Recent use of 'any' NPS increased from 33% in 2010 to 40% in 2015, although trends of use differed significantly across NPS classes. The correlates associated with NPS use also varied across NPS classes: frequent (i.e. weekly or more) ecstasy users were more likely to report recent phenethylamine use; LSD users were more likely to report recent phenethylamine and tryptamine use; and daily cannabis users were more likely to report recent synthetic cannabinoid use than RPU who had not used NPS. 'Poly' NPS consumers were found to be a particularly high risk group and were significantly more likely to be younger, male, report daily cannabis use, report weekly or more ecstasy use, report recent LSD use, have higher levels of poly drug use, have overdosed on any drug in the past year, and to have engaged in past month criminal activity. CONCLUSION NPS use has been established as a significant and ongoing practice amongst our sample of RPU. It appears that RPU seek out NPS with similar properties to the illicit drugs that they are already consuming, with poly NPS consumers found to be a particularly high risk group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Sutherland
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Amy Peacock
- School of Medicine (Psychology), Faculty of Health, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Elizabeth Whittaker
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Amanda Roxburgh
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Simon Lenton
- National Drug Research Institute, Curtin University, Shenton Park, WA 6845, Australia
| | - Allison Matthews
- School of Medicine (Psychology), Faculty of Health, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Kerryn Butler
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Marina Nelson
- National Drug Research Institute, Curtin University, Shenton Park, WA 6845, Australia
| | - Lucinda Burns
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- School of Medicine (Psychology), Faculty of Health, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
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Palamar JJ, Salomone A, Vincenti M, Cleland CM. Detection of "bath salts" and other novel psychoactive substances in hair samples of ecstasy/MDMA/"Molly" users. Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 161:200-5. [PMID: 26883685 PMCID: PMC4792679 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Revised: 01/28/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ecstasy (MDMA) in the US is commonly adulterated with other drugs, but research has not focused on purity of ecstasy since the phenomenon of "Molly" (ecstasy marketed as pure MDMA) arose in the US. METHODS We piloted a rapid electronic survey in 2015 to assess use of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) and other drugs among 679 nightclub/festival-attending young adults (age 18-25) in New York City. A quarter (26.1%) of the sample provided a hair sample to be analyzed for the presence of select synthetic cathinones ("bath salts") and some other NPS. Samples were analyzed using fully validated UHPLC-MS/MS methods. To examine consistency of self-report, analyses focused on the 48 participants with an analyzable hair sample who reported lifetime ecstasy/MDMA/Molly use. RESULTS Half (50.0%) of the hair samples contained MDMA, 47.9% contained butylone, and 10.4% contained methylone. Of those who reported no lifetime use of "bath salts", stimulant NPS, or unknown pills or powders, about four out of ten (41.2%) tested positive for butylone, methylone, alpha-PVP, 5/6-APB, or 4-FA. Racial minorities were more likely to test positive for butylone or test positive for NPS after reporting no lifetime use. Frequent nightclub/festival attendance was the strongest predictor of testing positive for MDMA, butylone, or methylone. DISCUSSION Results suggest that many ecstasy-using nightclub/festival attendees may be unintentionally using "bath salts" or other NPS. Prevention and harm reduction education is needed for this population and "drug checking" (e.g., pill testing) may be beneficial for those rejecting abstinence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Palamar
- New York University Langone Medical Center, Department of Population Health, New York, NY, USA; Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Alberto Salomone
- Centro Regionale Antidoping e di Tossicologia "A. Bertinaria", Orbassano, Turin, Italy
| | - Marco Vincenti
- Centro Regionale Antidoping e di Tossicologia "A. Bertinaria", Orbassano, Turin, Italy; Dipartimento di Chimica, Università di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Charles M Cleland
- Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, New York University College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA; New York University College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA
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Thai PK, Lai FY, Edirisinghe M, Hall W, Bruno R, O'Brien JW, Prichard J, Kirkbride KP, Mueller JF. Monitoring temporal changes in use of two cathinones in a large urban catchment in Queensland, Australia. Sci Total Environ 2016; 545-546:250-255. [PMID: 26747989 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2015] [Revised: 11/28/2015] [Accepted: 12/08/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater analysis was used to examine prevalence and temporal trends in the use of two cathinones, methylone and mephedrone, in an urban population (>200,000 people) in South East Queensland, Australia. Wastewater samples were collected from the inlet of the sewage treatment plant that serviced the catchment from 2011 to 2013. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry was used to measure mephedrone and methylone in wastewater sample using direct injection mode. Mephedrone was not detected in any samples while methylone was detected in 45% of the samples. Daily mass loads of methylone were normalized to the population and used to evaluate methylone use in the catchment. Methylone mass loads peaked in 2012 but there was no clear temporal trend over the monitoring period. The prevalence of methylone use in the catchment was associated with the use of MDMA, the more popular analogue of methylone, as indicated by other complementary sources. Methylone use was stable in the study catchment during the monitoring period whereas mephedrone use has been declining after its peak in 2010. More research is needed on the pharmacokinetics of emerging illicit drugs to improve the applicability of wastewater analysis in monitoring their use in the population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phong K Thai
- Queensland University of Technology, Garden Point, Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia; The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia.
| | - Foon Yin Lai
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Methsiri Edirisinghe
- Queensland Health Forensic Scientific Services, Queensland Government, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Wayne Hall
- The University of Queensland, Centre for Youth Substance Abuse Research, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, QLD 4029, Australia
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- School of Psychology, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 30, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Jake W O'Brien
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Jeremy Prichard
- Faculty of Law, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 89, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - K Paul Kirkbride
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
| | - Jochen F Mueller
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
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Jiang XL, Shen HW, Yu AM. Modification of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine-induced hyperactivity by monoamine oxidase A inhibitor harmaline in mice and the underlying serotonergic mechanisms. Pharmacol Rep 2016; 68:608-15. [PMID: 26977821 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2016.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Revised: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) and harmaline are indolealkylamine (IAA) drugs often abused together. Our recent studies have revealed the significant effects of co-administered harmaline, a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), on 5-MeO-DMT pharmacokinetics and thermoregulation. This study was to delineate the impact of harmaline and 5-MeO-DMT on home-cage activity in mouse models, as well as the contribution of serotonin (5-HT) receptors. METHODS Home-cage activities of individual animals were monitored automatically in the home cages following implantation of telemetry transmitters and administration of various doses of IAA drugs and 5-HT receptor antagonists. Area under the effect curve (AUEC) of mouse activity values were calculated by trapezoidal rule. RESULTS High dose of harmaline (15mg/kg, ip) alone caused an early-phase (0-45min) hypoactivity in mice that was fully attenuated by 5-HT1A receptor antagonist WAY-100635, whereas a late-phase (45-180min) hyperactivity that was reduced by 5-HT2A receptor antagonist MDL-100907. 5-MeO-DMT (10 and 20mg/kg, ip) alone induced biphasic effects, an early-phase (0-45min) hypoactivity that was completely attenuated by WAY-100635, and a late-phase (45-180min) hyperactivity that was fully suppressed by MDL-100907. Interestingly, co-administration of MAOI harmaline (2-15mg/kg) with a subthreshold dose of 5-MeO-DMT (2mg/kg) induced excessive hyperactivities at late phase (45-180min) that could be abolished by either WAY-100635 or MDL-100907. CONCLUSIONS Co-administration of MAOI with 5-MeO-DMT provokes excessive late-phase hyperactivity, which involves the activation of both 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi-Ling Jiang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Hong-Wu Shen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Ai-Ming Yu
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Medicine, UC Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA, USA.
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Van Buskirk J, Roxburgh A, Bruno R, Naicker S, Lenton S, Sutherland R, Whittaker E, Sindicich N, Matthews A, Butler K, Burns L. Characterising dark net marketplace purchasers in a sample of regular psychostimulant users. Int J Drug Policy 2016; 35:32-7. [PMID: 26872846 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2015] [Revised: 01/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The past five years has seen a proliferation in marketplaces operating on the 'dark net' selling licit and illicit substances. While monitoring systems have investigated the specific substances for sale on these marketplaces, less is known about consumer motivations for accessing these marketplaces and factors associated with their use. METHODS An Australian national sample (n=800) recruited on the basis of regular psychostimulant use was recruited and asked about purchasing substances from dark net marketplaces and the reasons for doing so. Respondents who had purchased any drug from a dark net marketplace in the preceding year were compared to those who had not in terms of demographic information and factors including drug use, criminal activity, and sexual and mental health. RESULTS Nine percent (n=68) of the sample had purchased from dark net markets in the past year. MDMA, LSD and cannabis were the three most commonly purchased substances, and the main benefits cited for purchasing online were the better quality and lower cost of drugs available. Controlling for other factors, participants who purchased from dark net marketplaces in the past year tended to be younger, more likely to be involved in recent property crime and to have used more classes of drugs in the preceding six months, specifically psychedelics and 'new psychoactive drugs'. CONCLUSIONS Though a small minority of participants reported having purchased drugs online in the preceding six months, these appeared to be a more 'entrenched' group of consumers, with more diverse substance use and rates of criminal activity. For consumers in the current sample reporting recent dark net usage, country borders are now less of a significant barrier to purchase and there is a wider range of substances available than ever before.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joe Van Buskirk
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC), University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia.
| | - Amanda Roxburgh
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC), University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- University of Tasmania, School of Medicine, Hobart, Tasmania 7000, Australia
| | - Sundresan Naicker
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC), University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Simon Lenton
- National Drug Research Institute, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia 6000, Australia
| | - Rachel Sutherland
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC), University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Elizabeth Whittaker
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC), University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Natasha Sindicich
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC), University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Allison Matthews
- University of Tasmania, School of Medicine, Hobart, Tasmania 7000, Australia
| | - Kerryn Butler
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC), University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Lucinda Burns
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC), University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
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Jiang XL, Shen HW, Yu AM. Potentiation of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine-induced hyperthermia by harmaline and the involvement of activation of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors. Neuropharmacology 2015; 89:342-51. [PMID: 25446678 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2014] [Revised: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 10/13/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) and harmaline are serotonin (5-HT) analogs often abused together, which alters thermoregulation that may indicate the severity of serotonin toxicity. Our recent studies have revealed that co-administration of monoamine oxidase inhibitor harmaline leads to greater and prolonged exposure to 5-HT agonist 5-MeO-DMT that might be influenced by cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) status. This study was to define the effects of harmaline and 5-MeO-DMT on thermoregulation in wild-type and CYP2D6-humanized (Tg-CYP2D6) mice, as well as the involvement of 5-HT receptors. Animal core body temperatures were monitored noninvasively in the home cages after implantation of telemetry transmitters and administration of drugs. Harmaline (5 and 15 mg/kg, i.p.) alone was shown to induce hypothermia that was significantly affected by CYP2D6 status. In contrast, higher doses of 5-MeO-DMT (10 and 20 mg/kg) alone caused hyperthermia. Co-administration of harmaline (2, 5 or 15 mg/kg) remarkably potentiated the hyperthermia elicited by 5-MeO-DMT (2 or 10 mg/kg), which might be influenced by CYP2D6 status at certain dose combination. Interestingly, harmaline-induced hypothermia was only attenuated by 5-HT1A receptor antagonist WAY-100635, whereas 5-MeO-DMT- and harmaline-5-MeO-DMT-induced hyperthermia could be suppressed by either WAY-100635 or 5-HT2A receptor antagonists (MDL-100907 and ketanserin). Moreover, stress-induced hyperthermia under home cage conditions was not affected by WAY-100635 but surprisingly attenuated by MDL-100907 and ketanserin. Our results indicate that co-administration of monoamine oxidase inhibitor largely potentiates 5-MeO-DMT-induced hyperthermia that involves the activation of both 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors. These findings shall provide insights into development of anxiolytic drugs and new strategies to relieve the lethal hyperthermia in serotonin toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi-Ling Jiang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14214-8033, USA
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Martinotti G, Lupi M, Carlucci L, Cinosi E, Santacroce R, Acciavatti T, Chillemi E, Bonifaci L, Janiri L, Di Giannantonio M. Novel psychoactive substances: use and knowledge among adolescents and young adults in urban and rural areas. Hum Psychopharmacol 2015. [PMID: 26216566 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) are new psychotropic drugs, not scheduled under the International Conventions on Psychotropic Substances, but which may pose a relevant public health threat. In this study, we investigated knowledge and use of NPS in a sample of Italian youth in urban and rural areas. METHODS Between December 2012 and October 2013, we administered a questionnaire to a sample of 3011 healthy subjects (44.7% men; 55.3% women), aged between 16 and 24 years and recruited in urban, intermediate and rural areas of Italy. RESULTS Of the global sample, 53.3% declared to have some knowledge on NPS, with a higher knowledge in urban areas. Mephedrone (26%), desomorphine (22.6%) and methamphetamine (21.7%) were the most commonly known drugs. NPS use was reported by 4.7% of the sample, without significant differences between urban and rural areas; mephedrone (3.3%), synthetic cannabinoids (1.2%) and Salvia divinorum (0.3%) consumption has been identified. NPS use was also predictive of binge-drinking behaviours (χ(2) (4) = 929.58, p < .001). DISCUSSION Urban areas may represent a focal point for preventive strategies, given the presence of higher levels of NPS knowledge. Moreover, the association between binge-drinking habits and NPS use was really strong. This issue should not be underestimated because of its medical, psychopathological and social consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Martinotti
- Department of Neuroscience and Imaging, " G. d'Annunzio" University, Chieti, Italy
| | - Matteo Lupi
- Department of Neuroscience and Imaging, " G. d'Annunzio" University, Chieti, Italy
| | - Leonardo Carlucci
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Humanities and Territory, " G. d'Annunzio" University, Chieti, Italy
| | - Eduardo Cinosi
- Department of Neuroscience and Imaging, " G. d'Annunzio" University, Chieti, Italy
| | - Rita Santacroce
- Department of Neuroscience and Imaging, " G. d'Annunzio" University, Chieti, Italy
| | - Tiziano Acciavatti
- Department of Neuroscience and Imaging, " G. d'Annunzio" University, Chieti, Italy
| | | | | | - Luigi Janiri
- Institute of Psychiatry and Psychology, Catholic University Medical School, Rome, Italy
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van Amsterdam JGC, Nabben T, Keiman D, Haanschoten G, Korf D. Exploring the Attractiveness of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) among Experienced Drug Users. J Psychoactive Drugs 2015; 47:177-81. [DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2015.1048840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Palamar JJ, Acosta P. Synthetic cannabinoid use in a nationally representative sample of US high school seniors. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 149:194-202. [PMID: 25736618 PMCID: PMC4361370 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.01.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Revised: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 01/31/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Synthetic cannabinoids are marketed as "legal highs" and have similar effects to cannabis (marijuana). Although prevalence of synthetic cannabinoid use is now declining in the US, use has been associated with tens of thousands of poisonings and hospitalizations, particularly among teens. It is important to examine which teens are at highest risk for use of these new, potentially deleterious drugs as they are understudied and continue to emerge. METHODS Data were analyzed from a nationally representative sample of high school seniors in the Monitoring the Future study (2011-2013; Weighted N = 11,863; modal age: 18). Bivariable and multivariable models were used to delineate correlates of recent (12-month) synthetic cannabinoid use. RESULTS Ten percent reported any recent use and 3% reported more frequent use (used ≥ 6 times). Females were at low odds for use and going out 4-7 evenings per week for fun consistently increased odds of use. Black and religious students were at low odds of use until controlling for other drug use, and higher income increased odds of use until controlling for other drug use. Lifetime use of alcohol, cigarettes and other illicit drugs all robustly increased odds of use, but frequency of lifetime marijuana use was the strongest correlate with more frequent use further increasing odds of synthetic cannabinoid use. Only 0.5% of non-marijuana users reported use of synthetic cannabinoids. CONCLUSIONS This is among the first national studies to delineate correlates of synthetic cannabinoid use. Results can inform national and local efforts to prevent use and adverse consequences resulting from use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J. Palamar
- Department of Population Health, New York University (NYU) Langone Medical Center, New York, NY, USA,Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, NYU College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA
| | - Patricia Acosta
- Department of Population Health, New York University (NYU) Langone Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
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Van Hout MC, Hearne E. “Word of Mouse”: Indigenous Harm Reduction and Online Consumerism of the Synthetic Compound Methoxphenidine. J Psychoactive Drugs 2015; 47:30-41. [DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2014.974002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Wagner KD, Armenta RF, Roth AM, Maxwell JC, Cuevas-Mota J, Garfein RS. Use of synthetic cathinones and cannabimimetics among injection drug users in San Diego, California. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 141:99-106. [PMID: 24916748 PMCID: PMC4114932 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2014] [Revised: 04/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Use of synthetic cathinones (SC) and cannabimimetics (i.e., "THC homologues" [TH]) is associated with adverse health effects. We investigated the epidemiology of synthetic drug use among a cohort of injection drug users (IDUs) in San Diego, California. METHODS We used logistic regression analysis to identify correlates of SC and TH use among 485 IDUs enrolled from June 2012 to September 2013. RESULTS Seven percent of participants reported ever using SC and 30% reported ever using TH. In multivariate logistic regression, age and recent hospitalization were significantly associated with odds of SC use (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] 0.93, 95% Confidence Interval [C.I.] 0.90, 0.97; and AOR 2.34 95% C.I. 1.00, 5.49, respectively) and TH use (AOR 0.96, 95% C.I. 0.94, 0.98; and AOR 2.62, 95% C.I. 1.47, 4.68, respectively). Use of methamphetamine (AOR 9.35, 95% C.I. 1.20, 72.79) and club drugs in the past six months (AOR 3.38, 95% C.I. 1.17, 9.76) were significantly associated with SC use. Being on probation/parole (AOR 2.42, 95% C.I. 1.44, 4.07), initiating injection drug use with stimulants (AOR 1.89 95% C.I. 1.13, 3.16), and past six-month marijuana (AOR 9.22, 95% C.I. 4.49, 18.96) and prescription drug use (AOR 1.98, 95% C.I. 1.20, 3.27) were significantly associated with TH use. CONCLUSIONS A considerable proportion of IDU use synthetic drugs and may experience harms associated with their use. Findings have implications for criminal justice system management. Prevention efforts should emphasize the risks associated with rapidly changing synthetic formulations, and the potential harms associated with polydrug use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karla D Wagner
- Division of Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0849, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States.
| | - Richard F Armenta
- Division of Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0849, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - Alexis M Roth
- Division of Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0849, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - Jane C Maxwell
- The Center for Social Work Research, School of Social Work, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station D3510, Austin, TX 78712, United States
| | - Jazmine Cuevas-Mota
- Division of Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0849, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - Richard S Garfein
- Division of Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0849, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
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Martinotti G, Lupi M, Acciavatti T, Cinosi E, Santacroce R, Signorelli MS, Bandini L, Lisi G, Quattrone D, Ciambrone P, Aguglia A, Pinna F, Calò S, Janiri L, di Giannantonio M. Novel psychoactive substances in young adults with and without psychiatric comorbidities. Biomed Res Int 2014; 2014:815424. [PMID: 25133182 DOI: 10.1155/2014/815424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2014] [Revised: 06/10/2014] [Accepted: 06/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Objective. Comorbidities between psychiatric diseases and consumption of traditional substances of abuse (alcohol, cannabis, opioids, and cocaine) are common. Nevertheless, there is no data regarding the use of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) in the psychiatric population. The purpose of this multicentre survey is to investigate the consumption of a wide variety of psychoactive substances in a young psychiatric sample and in a paired sample of healthy subjects. Methods. A questionnaire has been administered, in different Italian cities, to 206 psychiatric patients aged 18 to 26 years and to a sample of 2615 healthy subjects matched for sex, gender, and living status. Results. Alcohol consumption was more frequent in the healthy young population compared to age-matched subjects suffering from mental illness (79.5% versus 70.7%; P < 0.003). Conversely, cocaine and NPS use was significantly more common in the psychiatric population (cocaine 8.7% versus 4.6%; P = 0.002) (NPS 9.8% versus 3%; P < 0.001). Conclusions. The use of novel psychoactive substances in a young psychiatric population appears to be a frequent phenomenon, probably still underestimated. Therefore, careful and constant monitoring and accurate evaluations of possible clinical effects related to their use are necessary.
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McKetin R, Copeland J, Norberg MM, Bruno R, Hides L, Khawar L. The effect of the ecstasy 'come-down' on the diagnosis of ecstasy dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 139:26-32. [PMID: 24703083 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.02.697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2013] [Revised: 02/24/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The existence of an ecstasy-dependence syndrome is controversial. We examined whether the acute after-effects of ecstasy use (i.e. the 'come-down') falsely lead to the identification of ecstasy withdrawal and the subsequent diagnosis of ecstasy dependence. METHODS The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Disorders: Research Version (SCID-RV) was administered to 214 Australian ecstasy users. Ecstasy withdrawal was operationalised in three contrasting ways: (i) as per DSM-IV criteria; (ii) as the expected after-effects of ecstasy (a regular come-down); or (iii) as a substantially greater or longer come-down than on first use (intense come-down). These definitions were validated against frequency of ecstasy use, readiness to change and ability to resist the urge to use ecstasy. Confirmatory factor analyses were used to see how they aligned with the overall dependence syndrome. RESULTS Come-down symptoms increased the prevalence of withdrawal from 1% (DSM-IV criterion) to 11% (intense come-downs) and 75% (regular come-downs). Past year ecstasy dependence remained at 31% when including the DSM-IV withdrawal criteria and was 32% with intense come-downs, but increased to 45% with regular come-downs. Intense come-downs were associated with lower ability to resist ecstasy use and loaded positively on the dependence syndrome. Regular come-downs did not load positively on the ecstasy-dependence syndrome and were not related to other indices of dependence. CONCLUSION The acute after-effects of ecstasy should be excluded when assessing ecstasy withdrawal as they can lead to a false diagnosis of ecstasy dependence. Worsening of the ecstasy come-down may be a marker for dependence.
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Burns L, Roxburgh A, Matthews A, Bruno R, Lenton S, Van Buskirk J. The rise of new psychoactive substance use in Australia. Drug Test Anal 2014; 6:846-9. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2013] [Revised: 01/22/2014] [Accepted: 01/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Burns
- UNSW; NDARC; Sydney New South Wales Australia
| | | | - Allison Matthews
- University of Tasmania; School of Psychology; Hobart Tasmania Australia
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- University of Tasmania; School of Psychology; Hobart Tasmania Australia
| | - Simon Lenton
- Curtin University; NDRI; Perth Western Australia Australia
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Valente MJ, Guedes de Pinho P, de Lourdes Bastos M, Carvalho F, Carvalho M. Khat and synthetic cathinones: a review. Arch Toxicol 2013; 88:15-45. [PMID: 24317389 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-013-1163-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2013] [Accepted: 11/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
For centuries, 'khat sessions' have played a key role in the social and cultural traditions among several communities around Saudi Arabia and most East African countries. The identification of cathinone as the main psychoactive compound of khat leaves, exhibiting amphetamine-like pharmacological properties, resulted in the synthesis of several derivatives structurally similar to this so-called natural amphetamine. Synthetic cathinones were primarily developed for therapeutic purposes, but promptly started being misused and extensively abused for their euphoric effects. In the mid-2000's, synthetic cathinones emerged in the recreational drug markets as legal alternatives ('legal highs') to amphetamine, 'ecstasy', or cocaine. Currently, they are sold as 'bath salts' or 'plant food', under ambiguous labels lacking information about their true contents. Cathinone derivatives are conveniently available online or at 'smartshops' and are much more affordable than the traditional illicit drugs. Despite the scarcity of scientific data on these 'legal highs', synthetic cathinones use became an increasingly popular practice worldwide. Additionally, criminalization of these derivatives is often useless since for each specific substance that gets legally controlled, one or more structurally modified analogs are introduced into the legal market. Chemically, these substances are structurally related to amphetamine. For this reason, cathinone derivatives share with this drug both central nervous system stimulating and sympathomimetic features. Reports of intoxication and deaths related to the use of 'bath salts' have been frequently described over the last years, and several attempts to apply a legislative control on synthetic cathinones have been made. However, further research on their pharmacological and toxicological properties is fully required in order to access the actual potential harm of synthetic cathinones to general public health. The present work provides a review on khat and synthetic cathinones, concerning their historical background, prevalence, patterns of use, legal status, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and their physiological and toxicological effects on animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria João Valente
- REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal,
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Pal R, Balt S, Erowid E, Erowid F, Baggott MJ, Mendelson J, Galloway GP. Ketamine is associated with lower urinary tract signs and symptoms. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 132:189-94. [PMID: 23474358 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2012] [Revised: 01/31/2013] [Accepted: 02/01/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Case reports and series indicate that ketamine, an anesthetic agent, causes lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS). This study explored whether ketamine users were more likely to report LUTS compared to other substance users. METHODS Participants were recruited through an online survey on erowid.org, a drug information website. A notice posted on the website invited substance users to participate in a web-based survey on "drug use and health". The notice did not mention ketamine, or other aspects of the research questions, to avoid participation bias. The anonymous survey collected demographics, drug use history, and history of LUTS (urinary frequency, urgency, incontinence, hematuria, and dysuria). RESULTS Of 18,802 participants, 18.7% and 5.8% reported ever (lifetime) and recent (past-6-month) use of ketamine, respectively. Prevalence of LUTS among ever, recent, and never users of ketamine were 28%, 30%, and 24% respectively. Multivariate analysis showed significant associations between recent ketamine use and urinary symptoms. For each additional day of ketamine use in the last 180 days, the odds of developing urinary frequency, urgency, dysuria, and hematuria increased by 1.6%, 1.4%, 1.7%, and 1.9% respectively. One excess case of urinary frequency was reported per 17 recent users of ketamine. CONCLUSION Compared to non-users, recent ketamine users had increased odds of LUTS. This is the first large-scale community-based study assessing the association of non-medical ketamine use with LUTS. Associations between ketamine and urological symptoms should be confirmed through longitudinal studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Pal
- Addiction and Pharmacology Research Laboratory, California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute, 3555 Cesar Chavez, San Francisco, CA 94110, United States.
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Ogeil RP, Rajaratnam SMW, Broadbear JH. Male and female ecstasy users: differences in patterns of use, sleep quality and mental health outcomes. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 132:223-30. [PMID: 23453259 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2012] [Revised: 01/08/2013] [Accepted: 02/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ecstasy users report a number of adverse effects following use including mood and sleep disturbances. The present study examined differences in characteristics of ecstasy use (amount, frequency of use, reported harm resulting from use) between males and females and assessed relationships between ecstasy use, sleep quality and mental health outcomes. METHODS An online survey of 268 ecstasy users (54.1% male, 45.9% female) was conducted. Validated sleep instruments assessing sleep quality and excessive daytime sleepiness, as well as questionnaires regarding physical and mental health (measured using the short-form health survey 12 (SF-12) and details of drug use were included. RESULTS Male ecstasy users reported taking larger amounts of ecstasy, but were not more frequent users compared to females. Female ecstasy users were more likely to report increased harm following ecstasy including: feelings of guilt and remorse; failing to do what was normally expected of them; and having been told by others to cut down their ecstasy use. There were interactions between amount and gender and frequency and gender in predicting use of sleep medication and daytime dysfunction. There was a positive correlation between poorer sleep quality and negative mood, although this relationship was not moderated by sex. CONCLUSIONS There is a significant association between sleep quality and mood disturbance in ecstasy users suggesting that these negative outcomes are co-morbid. These findings have implications for the treatment and advice given to ecstasy users who are experiencing sleep and/or mood related complaints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rowan P Ogeil
- School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia.
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González D, Ventura M, Caudevilla F, Torrens M, Farre M. Consumption of new psychoactive substances in a Spanish sample of research chemical users. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013; 28:332-40. [PMID: 23881881 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2012] [Accepted: 04/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To know the pattern of use of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) in a Spanish sample of research chemical (RC) users and to deepen the RC user profile and risk reduction strategies employed. METHODS This study is a cross-sectional survey by means of a specific questionnaire. Recruitment was carried out at music festivals, at non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and through announcements on an online forum. Two RC user profiles were defined, according to whether they search information through online forums. RESULTS A total of 230 users participated. The most frequent RCs were hallucinogenic phenethylamines (2C-B 80.0%, 2C-I 39.6%) and cathinones (methylone 40.1%, mephedrone 35.2%). The most frequent combination of RC with other illegal drugs was with cannabis (68.6%) and 2C-B with MDMA (28.3%). Subjects who are consulting drug forums (group 1) use more RC, obtain RC by Internet, and use more frequently risk prevention strategies. Regarding the risk-reduction strategies in this group, users sought information concerning RC before consuming them (100%), used precision scales to calculate dosage (72.3%), and analyzed the contents before consumption (68.8%). CONCLUSIONS There is a specific RC user profile with extensive knowledge and consumption of substances, using different strategies to reduce risks associated to its consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Débora González
- Human Pharmacology and Clinical Neurosciences Unit and Drug Addiction Unit, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, INAD-Hospital del Mar, Parc de Salut MAR, Barcelona, Spain
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Lai FY, Thai PK, O'Brien J, Gartner C, Bruno R, Kele B, Ort C, Prichard J, Kirkbride P, Hall W, Carter S, Mueller JF. Using quantitative wastewater analysis to measure daily usage of conventional and emerging illicit drugs at an annual music festival. Drug Alcohol Rev 2013; 32:594-602. [DOI: 10.1111/dar.12061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2013] [Accepted: 05/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Foon Yin Lai
- National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology; The University of Queensland; Coopers Plains Australia
| | - Phong K. Thai
- National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology; The University of Queensland; Coopers Plains Australia
| | - Jake O'Brien
- National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology; The University of Queensland; Coopers Plains Australia
| | - Coral Gartner
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital; The University of Queensland; Herston Australia
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- School of Psychology; University of Tasmania; Hobart Australia
| | - Benjamin Kele
- Institute for Resource and Industries and Sustainability; Central Queensland University; Bruce Highway Rockhampton Australia
| | - Christoph Ort
- Advanced Water Management Centre; The University of Queensland; Brisbane Australia
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology; Eawag; Duöbendorf Switzerland
| | | | - Paul Kirkbride
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences; Flinders University; Adelaide Australia
| | - Wayne Hall
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital; The University of Queensland; Herston Australia
| | - Steve Carter
- Queensland Health Forensic Scientific Services; Queensland Government; Coopers Plains Australia
| | - Jochen F. Mueller
- National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology; The University of Queensland; Coopers Plains Australia
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Stogner JM, Miller BL. Investigating the 'bath salt' panic: the rarity of synthetic cathinone use among students in the United States. Drug Alcohol Rev 2013; 32:545-9. [PMID: 23718639 DOI: 10.1111/dar.12055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2013] [Accepted: 04/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION AND AIMS Until recently, synthetic cathinones marketed as 'bath salts' were legally sold at convenience stores and online in the USA. Media reports initiated concerns of a growing 'bath salt' epidemic. Despite media attention and the recent legal action banning synthetic cathinones, little is known about its prevalence or users. DESIGN AND METHODS A self-report survey was administered to 2349 students in 40 randomly selected courses at a large university in the Southeastern United States. The resulting sample was 51.6% female, 68.9% white, 24.4% black, 2.8% Hispanic and 4.0% other races, with a mean age of 20.06 years and median family income of $75 000-99 999. RESULTS Only 25 (1.07%) of the students reported using synthetic cathinones at least once. Synthetic cathinone use was found to be more common among men (1.68% vs. 0.50% of women, P = 0.005), Hispanics (4.7%) and Native Americans (4.3% vs. 0.89% of whites and 0.72% of blacks, P = 0.002), and student athletes (4.0% vs. 0.90% of non-athletes, P = 0.001), but in each of these groups, synthetic cathinones were used more rarely than marijuana (58.14%, P < 0.001), cocaine (9.08%, P < 0.001), Salvia divinorum (7.89%, P < 0.001), synthetic cannabinoids (14.28%, P < 0.001), methamphetamines (1.92%, P = 0.002), 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA) (12.54%, P < 0.001) and several other drugs and pharmaceuticals. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 'Bath salts' have received a great deal of media attention in the USA, yet the prevalence of synthetic cathinone use among our sample was extremely rare. We suggest that the media attention focusing on synthetic cathinone use as a growing epidemic may be largely misplaced.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Stogner
- Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, USA
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Bruno R, Poesiat R, Matthews AJ. Monitoring the Internet for emerging psychoactive substances available to Australia. Drug Alcohol Rev 2013; 32:541-4. [PMID: 23647494 DOI: 10.1111/dar.12049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 04/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION AND AIMS Novel psychoactive substances are increasingly available, both in traditional storefronts and via the Internet. While some use of such substances has been captured in Australian consumer surveys and wastewater analyses, there is little information about the products that are available to Australia via the Internet. DESIGN AND METHODS Systematic monthly Internet monitoring for emerging psychoactive substances was conducted between July 2011 and July 2012. Webstores identified through searches were examined to determine if they sold stimulant or psychedelic emerging psychoactive substances to Australia. Internet search numbers for these products were examined over time using commercial tools. RESULTS In 12 months, 43 unique webstores were identified selling to Australia, averaging two new webstores per month; however, two-fifths had closed within six months. Over 200 unique chemically unspecified products sold by purported effect (e.g. 'charge') were identified over 12 months, averaging 10 new products per month. Almost half of these products had disappeared from the market within six months. Eighty-six unique chemically specified products (e.g. methylenedioxypyrovalerone) were identified over 12 months, averaging four new novel substances per month. Once released, these products typically remained available, with almost 90% still available for purchase over a 6-month period. Almost 40 000 searches for these products emanated from Australia per month. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION This market is fast paced as retailers strive to beat both regulatory processes and competitors. Ongoing attention to these markets, incorporating surveillance of both Internet and traditional storefronts, is crucial as several of the substances identified have demonstrated potential for health and neurological harm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raimondo Bruno
- School of Psychology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
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Wood DM, Dargan PI. Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone): what is new in our understanding of its use and toxicity. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2012; 39:227-33. [PMID: 22564711 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2012] [Revised: 04/19/2012] [Accepted: 04/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) is a synthetic cathinone that has been used as a recreational drug in Europe and elsewhere in the world since 2007. In addition to published scientific papers there are a number of different data sources available which provide information on the sources, availability and prevalence of use of mephedrone. Whilst there are no formal human studies to determine the acute toxicity of mephedrone, there is a range of different levels of data available which describe the acute toxicity of mephedrone. These include user Internet discussion fora, sub-population level surveys of user previous experiences of acute toxicity and individual case reports and case series of toxicity related to both self-reported and analytically confirmed mephedrone use. In this review article we describe how through the process of data triangulation using a combination of these different sources, it is possible to develop an understanding of the acute toxicity of mephedrone. This demonstrates that mephedrone has a pattern of acute toxicity that is similar to other stimulant drugs such as MDMA, amphetamine and cocaine.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Wood
- Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK.
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